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CHAPTER 1: DATA COMMUNICATIONS •There are several methods to represent color images.
– One method is called RGB, so called because each color is
DATA COMMUNICATIONS made of a combination of three primary colors: red, green, and
blue. The intensity of each color is measured, and a bit pattern
Communicating → Sharing information is assigned to it.
– Another method is called YCM, in which a color is made of
•Types of Sharing: a combination of three other primary colors: yellow, cyan, and
– Local – usually occurs face to face magenta
– Remote – takes place over distance – Audio – Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or
music.
•Telecommunication – includes telephony, telegraphy, and television, means •It is continuous, not discrete.
communication at a distance – Video – Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or
– tele is Greek for "far" movie.
•It can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV
•Data – refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete entity,
parties creating and using the data. arranged to convey the idea of motion.
•Data communications – are the exchange of data between two devices via
some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable. •Data Flow
– Simplex – In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on
•Four Fundamental Characteristics of an Effective Data Communications a one-way street.
System – Half-Duplex – In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and
– Delivery – The system must deliver data to the correct destination. receive, but not at the same time.
– Accuracy – The system must deliver the data accurately. – Full-Duplex – In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations
– Timeliness – The system must deliver data in a timely manner. can transmit and receive simultaneously
– Jitter – refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.

A data communications system must transmit data to the correct destination

in an accurate and timely manner.

•Five Components of a Data Communications System

– Message – The information (data) to be communicated.
– Sender – The device that sends the data message.
– Receiver – The device that receives the message.
– Transmission medium – The physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver.
– Protocol – A set of rules that govern data communications.

•Data Representation
– Text – In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a
sequence of bits (0s or 1s).
•Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text
symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process of representing
symbols is called coding.
– Numbers – Numbers are also represented by bit patterns.
– Images – Images are also represented by bit patterns.
•In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of pixels
(picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the
pixel depends on the resolution.
•In the second case, there is a better representation of the image
(better resolution), but more memory is needed to store the image.
– After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a
bit pattern. The size and the value of the pattern depend on the
image.
» Black and White will use a 1-bit pattern
» Grayscale will use a 2-bit pattern

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NETWORKS

•Network – a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by

communication links.
•Node – can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
•Distributed processing – a task is divided among multiple computers. Instead
of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of process,
separate computers (usually a personal computer or workstation) handle a
subset.
– Mesh Topology – every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every
•Network Criteria
other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only
– Performance – can be measured in many ways, including transit time
between the two devices it connects.
and response time.
» n(n - 1) physical link – for simplex mode
•Transit time – is the amount of time required for a message to
» n(n - 1)/2 physical link – for duplex mode » To accommodate that
travel from one device to another.
many links, every device on the network must have n – 1 input/output
•Response time – is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a
(I/O) ports to be connected to the other n - 1 stations.
response.
•It depends on a number of factors, including the number of users,
the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected
hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
•Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
throughput and delay.
– Reliability – In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is
measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover
from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
– Security – Its issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies
and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.

•Physical Structures
– Type of Connection
•Point-to-point connection – provides a dedicated link between
two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two devices.
•Multipoint (also called multidrop) connection – is one in which
more than two specific devices share a single link. The capacity of
the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally.
– Physical Topology – refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically. Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links
form a topology.
•Topology – is the geometric representation of the relationship of all
the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another
•Categories of Topology
» Advantages:
1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can
carry its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur
when links must be shared by multiple devices.
2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does
not incapacitate the entire system.
3. The advantage of privacy or security. When every message
travels along a dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical
boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages.
4. Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation
easy. Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This facility
enables the network manager to discover the precise location of the fault and
aids in finding its cause and solution.
» Disadvantages:
1. Because every device must be connected to every other device,
installation and reconnection are difficult.
2. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available
space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
3. The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable)
can be prohibitively expensive.
– Star Topology – each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub.
» The devices are not directly linked to one another.
» Does not allow direct traffic between devices.
» The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to
another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to
the other connected device.

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cable. A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between
devices on the same side of the problem. The damaged area reflects signals
back in the direction of origin, creating noise in both directions.

IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) is an example of bus topology

– Ring Topology – each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with

only the two devices on either side of it.
» A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates
a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for another device,
its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
» It uses token (signal circulating in a ring) to control transmission.
» Advantages:
1. A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star,
each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of
devices.
2. Easy to install and reconfigure.
3. Far less cabling needs to be housed.
4. Additions, moves, and deletions involve only one connection:
between that device and the hub.
5. Robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other
links remain active
6. Lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation. As long
as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass
defective links. » Advantages
1. Relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is
» Disadvantages linked to only its immediate neighbors (either physically or logically). To add
1. The dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the or delete a device requires changing only two connections.
hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead. 2. Fault isolation is simplified. Generally, in a ring, a signal is
2. More cabling is required in a star than in some other topologies circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a signal within a
specified period, it can issue an alarm.
– Bus Topology – is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all 3. No conflict in the transmission of data.
the devices in a network. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines
and taps. » Disadvantages
» drop line – is a connection running between the device and the main 1. Unidirectional traffic. In a simple ring, a break in the ring
cable. (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network.
» Tap – is a connector that either splices into the main cable or  This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable of
punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic closing off the break.
core.
» As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is IEEE 802.5 (IBM Token Ring) & FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data
transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it Interface)
travels farther and farther.
– Hybrid Topology – A network can be hybrid.

» Advantages:
1. Ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along the most
efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths.
2. A bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies. In a bus
redundancy is eliminated. Only the backbone cable stretches through the entire
facility. Each drop line has to reach only as far as the nearest point on the
backbone.

» Disadvantages:
1. Difficult reconnection and fault isolation. Signal reflection at the
taps can cause degradation in quality. This degradation can be controlled by
limiting the number and spacing of devices connected to a given length of

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•Network Models – Standards are needed so that these heterogeneous

networks can communicate with one another.
– The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model defines a seven-layer
network.
– The Internet model defines a five-layer network.

•Categories of Network

– Metropolitan Area Network

•A network with a size between a LAN and a WAN.
•It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.
•Examples of a MAN:
1) part of the telephone company network that can provide a high-
– Local Area Network speed DSL line to the customer
•Privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building, or 2) cable TV network
campus of up to a few kilometers in size.
•LANs share the following resources:
– Hardware
– Software
– Data
•LANs distinguishable characteristics:
– their transmission media
– their size (restricted small size)
– their topology (Bus, Ring, Star)
– their setting up cost is low
•Early data rates are 4 to 16Mbps
•Data transfer rate is high (10Mbps, 100Mbps, 10Gbps)

MAN based on cable TV

– Wide Area Network

•Provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio, and video
information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a
continent, or even the whole world.
•The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise a
router (internetworking connecting device) that connects to another LAN
or WAN.

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•The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone or
cable TV provider that connects a home computer or a small LAN to an
Internet service provider (lSP).
•WAN contains a collection of hosts that are connected by a
communication subnet.
– Host is a machine that is used to run user (i.e., application)
program and is owned by the customers.
– Subnet consists of transmission lines and switching elements, and
its job is to carry messages from host to host
A stream of packets from sender to receiver
Relation between hosts on LANs and the subnet.
• The main differences between WAN and LAN are:
– LAN is fully controlled by the owner whilst the WAN needs
the involvement of another authority like Telephone Company.
– The transfer rate of LAN is higher than the transfer rate of
WAN.
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– Subnet consists of transmission lines and switching
elements, and its job is to carry messages from host to host.
•Subnet is typically owned and operated by a telephone company or
Internet service provider.
•Transmission lines move bits between machines, they can be
made of copper wire, optical fiber, or even radio links.
•Switching elements are specialized computers that connect three
or more transmission lines and they called Routers.
– Wireless Networks
•Users have a dream to connect their notebooks to the network without
having to be plugged into a telephone wall socket.
•To achieve a true mobility there is a need to use a radio (or infrared)
signals for communication.
•Three main categories:
– System interconnection
– Wireless LANs
– Wireless WANs
(a) Bluetooth configuration (b) Wireless LAN
•System interconnection – it is about interconnecting the components of a
computer using a short-range radio that uses the master-slave paradigm.
– Example:
» Bluetooth is a short-range wireless network that allows digital
components to connect to a computer by merely being brought within
range.
•Wireless LAN – it is a system where every computer has a radio modem and
antenna with which it can communicate with other systems.
– Wireless LANs are used in small offices, homes, older office building,
conference rooms and other places.
– IEEE 802.11 (WiFi) is a standard for wireless LANs.
Wireless LAN
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•Wireless WAN – it is similar to wireless LAN system, but with lower
bandwidth and is used in a wide area system.
– Three generations of Wireless WAN:
» the first one was analog and for voice only
» the second one was digital and for voice only
» the third one is digital and for both voice and data
– IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX) is a standard for wireless WANs
• Interconnection of Networks or Internetwork – when two or more
networks are connected, they become an internetwork, or internet.
• Intranet – a private business network.
• Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among
multiple computers.
• Distributed System is a software system built on top of a network.
• World Wide Web is a distributed system that runs on top of the Internet.
A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs
NETWORK APPLICATIONS
•Business Applications
– Resource Sharing (printers, scanners, storage devices, and sharing
information, (client-server model))
– Communication Medium (E-mail)
– Being able to place orders in real-time (Purchase)
– E-Commerce, M-Commerce
A network with two clients and one server
•Home Network Applications
– Access to remote information (e.g. Google)
– Person to person communication
– Using social networks (e.g. Facebook)
– Interactive entertainment
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– E- commerce, M-Commerce
– Every device in the home will be capable of communicating with every
other device, and all of them will be accessible over the Internet.
•Examples of devices that are capable of being networked:
– Computers (PC, Notebook, PDA)
– Entertainment (TV, DVD, Camera...)
– Telecommunications (telephone, intercom...)
– Appliances (microwave, refrigerator, lights…)
– Telemetry (smoke alarm, thermostat, babycam…)
THE INTERNET
•The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives.
•A communication system that has brought a wealth of information to our
fingertips and organized it for our use.
•Internet is a structured, organized system.
•History of Internet
– A network is a group of connected communicating devices such as
computers and printers.
– An internet is two or more networks that can communicate with each other.
– The Internet is a collaboration of more than hundreds of thousands of
interconnected networks.
– In mid-1960s, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the
Department of Defense (DoD) was interested in finding a way to connect
computers so that the researchers they funded could share their findings.
– In October1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)
meeting, ARPA presented its ideas for ARPANET.
– ARPANET:
•A small network of connected computers.
•The idea was that each host computer would be attached to a specialized
computer, called an interface message processor (IMP).
•The IMPs, in turn, would be connected to one another.
•Each IMP had to be able to communicate with other IMPs as well as with
its own attached host.
•An early packet-switching network and the first network to implement
the TCP/IP protocol suite.
•Concepts and designs by Paul Baran, Donald Davies, Leonard
Kleinrock, and Lawrence Roberts.
•It originally used the Network Control Program.
•In switched to TCP/IP in 1983 that incorporated the concepts from the
French CYLADES project directed by Louis Pouzin.
– In 1969 ARPANET became a reality.
•On October 29, 1969 the first successful host to host connection on the
ARPANET was made between Stanford Research Institute with
programmer Bill Duvall and University of California at Los Angeles
with student programmer Charley Kline.
•The first ever characters successfully transmitted over the ARPANET
were lo.
•The first permanent ARPANET link was established on November 21,
1969 between UCLA and SRI.
•Four nodes, at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), the
University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB), Stanford Research
Institute (SRI), and the University of Utah, were connected via the IMPs
to form a network was established on December 5, 1969.
•Software called the Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided
communication between the hosts.
– In 1972, Vinton Gray Cerf and Robert Elliot Kahn collaborated on the
Internetting Project.
•Cerf and Kahn's landmark 1973 paper outlined the protocols to achieve
end-toend delivery of packets.
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•This paper on Transmission Control Program/Protocol (TCP) included
concepts such as encapsulation, the datagram, and the functions of a
gateway.
– TCP into two protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Internetworking Protocol (lP).
•IP would handle datagram routing while TCP would be responsible for
higher-level functions such as segmentation, reassembly, and error
detection.
•The internetworking protocol became known as TCP/IP.
•The Internet Today
– It is made up of many wide- and local area networks joined by connecting
devices and switching stations.
– Most end users who want Internet connection use the services of Internet
service providers (lSPs).
•international service providers
•national service providers
•regional service providers
•local service providers
Hierarchical organization of the Internet
– International Internet Service Providers
•At the top of the hierarchy that connect nations together.
– National Internet Service Providers
•The backbone networks created and maintained by specialized
companies.
•To provide connectivity between the end users, these backbone networks
are connected by complex switching stations (normally run by a third
party) called network access points (NAPs).
•Some national ISP networks are also connected to one another by private
switching stations called peering points. •These normally operate at a
high data rate (up to 600 Mbps).
– Regional Internet Service Providers
•Smaller ISPs that are connected to one or more national ISPs.
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•Third level of the hierarchy with a smaller data rate.
– Local Internet Service Providers
•Provide direct service to the end users.
•It can be connected to regional ISPs or directly to national ISPs.
PROTOCOLS & STANDARDS
•Protocol is synonymous with rule.
•Standards are agreed-upon rules.
•Protocols
– A set of rules that govern data communications.
– Defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated.
– Key Elements:
•Syntax – refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the
order in which they are presented.
•Semantics – refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
•Timing – refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent
and how fast they can be sent.
•Standards
– Essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market
for equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and
international interoperability of data and telecommunications technology
and processes.
– Provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and
other service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary
in today's marketplace and in international communications.
•Advantages of Standards
– A standard assures that there will be a large market for a particular piece
of equipment or software.
– A standard allows products from multiple vendors to communicate.
•Disadvantages of Standards
– A standard tends to freeze the technology.
– There are multiple standards for the same thing.
– Two Categories of Data Communications Standard:
•De facto – Standards that have not been approved by an organized body
but have been adopted as standards through widespread use.
– Often established originally by manufacturers who seek to define the
functionality of a new product or technology.
•De Jure – Standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized
body.
•Standards Organizations
– Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards creation
committees, forums, and government regulatory agencies.
– Standard Creation Committees
•International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
– A multinational body established in February 23, 1947 whose
membership is drawn mainly from the standards creation
committees of various governments throughout the world.
– 164 members
– ISO is not an acronym but in reference to the Greek word isos
meaning “equal”.
– Current President: John Walter
– Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland
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•International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication

Standardization Sector (ITU-T)
– Coordinates standards for telecommunications and Information
Communication Technology.
– United Nations formed, as part of its International
Telecommunication Union (ITU), a committee which is the
International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee
for (CCITT) in 1956 and was renamed on March 1, 1993.
– Current Director of the Bureau: Chaesub Lee
– Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland

•American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

– Formed in October 19, 1918 ANSI is a completely private,
nonprofit corporation not affiliated with the U.S. federal
government that oversees the development of voluntary
consensus standards for product, services, processes, systems,
and personnel in the United States.
– Current President and CEO: Joe Bhatia
– Headquarters: Washington, D.C., US
– Operations Office: New York, New York, US

• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

– Founded in January 1, 1963 through the amalgamation of the
American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the Institute of
Radio Engineers
– IEEE is the largest professional engineering society in the
world.
– International in scope, it aims to advance theory, creativity, and
product quality in the fields of electrical engineering, electronics,
and radio as well as in all related branches of engineering.
– It oversees the development and adoption of international
standards for computing and communications.
– Current President and CEO: Jose M.F. Moura
– Current Executive Director and COO: Stephen Welby
– Corporate Office: New York City
– Operation Center: Piscataway, New Jersey, US

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•Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
– Formed in January 16, 1986 IETF is an open standards
organization which develops and promotes voluntary internet
standards, in particular the standards that comprise the internet
protocol suite (TCP/IP).
– Current Chair: Alissa Cooper
– Forums
•Special-interest groups that quickly evaluate and standardize new
technologies.
•It works with universities and users to test, evaluate, and
standardize new technologies.
•Forums present their conclusions to the standards bodies.
– Regulatory Agencies
•All communications technology is subject to regulation by
government agencies.
– Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
– National Telecommunications Commission (NTC)
The 802 working groups. The important ones are marked with *.
The ones marked with ↓ are hibernating. The one marked with † gave up.
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•The purpose of these agencies is to protect the public interest by
regulating radio, television, and wire/cable communications.
– Internet Standards
•A thoroughly tested specification that is useful to and adhered to by
those who work with the Internet.
•It is a formalized regulation that must be followed.
•Procedure:
1. A specification begins as an Internet draft.
» A working document (a work in progress) with no
official status and a 6-month lifetime.
2. Upon recommendation from the Internet authorities, a draft
may be published as a Request for Comment (RFC)
» RFC is edited, assigned a number, and made available
to all interested parties.
» RFCs go through maturity levels and are categorized
according to their requirement level.
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