1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The term telecommunication means communication at a

distance. The word data refers to information presented
in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data. Data communications are the
exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.
Topics discussed in this section:
Components
Data Representation
Data Flow
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The effectiveness of a data communication system

depends on four fundamental characteristics:

1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct

destination. Data must be received by the intended
device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver data accurately.
Data that have been altered in transmission and left
uncorrected are unusable.
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely

manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case of
video, audio, and voice data, timely delivery means
delivering data as they are produced, in the same order
that they are produced, and without significant delay.
This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival
time.
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

Demo
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Components
1. Message, The message is the information (data) to be
communicated. It can consists of text, numbers, pictures, sound, or
video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can
be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so
on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It
can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so
on.
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Components
4. Medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by
which a message travels from sender to receiver. It can
consist of twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable,
laser, or radio waves .
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communication. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may
be connected but not communicating, just as a person
speaking French cannot be understood by a person who
speaks only Japanese.
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Data Representation
Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images,
audio, and video.
Text in data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence
of bits (0s or 1s).
Numbers Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. The number is
directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical operations.
Images Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an
image is composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements) , where each pixel
is a small dot.
Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. It is
continuous, not discrete.
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie.
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Data Flow

• Communication between two devices can be simplex,

half-duplex, and full-duplex.
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional,
as on a one-way street. Only one of the two stations on a
link can transmit; the other can only receive . 
Keyboards and traditional monitors are both examples of
simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce input;
the monitor can only accept output.
1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Simplex
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and
receive, but not at the same time. When one device is
sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa .
The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with two-
directional traffic: While cars are traveling one direction,
cars going the other way must wait. In a half-duplex
transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken
over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the
time. Walkie-talkies and CB radios are both half-duplex
systems.
1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Half-Duplex
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Full-Duplex
In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations
can transmit and receive simultaneously. The full-duplex
mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both
directions at the same time. In full-duplex mode, signals
going in either direction share the capacity of the link.
This sharing can occur in two ways: either the link must
contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for
sending and the other for receiving, or the capacity of the
channel is divided between signals traveling in opposite
directions.
1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Full-Duplex
 1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
Topics discussed in this section:
Distributed Processing
Network Criteria
Physical Structures
Network Models
Categories of Networks
Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork
 1-2 NETWORKS

Distributed Processing
Networks use Distributed Processing, in which a task is
divided among multiple computers. Instead of a single
large machine being responsible for all aspects of a
process, each separate computer handles a subset.
Advantages
Security/encapsulation A system designer can limit the
kinds of interactions that a given user can have with the
entire system.
Distributed databases No one system needs to provide
storage capacity for the entire database.
 1-2 NETWORKS

• Faster problem solving Multiple computers working on parts

of a problem concurrently often can solve the problem
faster than a single machine working alone.

• Security through redundancy Multiple computers running

the same program at the same time can provide security
through redundancy.

• Collaborative processing Both multiple computers and

multiple users may interact on a task.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Network Criteria
• Performance

• Reliability

• Security

Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit

time and response time. Transit time is the amount of time
required for a message to travel from one device to another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response.
 1-2 NETWORKS

• Performance
• Number of users. Having a large number of concurrent users
can slow response time in a network not designed to
coordinate heavy traffic loads. The design is based on an
average number of users. How a network responds to loading
is a measure of its performance.
• Type of transmission medium. The medium defines the speed
at which data can travel through a connection . the speed of
light imposes an upper bound on the data rate.
• Hardware. The types of hardware included in a network
affect both the speed and capacity of transmission.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Software. The software used to process data at the sender,

receiver, and intermediate nodes also affects network
performance. Moving a message from node to node through a
network requires processing to transform the raw data into
transmittable signals, to route these signals to the proper
destination, to ensure error-free delivery, and to recast the
signals into a form the receiver can use. Well-designed
software can speed the process and make transmission more
effective and efficient.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Reliability
Network reliability is measured by frequency of failure, the time it
takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's
robustness in a catastrophe.
Frequency of failure. All networks fail occasionally. A network that
fails often, however, is of little value to a user.
Recovery time of a network after a failure. How long does it take to
restore service? A network that recovers quickly is more useful
than one that does not.
Catastrophe. Networks must be protected from catastrophic events
such as fire, earthquake, or theft.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access and viruses.
Unauthorized access For a network to be useful, sensitive data must
be protected from unauthorized access. Protection can be
accomplished at a number of levels..
Viruses Because a network is accessible from many points, it can be
susceptible to computer viruses. A virus is an illicitly introduced
code that damages the system.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Physical structure

• A network is two or more devices connected through links. A

link is the physical communication pathway that transfers data
from one device to another. For the purposes of visualization, it
is simplest to imagine any link as a line drawn between two
points. For communication to occur, two devices must be
connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There
are two possible line connections: point-to-point and multipoint .
 1-2 NETWORKS

Point-to-Point
A point-to-point line configuration provides a dedicated link
between two devices. The entire capacity of the channel is reserved
for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point
line configurations use an actual length of wire or cable to
connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or
satellite links, are also possible.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Point-to-Point Line Configuration

Figure 2-2
 1-2 NETWORKS

Point-to-Point Line Configuration

Figure 2-2-continued
 1-2 NETWORKS

Point-to-Point Line Configuration

Figure 2-2-continued
 1-2 NETWORKS

Multipoint
A multipoint line configuration is one in which more than two
specific devices share a single link .
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is
shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use
the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared line configuration.
If users must take turns, it is a time shared line configuration.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Multipoint Line Configuration

Figure 2-3
 1-2 NETWORKS

Physical Topology

The term topology refers to the way a network is laid

out, either physically or logically. Two or more
devices connect to a link; two or more links form a
topology. The topology of a network is the geometric
representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices (usually called nodes) to each other.
There are five basic topologies possible mesh, star,
tree, bus, ring.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Figure 1.4 Categories of topology

 1-2 NETWORKS

consideration when choosing a topology is the relative status

of the devices to be linked. Two relationships are possible:
peer-to-peer, where the devices share the link equally, and
primary-secondary, where one device controls traffic and the
others must transmit through it. Ring and mesh topologies are
more convenient for peer-to-peer transmission, while star and
tree are more convenient for primary-secondary. A bus
topology is equally convenient for either.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Mesh
 In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point
link to every other device. The term dedicated means that the
link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. A
fully connected mesh network therefore has n(n-1)/2 physical
channels to link n devices. To accommodate that many links,
every device on the network must have n-1 input/output (I/O)
ports.
Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)
 1-2 NETWORKS

A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies.

First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection
can carry its data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that
can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices. Second, a
mesh topology is robust. Another advantage privacy or security.
When every message sent travels along a dedicated line, only the
intended recipient sees it. Finally, point-to-point links make fault
identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be routed to
avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables the
network manager to discover the precise location of the fault and
aids in finding its cause and solution.
 1-2 NETWORKS

The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of

cabling and the number of I/O ports required. First, because every
device must be connected to every other device, installation and
reconfiguration are difficult. Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring
can be greater than the available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors)
can accommodate. And, finally, the hardware required to connect
each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively expensive. For
these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited
fashion--for example, as a backbone connecting the main
computers of a hybrid network that can include several other
topologies.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Star
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link
only to a central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are
not linked to each other. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology
does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as
an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends
to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected
devices
 1-2 NETWORKS

Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations

 1-2 NETWORKS
A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star,
each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any
number of others. This factor also makes it easy to install and
reconfigure. Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails,
only that link is affected. All other links remain active. This factor also
lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation. As long as
the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass
defective links.
However, although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each
node must be linked to a central hub. For this reason more cabling is
required in a star than in some other topologies (such as tree, ring, or
bus).
 1-2 NETWORKS

Tree
A tree topology is a variation of a star. As in a star, nodes in a tree
are linked to a central hub that controls the traffic to the network.
However, not every device plugs directly into the central hub. The
majority of devices connect to a secondary hub that in turn is
connected to the central hub .
The central hub in the tree is an active hub, An active hub
contains a repeater, which is a hardware device that regenerates the
received bit patterns before sending them out. Repeating strengthens
transmissions and increases the distance a signal can travel between
sender and receiver.
1-2 NETWORKS

Tree Topology
 1-2 NETWORKS
The secondary hubs may be active or passive hubs. A passive hub
provides a simple physical connection between the attached devices.
The advantages and disadvantages of a tree topology are
generally the same as those of a star. The addition of secondary
hubs, however, brings two further advantages. First, it allows more
devices to be attached to a single central hub and can therefore
increase the distance a signal can travel between devices. Second, it
allows the network to isolate and prioritize communications from
different computers. For example, the computers attached to one
secondary hub can be given priority over computers attached to
another secondary hub. In this way the network designers and
operator can guarantee that time-sensitive data will not have to wait
for access to the network.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Bus
A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable
acts as a backbone to link all the devices in the network .
Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A
drop line is a connection running between the device and the main
cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or
punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the
metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its
energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and
weaker the farther it has to travel. For this reason there is a limit on
the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between
those taps.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations

 1-2 NETWORKS

Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation.

Backbone-cable can be laid along the most efficient path, then
connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this way,
a bus uses less cabling than mesh, star, or tree topologies.
Disadvantages include difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation.
A bus is usually designed to be optimally efficient at installation. It
can therefore be difficult to add new devices.
In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all
transmission, even between devices on the same side of the problem.
The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of origin,
creating noise in both directions.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Ring
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point line
configuration only with the two devices on either side of it. A signal
is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device,
until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates
a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for another
device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations

 1-2 NETWORKS

A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device

is linked only to its immediate neighbors (either spatially or
logically). To add or delete a device requires moving only two
connections. The only constraints are media and traffic
considerations (maximum ring length and number of devices). In
addition, fault isolation is simplified. Generally in a ring, a signal
is circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a signal
within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts
the network operator to the problem and its location.
However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a
simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can
disable the entire network.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Hybrid Topologies
 Often a network combines several topologies as subnetworks
linked together in a larger topology. For instance, one
department of a business may have decided to use a bus
topology while another department has a ring. The two can be
connected to each other via a central controller in a star
topology .
 1-2 NETWORKS

Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
 1-2 NETWORKS

Network models

• OSI model
• Internet model
 1-2 NETWORKS

Categories of Networks

Today when we speak of networks, we are generally

referring to three primary categories: local area
networks (LANs), metropolitan area networks
(MANs), and wide area networks (WANs). Which
category a network falls into is determined by its size,
its ownership, the distance it covers, and its physical
architecture .
 1-2 NETWORKS

Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single
office, building, or campus . LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between
computers or workstations. The resources can include hardware ,
software, or data. One of the computers may be given a large-
capacity disk drive and become a server to the other clients. Software
can be stored on this central server and used as needed by the whole
group. T he size of the LAN may be determined by licensing
restrictions on the number of users per copy of software, or by
restrictions on the number of users licensed to access the operating
system.
 1-2 NETWORKS

In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of

networks by their transmission media and topology. In general, a
given LAN will use only one type of transmission medium. The most
common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star.
Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today,
however, speeds are normally 100 or 1000Mbps .
 1-2 NETWORKS

Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

 1-2 NETWORKS

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

MAN is designed to extend over an entire city. It may be a single
network such as a cable television network, or it may be a means
of connecting a number of LANs into a larger network so that
resources may be shared LAN-to-LAN as well as device-to-device.

A MAN may be wholly owned and operated by a private

company, or it may be a service provided by a public company,
such as a local telephone company.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Metropolitan Area Network

 1-2 NETWORKS

Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN provides long distance transmission of information over
large geographical areas that may comprise a country, a
continent, or even the whole world .
In contrast to LAN, WANs may utilize public, leased, or private
communication devices, usually combinations, and can therefore
span an unlimited number of miles.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Wide Area Network

 1-2 NETWORKS

Figure 1.11 WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN

 1-2 NETWORKS

Interconnection of Networks: Internetworks

When two or more networks are connected, they become an
internetwork, or internet. Individual networks are joined into
internetworks by the use of internetworking devices. These devices
which include routers and gateways. The term internet should not
be confused with the Internet. The first is a generic term used to
mean an interconnection of networks. The second is the name of a
specific worldwide network.
 1-2 NETWORKS

Figure 1.12 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs
 1-3 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily

lives. It has affected the way we do business as well as the
way we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.

Topics discussed in this section:

A Brief History
The Internet Today (ISPs)
 1-3 THE INTERNET

Figure 1.13 Hierarchical organization of the Internet Demo

 1-4 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

In this section, we define two widely used terms: protocols

and standards. First, we define protocol, which is
synonymous with rule. Then we discuss standards, which
are agreed-upon rules.

Topics discussed in this section:

Protocols
Standards
Standards Organizations
Internet Standards
 1-4 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
Protocols
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in
different systems. An entity is anything capable of sending or
receiving information. Examples include application programs, file
transfer packages, browsers, database management systems, and
electronic mail software. A system is a physical object that contains
one or more entities. Examples include computers and terminals.
But two entities cannot just send bit streams to each other and
expect to be understood. For communication to occur, the entities
must agree on a protocol.
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication. A
protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and
when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics, and timing.
 1-4 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the

order in which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol
might expect the first eight bits of data to be the address of the
sender, the second eight bits to be the address of the receiver, and
the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a
particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken
based on that interpretation? For example,does an address identify
the route to be taken or the final destination of the message?
Timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and
how fast it can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at
100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the
transmission will overload the receiver and data will be largely lost.
 1-4 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
Standards
With so many factors to synchronize, a great deal of coordination
across the nodes of a network is necessary if communication is to
occur at all, let alone accurately or efficiently. A single
manufacturer can build all of its products to work well together, but
what if some of the best components for your needs are not made by
the same company? Where there are no standards, difficulties arise.
A standard provides a model for development that makes it possible
for a product to work regardless of the individual manufacturer.
Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto
(meaning "by fact" or "by convention") and de jure (meaning "by
law" or "by regulation").
1-4 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
 1-4 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

De jure standards are those that have been legislated by an officially

recognized body. Standards that have not been approved by an
organized body but have been adopted as standards through
widespread use are de facto standards. De facto standards are often
established originally by manufacturers seeking to define the
functionality of a new product or technology.
STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS
The International Standards Organization (ISO)
The International Telecommunications Union (ITU-T, formerly the
CCITT)
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
 1-4 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

ISO
The International Standards Organization is a multinational body
whose membership is drawn mainly from the standards creation
committees of various governments throughout the world.
 SUMMARY

• Data communications are the transfer of data from one

device to another via some form of transmission medium.
• A data communications system must transmit data to the
correct destination in an accurate and timely manner.
• The five components that make up a data communications
system are the message, sender, receiver, medium, and
protocol.
• Text, numbers, images, audio, and video are different forms
of information.
• Data flow between two devices can occur in one of three
ways: simplex , half-duplex, or full-duplex.
 SUMMARY

• A network is a set of communication devices connected by media

links.
• In a point-to-point connection, two and only two devices are
connected by a dedicated link. In a multipoint connection, three or
more devices share a link.
• Topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of a network.
Devices may be arranged in a mesh, star, bus, or ring topology.
• A network can be categorized as a local area network or a wide area
network.
• A LAN is a data communication system within a building, plant, or
campus, or between nearby buildings.
 SUMMARY

• A LAN is a data communication system spanning states,

countries, or the whole word.
• An internet is a network of networks.
• The internet is a collection of many separate networks.
• There are local, regional, national, and international Internet
service providers.
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication;
the key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and
timing.
• Standards are necessary to ensure that products from different
manufacturers can work together as expected.
 EXERCISES

1. What are three criteria necessary for an effective and efficient

network?
2. Name the four basic topologies, and cite an advantage of each type.
3. Why are protocols and standards needed?
4. Using the site www.cne.gmu.edu/modules/network/osi.html, discuss
the OSI model.
5. What is the topology of the LAN here?
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

Back
 1-3 THE INTERNET

Figure 1.16 Hierarchical organization of the Internet

Back