26 READING AND UNDERSTANDING ARGUMENTS

Appealing to Audiences
~~~~~~~---- ....- - - - -

Aristotle identified three time-tested ways writers can appeal to audi­

.ences, and he labeled them pathos, ethos, and logos-appeals that are as
effective today as they were in Aristotle's time, though we usually think
of them in slightly different terms.

Emotional Appeals: Pathos

Emotional appeals, or pathos, generate emotions (fear, pity, love, anger,
jealousy) that the writer hopes will lead the audience to accept a claim.
Here is a plea from Doctors without Borders that uses pathos to urge us
to contribute to their cause:

II .... w.a:::~:",
Af.1ItId/l'~,"II""'tr'ItI~~I'I'IOI'!"'_~'~~."',Iktc'IWI.

uwatrkted 9h'irIo ........!fUe1 (Of",

w.oriI. !)octo... w,,~'"

. ., ....... ....,. U11Mril:lftCHllhty tJHtf r..,. iN,..kgl., D""je'" 0'

U'UlIlpV.

"."ct • htUllloe
Moll'lhty
,1...,."O£.t.",. ••
'&_IIM.
n,SO!I'!IOI'Ith~fOf~,,*,,9ifU,

0.',50 Ot.s,o? OpO.~ Omoo OOl~

:t 10'0101 tift(/: H'fNf'C4; willi Y9IX' ~io:!r,;duM ("'l1li.:1 OQ"",r S'l'V1e•• .foI

(%m '16,."" OI"Mnttigrwtdpj;wm;:lyr<Opw" pm.

What your monthly contribution can provide

ft.$(ll'n01lth"V~¢fd.lf) • •lSI'T\l:!"1.h~Y(5()elr.bY)
"fw¢ l\O\Ielthi"", !""«Mf "",• ..,. 11", (o~
• ItIPhth to _ chIld thnHt .. ~ lly
A J'I'\ON;h ()f d-ty- _~,.:., fe;. oW .-.fJ.,..,
'-
SlO monthl'f (511da". I~ Slid fl'jQnthly in/dayl
A ~ kit t~<;.rrv ,Olli .m<I-''itr.(:y

~m;~101'1J1 1M bN~ ~~r9'''1 Jt';

.k.fi.

Concrete and descriptive language paints pictures in readers' minds as

well, making an emotional appeal that can create a bond between writer
and readers. (For more about emotional appeals, see Chapter 2.)

Ethical Appeals: Ethos

When writers or speakers come across.as trustworthy, audiences are

likely to listen to and accept their arguments. That trustworthiness
(along with fairness and respect) is a mark of ethos, or credibility. Show­
ing that you know what you are talking about exerts an ethical appeal.
as does emphasizing that you share values with and respect your
 C HAPTE R 1 EVERYTHING IS AN ARGUMENT 27

audience. Visuals can also make strong ethical appeals: think how flags,
logos, or even badges convey credibility and authority, as in this Doctors
without Borders symbol:

•
it~
It' A IIEMCINS SANS FRDNTIERES
...,..... DOCTORS WITHOUT BORDERS

For more about ethical appeals, see Chapter 3.

Logical Appeals: logos

Appeals to logic, or logos, are often given prominence and authority in
u.s. culture: "Just the facts, ma'am," a famous early TV detective on Drag­
net used to say. Indeed, audiences respond well to the use of reasons and
evidence-to the presentation of facts, statistics, credible testimony, co­
gent examples, or even a narrative or story that embodies a sound reason
in support of an argument. (For more about logical appeals, see Chapter 4.)

Kairos: Seizing the Opportune Moment in Arguments

In Greek mythology, Kairos-the youngest son of Zeus-was the god of

opportunity. In images, he is most often depicted as running, and his
most unusual characteristic is a shock of hair on his forehead. As Kairos
dashes by, you have a chance to seize that lock of hair, thereby seizing
the opportune moment; once he passes you by, however, you have
missed that chance.
Considering your rhetorical situation calls on you to think hard about
kairos, that is, about the suitable time and place for making an argu­
ment and the most opportune ways to make it. Being aware of kairos
means being able to understand and take advantage of shifting circum­
stances and to choose the best (most timely) proofs and evidence for
that particular place, situation, and audience.
The effectiveness of many arguments depends on whether or not they
are timely. For example, in 2010 Congressional RepUblicans took advantage
of Americans' fears of rising national debt to argue for their agenda to
make broad cuts to the federal budget. The timing of their message reso­
nated with the American public, and in the next election they trounced
r:\
~,) READING AND UNDERSTANDING ARGUMENTS

Democrats, taking control of the House of Representatives (and nearly the

Senate as well). By 2011, however, long periods of high unemployment had
become Americans' number one concern, and talk of cuts to federal and
state budgets lost some of its political clout because such arguments were
no longer timely.
In another example, a student was interested in why the tennis match
between Billie Jean King and Bobby Riggs (dubbed "The Battle of the Sexes")
caused such a sensation: her research led her to identify several key ele­
ments that came together in 1973 to create the perfect opportune-or
kairotic-moment for a woman to take on a man in tennis, and win,
In your own arguments, thinking about kairos is important early on
as you study the context or conversation surrounding your topic and
look for opportune moments to get your own point of view into that con­
versation. It's also important to think about kairos when you analyze
your arguments: how can you frame your claims and evidence to reso­
nate with your audience?

RESPOND.

What common experiences, if any, do the following objects, brand names,

and symbols evoke, and for what audiences in particular? What sorts of ap­
peals do they make: to pathos, ethos, or logos?
a USDA organic label
the golden arches
the Sean John label as seen on its Web site
a can of Coca-Cola
Sleeping Beauty's castle on the Disney logo
Oprah Winfrey
the Vietnam Veterans Memorial
Ground Zero at the World Trade Center site
an AIDS ribbon

Summing Up Argument: Rhetorical Situations

Thinking about arguments, their contexts, audiences, and appeals brings

us to another helpful concept: that of the rhetorical situation, a short­
hand phrase for the entire set of relationships depicted in the following
triangular diagram:
 CHAPTER 1 EVERYTHING ISANARGUMENT

The rhetorical situation

Remember, though, that rhetorical situations are dynamic, with all

elements affecting one another: for example, a change in audience could
affect your handling of the topic and the appeals you use. Thinking rhetori­
cally means keeping all these elements in mind, and doing so might even
lead you to challenge the title of this text: is everything an argument?

RESPOND.

Take a look at the bumper sticker below, and then analyze it. What is its
purpose? What kind of argument is it? Which of the stasis questions does
it most appropriately respond to? To what audiences does it appeal? What
appeals does it make and how?