UNIT-

2
3DCONCEPTS
2.
1PROJECTI
ON
 A pr
oject
ion i
s t
he t
ransf
ormat
ion of
 poi
nts
 and 
li
nes 
in one 
plane 
ont
o
anot
her
 pl
ane 
by connect
ing cor
respondi
ng poi
nts on t
he t
wo pl
anes
wi
th 
par
all
ell
i
nes.
 Pr
oject
ion i
n comput
er gr
aphi
cs 
means t
he t
ransf
ormat
ion of a t
hree-
di
mensi
onal
(3D)ar
eai
ntoat
wo-
dimensi
onal
(2D)ar
ea.
 Thef
oll
owi
ngdi
agr
am r
epr
esent
sdi
ff
erentt
ypesofpr
oject
ions
.

Pr
oject
ion

Par
all
el Per
spect
iv

Or
thogr
aphi Obl
i
que
One TwoPoi
nt Thr
ee

Fr
on To Si
d Axonomet
ri Caval
i
e Cabi
net

Di
met
ri Tr
imet
ri
c I
somet
ri

Par
all
elPr
oject
ion
 I
npar
all
elpr
oject
ion,obj
ectposi
ti
onsar
etr
ansf
ormedt
othevi
ew pl
aneal
ong
par
all
ell
i
nes.
 I
npar
all
elpr
oject
ion,wespeci
fyadi
rect
ionofpr
oject
ioni
nst
eadofcent
erof
pr
oject
ion.
 I
npar
all
elpr
oject
ion,t
hedi
stancef
rom t
hecent
erofpr
oject
iont
opr
ojectpl
ane
i
sinf
ini
te.
 I
nthi
stypeofpr
oject
ion,weconnectt
hepr
oject
edver
ti
cesbyl
i
nesegment
s
whi
chcor
respondt
oconnect
ionsont
heor
igi
nal
obj
ect
.

1
 Thi
stechni
quei
susedi
nengi
neer
ingandar
chi
tect
uraldr
awi
ngst
orepr
esentan
obj
ectwi
thasetofvi
ewst
hatmai
ntai
nrel
ati
vepr
opor
ti
onsoft
heobj
ect
.
 Thef
oll
owi
ngFi
gur
eil
l
ust
rat
esapar
all
elpr
oject
ionf
orast
rai
ghtl
i
nesegment
def
inedwi
thendpoi
ntcoor
dinat
esP1andP2.

Fi
gur
e:Par
all
elpr
oject
ionofal
i
nesegmentont
othevi
ewpl
ane.
 A par
all
elpr
oject
ionpr
eser
vesr
elat
ivepr
opor
ti
onsofobj
ect
s,andt
hisi
sthe
met
hodusedi
ndr
aft
ingt
opr
oducescal
edr
awi
ngsoft
hree-
dimensi
onal
obj
ect
s.
 Whent
hepr
oject
ioni
sper
pendi
cul
art
othevi
ewpl
ane,wehaveanor
thogr
aphi
c
par
all
elpr
oject
ion.Ot
her
wise,wehaveanobl
i
quepar
all
elpr
oject
ion.
 Thef
oll
owi
ngFi
gur
eil
l
ust
rat
est
het
wot
ypesofpar
all
elpr
oject
ions
.
Fi
gur
e:Or
ient
ati
onoft
hepr
oject
ionvect
orVP t
opr
oduceanor
thogr
aphi
c
pr
oject
ion(
a)andanobl
i
quepr
oject
ion(
b).

Vi
ewPl
ane Vi
ewPl
ane
VP VP

(
a)Or
thogr
aphi
cPr
oject
ion (
b)Obl
i
quePr
oject
ion

Or
thogr
aphicProj
ect
i
on
 Inorthographi
cproj
ect
iont
hedi
rect
ionofpr
oject
ioni
snor
mal(
per
pendi
cul
ar)t
o
t
hepr
oject
ionoft
hepl
ane.
 Ther
ear
efourt
ypesofor
thogr
aphi
cpr
oject
ions
.Theyar
e
2
 (
i)Fr
ontPr
oject
ion
(
ii
)TopPr
oject
ion
(
ii
i)Si
dePr
oject
ion
(
iv)
Axonomet
ri
cPr
oject
ion
 Or
thogr
aphi
cpr
oject
ionsar
emostof
tenusedt
opr
oducet
hef
ront
,si
de,andt
op
vi
ewsofanobj
ect
,asshowni
nFi
g.gi
venbel
ow.
Fi
gur
e:Or
thogr
aphi
cpr
oject
ionsofanobj
ect
,showi
ng pl
anand el
evat
ion
vi
ews.

 Fr
ont
,si
de,andr
earor
thogr
aphi
cpr
oject
ionsofanobj
ectar
ecal
l
edel
evat
ions;
andat
opor
thogr
aphi
cpr
oject
ioni
scal
l
edaPl ew.
anvi
 Engi
neer
ing andar
chi
tect
uraldr
awi
ngscommonl
yempl
oyt
heseor
thogr
aphi
c
pr
oject
ions,becausel
engt
hsandangl
esar
eaccur
atel
ydepi
cted,andcanbe
measur
edf
rom t
hedr
awi
ngs
.
 Wecanal
sof
orm or
thogr
aphi
cpr
oject
ionst
hatdi
spl
aymor
ethanonef
aceofan
obj
ect
.Suchvi
ewsar
ecal
l
edaxonomet
ri
cor
thogr
aphi
cpr
oject
ions.
 Themostcommonl
yusedaxonomet
ri
cpr
oject
ioni
sthei
somet
ri
cpr
oject
ion.
I
somet
ri
cPr
oject
ion
 Wegener
ateani
somet
ri
cpr
oject
ionbyal
i
gni
ng t
hepr
oject
ionpl
ane(
ort
he
obj
ect
)sot
hatt
hepl
anei
nter
sect
seachcoor
dinat
eaxi
sinwhi
cht
heobj
ecti
s
def
ined,cal
l
edt
hepr
inci axes,att
pal hesamedi
stancef
rom t
heor
igi
n.
 Thef
oll
owi
ngFi
gur
eshowsani
somet
ri
cpr
oject
ionf
oracube.

3
 Fi
gur
e:I
somet
ri
cPr
oject
ionofacube
Obl
i
quePr
oj
ect
i
on
 Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofobl
i
quepr
oject
ions−Caval
i
er 
and 
Cabi
net
.
Caval
i
erPr
oject
ion
 TheCaval
i
erpr
oject
ionmakes45°angl
ewi
tht
hepr
oject
ionpl
ane.
 I
n a caval
i
erpr
oject
ion,t
he f
oreshor
teni
ng f
act
orsf
oral
lthr
ee pr
inci
pal
di
rect
ionsar
eequal
.
Cabi
netPr
oject
ion
 TheCabi
netpr
oject
ionmakes63.
4°angl
ewi
tht
hepr
oject
ionpl
ane.
 I
nCabi
netpr
oject
ion,l
i
nesper
pendi
cul
art
othevi
ewi
ngsur
facear
epr
oject
edat
½t
hei
ract
ual
lengt
h.
 Bot
hthepr
oject
ionsar
eshowni
nthef
oll
owi
ngf
igur
e−

4
Per
spect
ivePr
oject
ion
 I
tisamet
hodf
orgener
ati
ngavi
ew ofat
hree-
dimensi
onalscenei
stopr
oject
poi
ntst
othedi
spl
aypl
aneal
ongconver
gingpat
hs.
 I
nper
spect
ivepr
oject
ion,obj
ectposi
ti
onar
etr
ansf
ormedt
othevi
ewpl
aneal
ong
l
i
nest
hatconver
ge t
o a poi
ntcal
l
ed pr
oject
ion r
efer
ence poi
ntorcent
erof
pr
oject
ion(
COP)
.
 I
nper
spect
ivepr
oject
ion,cent
erofpr
oject
ioni
satf
ini
tedi
stancef
rom obj
ect
.
 Scenesdi
spl
ayedusi
ngper
spect
ivepr
oject
ionsappearmor
ereal
i
sti
c,si
ncet
his
i
sthewayt
hatoureyesandacamer
alensf
ormi
mages
.
 Anexampl
eofaper
spect
ivepr
oject
ionf
orast
rai
ght
-l
inesegment
,def
inedwi
th
endpoi
ntcoor
dinat
esP1andP2i
sgi
veni
nthef
oll
owi
ngf
igur
e

Fi
gur
e:Per
spect
ivepr
oject
ionofal
i
nesegmentont
othevi
ewpl
ane.
2.
2THREEDI
MENSI
ONALOBJECTREPRESENTATI
ONS
5
  Repr
esent
ati
ons
chemesf
orsol
i
dobj
ect
sar
eof
tendi
vi
dedi
ntot
wobr
oad
cat
egor
ies,
(
i)Boundar
yrepr
esent
ati
ons(
B-r
eps)
:
 I
tdescr
ibesat
hree-
dimensi
onalobj
ectasasetofsur
facest
hatsepar
atet
he
obj
ecti
nter
iorf
rom t
heenvi
ronment
.
 Typi
calexampl
esofboundar
yrepr
esent
ati
onsar
epol
ygonf
acet
sandspl
i
ne
pat
ches
.
(
ii
)Space-
par
ti
ti
oni
ngr
epr
esent
ati
ons:
 Theyar
eusedt
odescr
ibei
nter
iorpr
oper
ti
es,bypar
ti
ti
oni
ngt
hespat
ialr
egi
on
cont
aini
nganobj
ecti
ntoasetofsmal
l
,non-
over
lappi
ng,cont
iguoussol
i
ds
(
usual
l
ycubes)
.
 A commonspace-
par
ti
ti
oni
ngdescr
ipt
ionf
orat
hree-
dimensi
onalobj
ecti
s
anoct
reer
epr
esent
ati
on.
2.
2.1POLYGONSURFACES

 The mostcommonl
y used boundar
yrepr
esent
ati
on f
ora t
hree-
dimensi
onal
gr
aphi
csobj
ecti
sasetofsur
facepol
ygonst
hatencl
oset
heobj
ecti
nter
ior
.
 Manygr
aphi
cssyst
emsst
oreal
lobj
ectdescr
ipt
ionsasset
sofsur
facepol
ygons.
 Wespeci
fyapol
ygonsur
facewi
thasetofver
texcoor
dinat
esandassoci
ated
at
tr
ibut
epar
amet
ers.
 Thei
nfor
mat
ionofeachpol
ygonsur
facei
spl
acedi
ntot
abl
esandar
eusedf
or
subsequentpr
ocessi
ng,di
spl
ay,andmani
pul
ati
onoft
heobj
ect
sinascene.
 Pol
ygondat
atabl
escanbeor
gani
zedi
ntot
wogr
oups
:
(
i)Geomet
ri
ctabl
esand
(
ii
)At
tr
ibut
etabl
es.
 Geomet
ri
cdat
atabl
escont
ainver
texcoor
dinat
esandpar
amet
erst
oident
if
ythe
spat
ial
ori
ent
ati
onoft
hepol
ygonsur
faces
.
 At
tr
ibut
einf
ormat
ionf
oranobj
ecti
ncl
udespar
amet
ersspeci
fyi
ngt
hedegr
eeof
t
ranspar
encyoft
heobj
ectandi
tssur
facer
efl
ect
ivi
tyandt
ext
urechar
act
eri
sti
cs.
 Aconveni
entor
gani
zat
ionf
orst
ori
nggeomet
ri
cdat
aist
ocr
eat
ethr
eel
i
sts:
(
1)Ver
text
abl
e,
(
2)Edget
abl
e,and
(
3)Pol
ygont
abl
e.
 Coor
dinat
eval
uesf
oreachver
texi
ntheobj
ectar
est
oredi
nthever
text
abl
e.
6
 Theedget
abl
econt
ainspoi
nter
sbacki
ntot
hever
text
abl
etoi
dent
if
ythever
ti
ces
f
oreachpol
ygonedge.
 Pol
ygont
abl
econt
ainspoi
nter
sbacki
ntot
heedget
abl
etoi
dent
if
ytheedgesf
or
eachpol
ygon.
 Thi
sschemei
sil
l
ust
rat
edi
nthef
oll
owi
ngFi
gur
efort
woadj
acentpol
ygonsonan
obj
ectsur
face.

Fi
g:Geomet
ri
cdat
atabl
erepr
esent
ati
onf
ort
woadj
acentpol
ygonsur
faces,f
ormed
wi
thsi
xedgesandf
ivever
ti
ces
.
 Wecanaddext
rai
nfor
mat
iont
othedat
atabl
esoft
heabovef
igur
eforf
ast
er
i
nfor
mat
ionext
ract
ion.
 Fori
nst
ancewecoul
dexpandt
heedget
abl
etoi
ncl
udef
orwar
dpoi
nter
sint
othe
pol
ygont
abl
esot
hatcommonedgesbet
weenpol
ygonscoul
dbei
dent
if
iedmor
e
r
api
dly.
 Thi
sisshowni
nthef
igur
egi
venbel
ow.
EDGETABLE
E1
:V1
,V3,
S1
E2:V1
,V2,
S1
7
 E3:V2,
V3,
S1,
S2
E4:
V2,
V4,
S2
E5:V4,
V5,
S2
E6:V3,
V5,
S2

FI
G:Expandedorext
endedEdget
abl
efort
woadj
acentpol
ygonsur
facest
oincl
ude
poi
nter
stot
he pol
ygont
abl
e.
2.
2.2QUADRI
CSURFACES
 Af
requent
lyusedcl
assofobj
ect
sar
ethequadr
icsur
faces,whi
char
edescr
ibed
wi
thsecond-
degr
eeequat
ions(
quadr
ati
cs)
.
 Quadr
icsur
facesi
ncl
udespher
es,el
l
ipsoi
ds,t
ori
,par
abol
oids
,andhyper
bol
oids
.
 Quadr
icsur
faces,par
ti
cul
arl
yspher
esandel
l
ipsoi
ds,ar
ecommonel
ement
sof
gr
aphi
csscenes.
Spher
e
 I
n Car
tesi
an coor
dinat
es,a spher
icalsur
face wi
thr
adi
us‘
r’cent
ered on t
he
coor
dinat
eor
igi
nisdef
inedast
hesetofpoi
nts(
x,y,z)t
hatsat
isf
ytheequat
ion
x2+y2+z2= r
2

 Wecanal
sodescr
ibet
hespher
ical
sur
facei
npar
amet
ri
cfor
m,usi
ngl
ati
tudeand
l
ongi
tudeangl
es(
whi
chi
sshowni
nthef
igur
egi
venbel
ow)
:
x=rcos cos -/
2≤ ≤ /
2
y=rcos si
n - ≤ ≤
z=rsi
n

Fi
gur
e:Par
amet
ri
ccoor
dinat
eposi
ti
on(
r, , )ont
he sur
faceofaspher
ewi
th
r
adi
usr
.

El
l
ipsoi
d

8
 Anel
l
ipsoi
dalsur
facecanbedescr
ibedasanext
ensi
onofaspher
icalsur
face,
wher
ethe r
adi
iint
hree mut
ual
l
yper
pendi
cul
ardi
rect
ionscan have di
ff
erent
val
ueswhi
chi
sshowni
ntheFi
gur
egi
venbel
ow.

Fi
gur
e:Anel
l
ipsoi
dwi
thr
adi
irx,r
yandr
zcent
eredont
hecoor
dinat
eor
igi
n.
 TheCar
tesi
anr
epr
esent
ati
onf
orpoi
ntsovert
hesur
faceofanel
l
ipsoi
dcent
ered
ont
heor
igi
nis
2 2 2
(x/r
x)+(y/r
y)+(z/r
z)=1

 Apar
amet
ri
crepr
esent
ati
onf
ort
heel
l
ipsoi
dint
ermsoft
hel
ati
tudeangl
e and
t
hel
ongi
tudeangl
e i
s
x=r
xcos cos -/
2≤ ≤ /
2
y=r
ycos si
n - ≤ ≤
z=r
zsi
n
Tor
us
 At
orusi
sadoughnut
-shapedobj
ect
,asshowni
nthef
igur
egi
venbel
ow.

9
 Fi
gur
e:At
oruswi
thaci
rcul
arcr
osssect
ioncent
eredont
hecoor
dinat
eor
igi
n.
 I
tcanbegener
atedbyr
otat
ingaci
rcl
eorot
herconi
caboutaspeci
fi
edaxi
s.
 TheCar
tesi
anr
epr
esent
ati
onf
orpoi
ntsovert
hesur
faceofat
oruscanbewr
it
ten
i
nthef
orm
2 2 2 2
[r
-√(x/r
x)+(y/r
y)]+( z/r
z)=1

wher
e‘r
’isanygi
venof
fsetval
ue.
 Par
amet
ri
crepr
esent
ati
onsf
orat
orusar
esi
mil
art
othosef
oranel
l
ipse,except
t
hatangl
e ext
endsover360̊ .
 Usi
ngl
ati
tudeandl
ongi
tudeangl
es and ,wecandescr
ibet
het
orussur
face
ast
hesetofpoi
ntst
hatsat
isf
y
x=r
x(r+cos )cos -≤ ≤
y=r
y(r
+cos )si
n - ≤ ≤
z=r
zsi
n
2.
2.3SPLI
NES
2.
2.4CURVEDLI
NES

1
0
2.
3VI
SUALI
ZATI
ONOFDATASETS
 Theuseofgr
aphi
calmet
hodsasanai
dinsci
ent
if
icandengi
neer
inganal
ysi
sis
commonl
yref
err
edt
oassci
ent
if
icvi
sual
i
zat
ion.
 Vi
sual
i
zat
iont
echni
quesar
eneededt
odealwi
tht
heout
putofhi
gh-
vol
umedat
a
sour
ces such as s
uper
comput
ers
,sat
ell
i
te and spacecr
aftscanner
s,r
adi
o-
ast
ronomyt
elescopes,andmedi
cal
scanner
s.
 Vi
sual
i
zat
iont
echni
quesar
eusef
ulf
oranal
yzi
ngpr
ocessest
hatoccuroveral
ong
t
imeper
iodort
hatcannotbeobser
veddi
rect
ly,suchasquant
um-
mechani
cal
phenomenaandspeci
al
-rel
ati
vi
tyef
fect
spr
oducedbyobj
ect
str
avel
i
ngneart
he
speedofl
i
ght
.
 Sci
ent
if
icvi
sual
i
zat
ionusesmet
hodsf
rom comput
ergr
aphi
cs,i
magepr
ocessi
ng,
comput
ervi
si
on,andot
herar
east
ovi
sual
l
ydi
spl
ay,enhance,andmani
pul
ate
i
nfor
mat
iont
oal
l
owbet
terunder
standi
ngoft
hedat
a.
 Si
mil
armet
hodsempl
oyedbycommer
ce,i
ndust
ry,andot
hernonsci
ent
if
icar
eas
ar
esomet
imesr
efer
redt
oasbusi
nessvi
sual
i
zat
ion.
 Dat
aset
sar
ecl
assi
fi
edaccor
dingt
othei
rspat
ialdi
str
ibut
ionandaccor
dingt
o
dat
atype.
 Two-
dimensi
onaldat
aset
shaveval
uesdi
str
ibut
edoverasur
face,andt
hree-
di
mensi
onaldat
a set
shave val
uesdi
str
ibut
ed overt
he i
nter
iorofa cube,a
spher
e,orsomeot
herr
egi
onofspace.
 Dat
atypesi
ncl
udescal
ars,vect
ors
,tensor
sandmul
ti
var
iat
edat
a.
Vi
sual
Repr
esent
ati
onsf
orScal
arFi
elds
 Ascal
arquant
it
yisonet
hathasasi
ngl
eval
ue.
 Scal
ardat
aset
scont
ainval
uest
hatmaybedi
str
ibut
edi
nti
me,aswel
lasover
spat
ial
posi
ti
ons
.
 Al
so,t
hedat
aval
uesmaybef
unct
ionsofot
herscal
arpar
amet
ers
.
 Some exampl
es of physi
calscal
ar quant
it
ies ar
e ener
gy,densi
ty,mass,
t
emper
atur
e,pr
essur
e,char
ge,r
esi
stance,r
efl
ect
ivi
ty,f
requency,and wat
er
cont
ent
.
 Acommonmet
hodf
orvi
sual
i
zingascal
ardat
aseti
stousegr
aphsorchar
tst
hat
show t
hedi
str
ibut
ionofdat
aval
uesasaf
unct
ionofot
herpar
amet
ers
,suchas
posi
ti
onandt
ime.
1
1
 Pseudo-
col
ormet
hodsar
eal
sousedt
odi
sti
ngui
shdi
ff
erentval
uesi
nascal
ar
dat
aset
,andcol
or-
codi
ngt
echni
quescanbecombi
nedwi
thgr
aphandchar
t
met
hods.
 Tocol
orcodeascal
ardat
aset
,wechoosear
angeofcol
orsandmapt
her
ange
ofdat
aval
uest
othecol
orr
ange.
 Forexampl
e,bl
uecoul
dbeassi
gnedt
othel
owestscal
arval
ue,andr
edcoul
dbe
assi
gnedt
othehi
ghestval
ue.
 Cont
ourpl
otsar
eusedt
odi
spl
ayi
sol
i
nes(
li
nesofconst
antscal
arval
ue)f
ora
dat
asetdi
str
ibut
edoverasur
face.
 The i
sol
i
nesar
e spaced atsome conveni
enti
nter
valt
o show t
he r
ange and
var
iat
ionoft
hedat
aval
uesovert
her
egi
onofspace.
 Usual
l
y,cont
our
ingmet
hodsar
eappl
i
edt
oasetofdat
aval
uest
hati
sdi
str
ibut
ed
overar
egul
argr
idwhi
chi
sshowni
nthef
igur
egi
venbel
ow:

 Regul
argr
idshaveequal
l
yspacedgr
idl
i
nes,anddat
aval
uesar
eknownatt
he
gr
idi
nter
sect
ions.
 Numer
icalsol
uti
onsofcomput
ersi
mul
ati
onsar
eusual
l
ysetupt
opr
oducedat
a
di
str
ibut
ionson ar
egul
argr
id,whi
l
e obser
ved dat
aset
sar
e of
ten i
rr
egul
arl
y
spaced.
 Cont
our
ingmet
hodshavebeendevi
sedf
orvar
iouski
ndsofnon-
regul
argr
ids
,
butof
tennon-
regul
ardat
adi
str
ibut
ionsar
econver
tedt
oregul
argr
ids
.
 At
wo-
dimensi
onal
cont
our
ingal
gor
it
hm t
racest
hei
sol
i
nesf
rom cel
ltocel
lwi
thi
n
t
hegr
idbychecki
ngt
hef
ourcor
ner
sofgr
idcel
l
stodet
ermi
newhi
chcel
ledges
ar
ecr
ossedbyapar
ti
cul
ari
sol
i
ne.
 The i
sol
i
nesar
e us
ual
l
ypl
ott
ed asst
rai
ght
-l
ine sect
ionsacr
osseach cel
l
,as
1
2
 i
l
lust
rat
edi
ntheFi
gur
egi
venbel
ow.

Fi
gur
e:Thepat
hofani
sol
i
neacr
ossf
ivegr
idcel
l
s.

 Fort
hree-
dimensi
onalscal
ardat
afi
elds,wecant
akecr
oss
-sect
ionalsl
i
cesand
di
spl
ayt
het
wo-
dimensi
onal
dat
adi
str
ibut
ionsovert
hesl
i
ces.
 Wecoul
dei
thercol
orcodet
hedat
aval
uesoverasl
i
ce,orwecoul
ddi
spl
ay
i
sol
i
nes.
 I
nst
eadofl
ooki
ngatt
wo-
dimensi
onalcr
osssect
ions
,wecanpl
otoneormor
e
i
sosur
faces,whi
char
esi
mpl
ythr
ee-
dimensi
onal
cont
ourpl
ots.
 Whent
wo over
lappi
ng i
sosur
facesar
edi
spl
ayed,t
heout
ersur
facei
smade
t
ranspar
entsot
hatwecanvi
ewt
heshapeofbot
hisosur
faces.
 Const
ruct
ingani
sosur
facei
ssi
mil
art
opl
ott
ingi
sol
i
nes
,exceptnow wehave
t
hree-
dimensi
onal
gri
dcel
l
sandweneedt
ocheckt
heval
uesoft
heei
ghtcor
ner
s
ofacel
lt
olocat
e
sect
ionsofani
sosur
face.
 I
sosur
faces ar
e model
ed wi
th t
ri
angl
e meshes, t
hen sur
face- r
ender
ing
al
gor
it
hmsar
eappl
i
edt
odi
spl
ayt
hef
inal
shape.
 Vol
umer
ender
ingi
sanot
hermet
hodf
orvi
sual
i
zingat
hree-
dimensi
onal
dat
aset
.
 Thei
nter
iori
nfor
mat
ionaboutadat
aseti
spr
oject
edt
oadi
spl
ayscr
eenusi
ng
t
her
ay-
cast
ingmet
hods.
 Al
ongt
her
aypat
hfr
om eachscr
eenpi
xelwhi
chi
sshowni
nthef
igur
egi
ven
bel
ow,i
nter
iordat
aval
uesar
eexami
nedandencodedf
ordi
spl
ay.
 Of
ten,dat
aval
uesatt
hegr
idposi
ti
onsar
eaver
agedsot
hatoneval
uei
sst
ored
f
oreachvoxel
oft
hedat
aspace.

1
3
Fi
gur
e:Vol
umevi
sual
i
zat
ionofar
egul
ar,Car
tesi
andat
agr
idusi
ngr
aycast
ingt
o
exami
nei
nter
iordat
aval
ues
.
Vi
sual
Repr
esent
ati
onsf
orVect
orFi
elds
Vi
sual
Repr
esent
ati
onsf
orTensorFi
elds
Vi
sual
Repr
esent
ati
onsf
orMul
ti
var
iat
eDat
aFi
elds
2.
4THREE-
DIMENSI
ONALGEOMETRI
CTRANSFORMATI
ONS
 Ther
ear
efi
vet
hreedi
mensi
onal
geomet
ri
ctr
ansf
ormat
ions
.Theyar
e
(
i)Tr
ansl
ati
on
(
ii
)Rot
ati
on
(
ii
i)
Scal
i
ng
(
iv)
Ref
lect
ion
(
v)ShearTr
ansf
ormat
ions
(
i)Tr
ansl
ati
on:
 Tr
ansl
ati
onr
efer
stomovi
nganobj
ectf
rom onel
ocat
ionorposi
ti
ont
oanot
her
l
ocat
ionorposi
ti
oni
nal
i
nearpat
h.
 I
n at
hree-
dimensi
onalhomogeneouscoor
dinat
erepr
esent
ati
on,apoi
ntP i
s
t
ransl
atedf
rom posi
ti
on(
x,y,z)t
oposi
ti
onP'=(
x',y'
,z'
),t
hent
het
ransl
ati
on
equat
ionsar
egi
venas:
x'
=x+t
x

y'
=y+t
y

z'
=z+t
z

1
4
 Par
amet
erst
x,t
y and t
z s
peci
fi
es t
rans
lat
ion di
stances f
ort
he coor
dinat
e
di
rect
ionsx,y,zandt
heyar
eassi
gnedwi
thanyr
eal
val
ues.
 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
col
umnvect
or)f
ort
ransl
ati
onequat
ionsi
sgi
venas

whi
chcanbewr
it
tenasP'=TV.P
 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
rowvect
or)f
ort
ransl
ati
onequat
ionsi
sgi
venas

whi
chcanbewr
it
tenasP'=P.TV
 The f
oll
owi
ng di
agr
am r
epr
esent
str
ansl
ati
on ofa poi
nti
nthr
ee di
mensi
onal
coor
dinat
esyst
em.

Fi
gur
e:Tr
ansl
ati
ngapoi
ntwi
tht
ransl
ati orT=(
onvect t,t
x y,t
z)

(
ii
)Rot
ati
on:
 Rot
ati
onr
efer
stomovi
ng anobj
ectf
rom onel
ocat
ionorposi
ti
ont
oanot
her
l
ocat
ionorposi
ti
oni
nci
rcul
arpat
h.
1
5
Rot
ati
onw.
r.
tx-
axi
s
 I
n homogeneous coor
dinat
e f
orm, t
he t
hree di
mensi
onalx-
axi
srot
ati
on
equat
ionsar
eexpr
essedas
x'
=x
y'
=ycos –zsi
n
z'
=ysi
n +zcos
 Theabover
otat
ionequat
ionscanber
epr
esent
edi
nmat
ri
xfor
m(col
umnvect
or)
asf
oll
ows:

whi
chcanbewr
it
tenasP'=R( )
.P
 Theabover
otat
ionequat
ionscanber
epr
esent
edi
nmat
ri
xfor
m(r
ow vect
or)as
f
oll
ows:

whi
chcanbewr
it
tenasP'= P.
R()
Rot
ati
onw.
r.
ty-
axi
s
 I
n homogeneous coor
dinat
e f
orm, t
he t
hree di
mensi
onaly-
axi
srot
ati
on
equat
ionsar
eexpr
essedas
x'
=zsi
n +xcos
y'
=y
z'
= zcos -xsi
n
 Theabover
otat
ionequat
ionscanber
epr
esent
edi
nmat
ri
xfor
m(col
umnvect
or)
asf
oll
ows:

 Theabover
otat
ionequat
ionscanber
epr
esent
edi
nmat
ri
xfor
m(r
ow vect
or)as
1
6
1 0 2

0 1 -
 f
oll
ows:

Rot
ati
onw.
r.
tz-
axi
s
 I
n homogeneous coor
dinat
e f
orm, t
he t
hree di
mensi
onalz-
axi
srot
ati
on
equat
ionsar
eexpr
essedas
x'
=xcos –ysi
n
y'
=xsi
n +ycos
z'
=z
 Theabover
otat
ionequat
ionscanber
epr
esent
edi
nmat
ri
xfor
m(col
umnvect
or)
asf
oll
ows:

 Theabover
otat
ionequat
ionscanber
epr
esent
edi
nmat
ri
xfor
m(r
ow vect
or)as
f
oll
ows:

(
ii
i)
Scal
i
ng:
 Ascal
i
ngt
ransf
ormat
ional
ter
sthesi
zeofanobj
ecti
.ei
tincr
easesordecr
eases
si
zeofanobj
ect
.
Scal
i
ngw.
r.
tor
igi
n
 I
nhomogeneouscoor
dinat
efor
m,t
het
hreedi
mensi
onalscal
i
ngequat
ionsw.
r.
t
or
igi
nar
eexpr
essedas
x'
=x.Sx
y'
=y.Sy
z'
=z.Sz
1
7
 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
col
umnvect
or)f
orscal
i
ngequat
ionsi
sgi
venas

whi
chcanbewr
it
tenasP'= S.
P
 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
rowvect
or)f
ors
cal
i
ngequat
ionsi
sgi
venas

whi
chcanbewr
it
tenasP'= P.
S
Scal
i
ngw.
r.
tfi
xedorpi nt(
votpoi xf,yf)
 I
nhomogeneouscoor
dinat
efor
m,t
het
hreedi
mensi
onalscal
i
ngequat
ionsw.
r.
t
pi
votorf
i nt(
xedpoi xf,yf)ar
eexpr
essedas

x'
=x.Sx+xf(
1-Sx)

y'
=y.Sy +yf(
1-Sy)
z'
=z.Sz + zf(
1-Sz)

 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
col
umnvect
or)f
orscal
i
ngequat
ionsi
sgi
venas

x' Sx 0 0 xf(
1- x
y' 0 S 0 yf(
1- y
=
y Sy)
z' 0 0 Sz zf(1
- z
1 0 0 0 1 1

whi
chcanbewr
it
tenasP'= S.
P
 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
rowvect
or)f
ors
cal
i
ngequat
ionsi
sgi
venas

1
8
 whi
chcanbewr
it
tenasP'= P.
S
(
iv)
Ref
lect
ion:
Ref
lect
ionw.
r.
tx-
axi
sorw.
r.
tyz-
plane
 I
n homogeneouscoor
dinat
efor
m,t
he t
hree di
mensi
onalr
efl
ect
ion equat
ions
w.
r.
tx-
axi
sar
eexpr
essedas
x'
=-x
y'
=y
z'
=z
 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
col
umnvect
or)f
orr
efl
ect
ionequat
ionsi
sgi
venas

whi
chcanbewr
it
tenasP'= RX.P
 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
rowvect
or)f
orr
efl
ect
ionequat
ionsi
sgi
venas

whi
chcanbewr
it
tenasP'= P.RX
Ref
lect
ionw.
r.
ty-
axi
sorw.
r.
txz-
plane
 I
n homogeneouscoor
dinat
efor
m,t
he t
hree di
mensi
onalr
efl
ect
ion equat
ions
w.
r.
ty-
axi
sar
eexpr
essedas
x'
=x
y'
=-y

1
9
 z'
=z
 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
col
umnvect
or)f
orr
efl
ect
ionequat
ionsi
sgi
venas

whi
chcanbewr
it
tenasP'= RY.P
 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
rowvect
or)f
orr
efl
ect
ionequat
ionsi
sgi
venas

whi
chcanbewr
it
tenasP'= P.RY
Ref
lect
ionw.
r.
tz-
axi
sorw.
r.
txy-
plane
 I
n homogeneouscoor
dinat
efor
m,t
he t
hree di
mensi
onalr
efl
ect
ion equat
ions
w.
r.
tz-
axi
sar
eexpr
essedas
x'
=x
y'
=y
z'
=-z
 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
col
umnvect
or)f
orr
efl
ect
ionequat
ionsi
sgi
venas

whi
chcanbewr
it
tenasP'= RZ.P
 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
rowvect
or)f
orr
efl
ect
ionequat
ionsi
sgi
venas

20
 whi
chcanbewr
it
tenasP'=P.RZ
(
v)ShearTr
ansf
ormat
ion:
Shearw.
r.
tx-
axi
s
 I
nhomogeneouscoor
dinat
efor
m,t
het
hreedi
mensi
onalshearequat
ionsw.
r.
tx-
axi
sar
eexpr
essedas

 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
col
umnvect
or)f
orshearequat
ionsi
sgi
venas
 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
rowvect
or)f
ors
hearequat
ionsi
sgi
venas

Shearw.
r.
ty-
axi
s
 I
nhomogeneouscoor
dinat
efor
m,t
het
hreedi
mensi
onalshearequat
ionsw.
r.
ty-
axi
sar
eexpr
essedas

 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
col
umnvect
or)f
orshearequat
ionsi
sgi
venas
 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
rowvect
or)f
ors
hearequat
ionsi
sgi
venas

Shearw.
r.
tz-
axi
s
 I
nhomogeneouscoor
dinat
efor
m,t
het
hreedi
mensi
onalshearequat
ionsw.
r.
tz-
axi
sar
eexpr
essedas

 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
col
umnvect
or)f
orshearequat
ionsi
sgi
venas
 Themat
ri
xrepr
esent
ati
on(
rowvect
or)f
ors
hearequat
ionsi
sgi
venas
2.
5THREEDI
MENSI
ONALVI
EWI
NG
2.
6VI
SIBLESURFACEI
DENTI
FICATI
ON

21