Computer Networks Notes

Unit 1 : Computer Networks
Unit 1
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS
AND NETWORKING
Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Data & Information
1.3 Data Communication
1.3.1 Characteristics of Data Communication
1.3.2 Components of Data Communication
1.4 Data Representation
1.5 Data Flow
1.5.1. Simplex
1.52. Half Duplex
1.5.3. Full Duplex
1.6 Networks,Networks Criteria,Physical Structures
1.7 Protocol
1.7.1 Elements of a Protocol
1.8 Standards in Networking
1.8.1 Concept of Standard
1.8.2 Standard Organizations in field of Networking
1.9 Review Questions
DATA & INFORMATION

 Data refers to the raw facts that are collected while information refers to
processed data that enables us to take decisions.
 Ex. When result of a particular test is declared it contains data of all students,
when you find the marks you have scored you have the information that lets
you know whether you have passed or failed.
 The word data refers to any information which is presented in a form that is
agreed and accepted upon by is creators and users.
DATA COMMUNICATION
 Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or information.
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 This process involves a communication system which is made up of hardware

and software.
 The hardware part involves the sender and receiver devices and the
intermediate devices through which the data passes.
 The software part involves certain rules which specify what is to be
communicated, how it is to be communicated and when. It is also called as a
Protocol.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

Some characteristics of data communication are:
1) Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct
user.
2) Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the dataaccurately,
without introducing any errors. The data may get corrupted during
transmission affecting the accuracy of the delivered data.
3) Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in atimely manner
without any delay; such a data delivery is called real time transmission of
data.
4) Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jittermay affect the
timeliness of data being transmitted.
Components of Data Communication

A Data Communication system has five components as shown in the diagram
below:
Fig. Components of a Data Communication System
1. Message
Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to the receiver.
2. Sender
The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data (message).
3. Receiver
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The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the data
(message).
4. Transmission medium
It is the physical path by which the message travels from sender to receiver. It can
be wired or wireless. Examples of Transmission medium include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber optic cable and radio waves.
5. Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication.
DATA REPRESENTATION
There may be different forms in which data may be represented. Some of the
forms of data used in communications are as follows:
1. Text
 Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well as upper case.
 It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system :ASCII, Unicode
2. Numbers
 Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9.
 It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system :ASCII, Unicode
3. Images
 An image is worth a thousand words‖ is a very famous saying.
In computers images are digitally stored.
 A Pixel is the smallest element of an image. To put it in simple terms, a
picture or image is a matrix of pixel elements.
 The size of an image depends upon the number of pixels (also called
resolution) and the bit pattern used to indicate the value of each pixel.
4. Audio
 Data can also be in the form of sound which can be recorded and broad
casted. Example: What we hear on the radio is a source of data or
information.
 Audio data is continuous, not discrete.
5. Video

 Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie
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DATA FLOW
Two devices communicate with each other by sending and receiving data. The
data can flow between the two devices in the following ways.
1. Simplex
2. Half Duplex
3. Full Duplex
1. Simplex
 In Simplex, communication is
unidirectional
 Only one of the devices sends
the data and the other one only
receives the data.
 Example: in the above diagram:
a CPU send data while a
monitor only receives data. Simplex Mode of Communication
2. Half Duplex
 In half duplex both the stations can
Transmit as well as receive but
Not at the same time.
 When one device is sending other
Can only receive and vice-versa
 Example: A walkie-talkie.
3. Full Duplex
 In Full duplex mode, both stations
Can transmit and receive at the
Same time.
 Example: Networking devices,
 mobile phones
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COMPUTER NETWORK
 Computer Networks are used for data communications
 Definition:
A network is a set of devices(often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links. A node can be a computer,printer or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
OR
A group of computers interconnected to one and each other, not only
interconnected but able to share information with each other.
A computer network can also be defined as a collection of nodes. A node can
be any device capable of transmitting or receiving data.
 The communicating nodes have to be connected by communication link.
 A Compute network should ensure
 Reliability of the data communication process.
 Security of the data.
 Performance by achieving higher throughput and smallerdelay times
Distrubuted Processing :
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among
multiple computers. Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all
aspects of a process, separate computers (usually a personal computer or
workstation) handle a subset.
Netork Criteria :
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most
important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance:-
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response
time, including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the
capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay.
We often need more throughput and less delay. However, these two criteria are often
contradictory. If we try to send more data to the network, we may increase
throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic congestion in the network.
Reliability:-
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency
of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network’s
robustness in a catastrophe.
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Security:-
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies and
procedures for recovery from breaches (a gap) and data losses.
Physical Structures:-
Before discussing networks, we need to define some network attributes.
Type of Connection:-
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
There are two possible types of connections:

 Point-toPoint
 Multipoint.
Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual
length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible (see Figure 1.3a). When we
change television channels by infrared remote control, we are establishing
a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the
television’s control system.
Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more
than two specific devices share a single link (see Figure 1.3b).
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously,
it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a
timeshared connection.
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Physical topologies :-
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically. Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a
topology. The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
TOPOLOGIES (NETWORK TOPOLOGIES)

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement,
connecting various nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of connection.
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network
devices are connected to each other.
Types of network topologies:

1. Bus topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Star topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Hybrid Topology
 Bus Topology
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In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected to this
main cable through drop lines. There is a device called tap that connects the drop
line to the main cable. Since all the data is transmitted over the main cable, there
is a limit of drop lines and the distance a main cable can have.
Advantages of bus topology

1. Easy installation, each cable needs to be connected with backbone cable.
2. Less cables required than Mesh and star topology
Disadvantages of bus topology

1. Difficultly in fault detection.
2. Not scalable as there is a limit of how many nodes you can connect with
backbone cable.
Ring Topology :-
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In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either side of it.
There are two dedicated point to point links a device has with the devices on the
either side of it. This structure forms a ring thus it is known as ring topology. If a
device wants to send data to another device then it sends the data in one direction,
each device in ring topology has a repeater, if the received data is intended for
other device then repeater forwards this data until the intended device receives it.
Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Easy to install.
2. Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the topology only two
links are required to be changed.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel forward due
to failure.
2. Data traffic issues, since all the data is circulating in a ring.
Star Topology
In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device called
hub. Unlike Mesh topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct communication
between devices, a device must have to communicate through hub. If one device
wants to send data to other device, it has to first send the data to hub and then the
hub transmit that data to the designated device.
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Advantages of Star topology

1. Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs to be
connected with hub with one link.
2. Easier to install
3. Less amount of cables required because each device needs to be connected
with the hub only.
4. Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.
5. Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.
Disadvantages of Star topology

1. If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work
without hub.
2. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the

central system of star topology.
Mesh topology:-
In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the network
through a dedicated point-to-point link. When we say dedicated it means that the
link only carries data for the two connected devices only. Lets say we have n
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devices in the network then each device must be connected with (n-1) devices of
the network. Number of links in a mesh topology of n devices would be n(n-1)/2.
Advantages of Mesh topology

1. No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices which
means the link is only available for those two devices.
2. Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect other
links and the communication between other devices on the network.
3. Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus unauthorized
access is not possible.
4. Fault detection is easy.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and headache.
2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of I/O
ports required must be huge.
3. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large number of
devices with a dedicated point to point link.
Hybrid topology :-
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A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology. For example a

combination of star and mesh topology is known as hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid topology

1. We can choose the topology based on the requirement for example, scalability
is our concern then we can use star topology instead of bus technology.
2. Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the existing
networks with different topologies.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

1. Fault detection is difficult.
2. Installation is difficult.
3. Design is complex so maintenance is high thus expensive.
Network
 types OR Network Models:-
Networks are categorized on the basis of their size. The three basic categories of
computer networks are:
A. Local Area Networks (LAN)

 LAN is usually limited to a few kilometers of area. It may be privately owned and
could be a network inside an office on one of the floor of a building or a LAN
could be a network consisting of the computers in an entire building.
 Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of designs that would
not otherwise be possible. It also simplifies network management.
 LANs may use a transmission technology consisting of a cable to which all the
machines are attached, like the telephone company party lines once used in
rural areas.
 Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay
(microseconds or nanoseconds), and make very few errors. Newer
 LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps various topologies are possible for broadcast
LANs.
B. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 MAN is of size between LAN & WAN. It is larger than LAN but smaller than WAN.
It may comprise the entire network in a city like Mumbai.
 The best-known example of a MAN is the cable television network available in
many cities.
 In these early systems, a large antenna was placed on top of a nearby hill and
signal was then piped to the subscribers' houses.
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 The next step was television programming and even entire channels designed
for cable only. Often these channels were highly specialized, such as all news, all
sports, all cooking, all gardening, and so on. But from their inception until the
late 1990s, they were intended for television reception only.
 Recent developments in high-speed wireless Internet access resulted in another
MAN, which has been standardized as
C. Wide Area Network (WAN)

 WAN is made of all the networks in a(geographically) large area. The network in
the entire state of Maharashtra could be a WAN.
 A WAN spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent.
 It contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application)
programs. These machines are called as hosts.
 The hosts are connected by a communication subnet, or just subnet for short.
The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g., people's personal computers),
whereas the communication subnet is typically owned and operated by a
telephone company or Internet service provider.
 The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host, just as the
telephone system carries words from speaker to listener. Separation of the pure
communication aspects of the network
The Internet :- It is defined as Network of Network (I.e interconnection of many

LAN’s, many MAN’s and many WAN’s).
Types of Internet :-
1. Internet itself : It is a network of network accessed globly.
2. Intranet : It’s a privately owned network, accessed only
within an organization.
3. Extranet : It’s a privately owned network,accessed within
an organization, but the connection has been extended
among the same branches of their organization. For
example : IBM Company , in Mumbai can extend their
connection to their own branches which is located around
India or world.
Accessing the Internet:- The Internet today is an internetwork that allows any
user to become part of it. The user, however, needs to be physically connected to an
ISP(Internet service Provider). The physical connection is normally done through a
point-to-point WAN. We can access the internet using Telephone Network(Dial up
service and DSL Service) ,using cable network, using wireless networks and using
direct connection to the internet.
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PROTOCOL
 A Protocol is one of the components of a data communications system.
Without protocol communication cannot occur. The sending device cannot
just send the data and expect the receiving device to receive and further
interpret it correctly.
 A Protocol is defined as a set of rules that governs data communications.
 A protocol defines what is to be communicated, how it is to be
communicated and when it is to be communicated.
Elements of a Protocol
There are three key elements of a protocol:
A. Syntax
o It means the structure or format of the data.
o It is the arrangement of data in a particular order.
B. Semantics
o It tells the meaning of each section of bits and indicates the interpretation of
each section.
o It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based on the interpretation.
C. Timing
o It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver to receive the data
o It tells the sender at what rate the data should be sent to the receiver to
avoid overwhelming the receiver.
STANDARDS IN NETWORKING
 Standards are necessary in networking to ensure interconnectivity and
interoperability between various networking hardware and software
components.
 Without standards we would have proprietary products creating isolated
islands of users which cannot interconnect.
Concept of Standard
Standards provide guidelines to product manufacturers and vendors to ensure
national and international interconnectivity.
Data communications standards are classified into two categories:
1.De facto Standard
 These are the standards that have been traditionally used and mean by fact
or by convention
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 These standards are not approved by any organized body but are adopted
by widespread use.
2.De jure standard
 It means by law or by regulation.
 These standards are legislated and approved by any body that is officially
recognized.
Standard Organizations in field of Networking

Standards are created by standards creation committees, forums, and government
regulatory agencies.
Examples of Standard Creation Committees:
1. International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
2. International Telecommunications Union – Telecommunications Standard (ITU-T)
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
4. Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
5. Electronic Industries Associates (EIA)
Examples of Forums:
1. ATM Forum
2. MPLS Forum
3. Frame Relay Forum
Examples of Regulatory Agencies:
Federal Communications Committee (FCC)
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1) Differentiate between data & information. What are the different forms in
which data can be represented?
2) What are the characteristics of data communication?
3) What are the components of a data communication system?
4) Explain how data flows in computer networks?
5) What is topology? Explain different types of topologies.
6) Define computer networks and explain different categories of Networks.
7) Explain protocols in details.
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NETWORK MODELS
PROTOCOL LAYERING:-
A protocol defines the rules that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate
devices need to follow to be able to communicate effectively.
 When communication is simple, we may need only one simple protocol
 when the communication is complex, we need to divide the task between
different layers, in which we need a protocol at each layer. So this is called
protocol layering.
2.1.1 Scenarios:-
Let us develop two simple scenarios to better understand the need for protocol
layering.
First Scenario
In the first scenario, communication is so simple that it can occur in only one layer.
Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of common ideas. Communication
between Maria and Ann takes place in one layer, face to face, in the same language,
as shown in Figure 2.1.
 Both the parties should follow simple set of rules.

 First, Maria and Ann know that they should greet each other when they meet.
 Second, they know that they should confine their vocabulary to the level of
their friendship.
 Third, both should talk in same language.
 Fourth, each party knows that the conversation should be a dialog, not a
monolog: both should have the opportunity to talk about the issue.
 Fifth, they should exchange some nice words when they leave.
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But scenario is different for different situation for example a scenario between
professor and the students in a lecture hall.
 Here conversation is mostly monolog; i.e professor talks most of the time
unless a student has a question, a situation in which the protocol dictates that
she should raise her hand and wait for permission to speak. In this case, the
communication is normally very formal and limited to the subject being
taught.
Second Scenario:-
In this scenario we assume that Ann and Maria are at far distance and they want to
communicate with each other. The communication goes between them as shown in
in Figure 2.2. We assume that Ann and Maria each have three machines (or
robots) that can perform the task at each layer.
Let us assume that Maria sends the first letter to Ann.

 Maria talks to the machine at the third layer as though the machine is Ann and
is listening to her.
 The third layer machine listens to what Maria says and creates the plaintext (a
letter in English)
 Which is passed to the second layer machine. The second layer machine takes
the plaintext, encrypts it, and creates the ciphertext, which is passed to the first
layer machine.
 The first layer machine, presumably a robot, takes the ciphertext, puts it in an
envelope, adds the sender and receiver addresses, and mails it.
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At Ann’s side,
 The first layer machine picks up the letter from Ann’s mail box, recognizing
the letter from Maria by the sender address. The machine takes out the
ciphertext from the envelope and delivers it to the second layer machine.
 The second layer machine decrypts the message, creates the plaintext, and
passes the plaintext to the third-layer machine.
 The third layer machine takes the plaintext and reads it as though Maria is
speaking.
Therefore we can conclude that Protocol layering enables us to divide a
complex task into several smaller and simpler tasks.
Principles of Protocol Layering:-
Let us discuss two principles of protocol layering.

First Principle
The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication, we need to
make each layer so that it is able to perform two opposite tasks, one in each
direction.
For example, the third layer task is to listen (in one direction) and talk (in the other
direction). The second layer needs to be able to encrypt and decrypt. The first layer
needs to send and receive mail.
Second Principle
The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two
Objects under each layer at both sites should be identical. For example, the object
under layer 3 at both sites should be a plaintext letter. The object under layer 2 at
both sites should be a cipher text letter. The object under layer 1 at both sites should
be a piece of mail.
Logical Connections
After following the above two principles, we can think about logical connection
between each layer as shown in Figure 2.3.
When we send or receive any information it means a logical connection is
established between sender and receiver. i.e a layer-to-layer communication takes
place(as shown in fig 2.3). As in the case with the above two scenario Maria and
Ann can think that there is a logical (imaginary) connection at each layer through
which they can send the object created from that layer. We will see that the concept
of logical connection will help us better understand the task of layering we
encounter in data communication and networking.
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LAYERED TASKS
 The task of transferring data from sender to receiver can be done by breaking it
into small sub tasks, each of which are well defined in the above scenario.
 In layering, the set of tasks required for computer communication are split into
different distinct functions (layers).
 All the layers combine together to achieve the desired computer communication
functionality.
 It provides modularity to the whole architecture
 Also, there is a hierarchy among layers, as each layer provides a set of specific
functions to the layer above it
 Inter layer communication is through well-defined interfaces named as Service
Access Points (SAPs).
 Some examples of layering are the OSI 7 layer model, the TCP/IP 4 layer model
and the practically used Hybrid 5 layer model.
Advantages
1. Primary advantage is less queuing. When packets are transmitted and
received, they are placed in receive and transmit queues at different levels,
as they are passed along the layers.
2. When more layers are combined in one, the exchange of data between each
layer is controlled by the application author, and thus it's easier to tune it.
Disadvantages
1. Less reusability: Harder for other applications to use the same code for the
session and/or presentation layers for example.
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2. Harder to maintain: Without clear separation, combining different layers’

functionality can lead to the code being overly tied together, and too
complex, and thus harder to maintain.
OSI MODEL
Introduction to OSI model and its layers
 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model was developed by
International organization for Standardization(ISO)
 It was developed to allow systems with different platforms to communicate
 with each other.
 It is a network model that defines the protocols for network
communications.
 It is a hierarchical model that groups its processes into layers. It has 7 layers
as follows: (Top to Bottom)
 Application Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Session Layer
 Transport Layer
 Network Layer
 Data Link Layer
 Physical Layer
Layered Architecture of OSI model
 The OSI model has 7 layers each with its own dedicated task.
 A message sent from Device A to Device B passes has to pass through all layers at
A from top to bottom then all layers at B from bottom to top as shown in the
figure below.
 At Device A, the message is sent from the top layer i.e Application Layer A then
all the layers till it reaches its physical layer and then it is transmitted through the
transmission medium.
 At Device B, the message received by the physical layer passes through all its
other layers and moves upwards till it reaches its Application Layer.
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PEER-TO-PEER PROCESS
 A peer-to-peer network is one in which two or more PCs share files and access to
devices such as printers without requiring a separate server computer or server
software.

Communication & Interfaces in the OSI model

 For communication to occur, each layer in the sending device adds its own
information to the message it receives from the layer just above it and passes the
whole package to the layer just below it. Each layer in the receiving device
removes the information added at the corresponding layer and sends the
obtained data to the layer above it.
 Every Layer has its own dedicated function or services and is different from the
function of the other layers.
 On every sending device, each layer calls upon the service offered by the layer
below it.
 On every receiving device, each layer calls upon the service offered by the layer
above it.
 Between two devices, the layers at corresponding levels communicate with each
other .i.e. layer 2 at receiving end can communicate and understand data from
layer 2 of sending end. This is called peer –to – peer communication
LAYERS OF OSI MODEL

1. Physical Layer
 The Physical Layer provides a standardized interface to physical transmission
media, including :
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a) Mechanical specification of electrical connectors and cables, for example

maximum cable length
b) Electrical specification of transmission line
c) Bit-by-bit or symbol-by-symbol delivery
 On the sender side, the physical layer receives the data from Data Link Layer and
encodes it into signals to be transmitted onto the medium.
 On the receiver side, the physical layer receives the signals from the
transmission medium decodes it back into data and sends it to the Data Link Layer
as shown in the figure below:
 Interface
The Physical Layer defines the characteristics of interfaces between the
devices & transmission medium.
 Representation of bits
The physical layer is concerned with transmission of signals from one
device to another which involves converting data (1‘s & 0‘s) into signals.
 Data rate
The physical layer defines the data transmission rate i.e. number of bits sent
per second. It is the responsibility of the physical layer to maintain the defined
data rate.
 Synchronization of bits
To interpret correct and accurate data the sender and receiver have to
maintain the same bit rate and also have synchronized clocks.
 Line configuration
The physical layer defines the nature of the connection .i.e. a point to point
link, or a multi point link.
 Physical Topology
The physical layer defines the type of topology in which the device is
connected to the network. In a mesh topology it uses a multipoint connection
and other topologies it uses a point to point connection to send data.
 Transmission mode
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The physical layer defines the direction of data transfer between the sender
and receiver. Two devices can transfer the data in simplex, half duplex or full
duplex mode
 Main responsibility of the physical layer Transmission of bits from one hop to
the next.
2. Data Link Layer

 The Data Link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by providing error
detection and correction mechanisms.
 On the sender side, the Data Link layer receives the data from Network Layer
and divides the stream of bits into fixed size manageable units called as Frames
and sends it to the physical layer.
 On the receiver side, the data link layer receives the stream of bits from the
physical layer and regroups them into frames and sends them to the Network
layer. This process is called Framing. It is shown in the figure below
 Physical Addressing (inside / outside senders network)

The Data link layer appends the physical address in the header of the frame
before sending it to physical layer.
 Flow control
The data link layer makes sure that the sender sends the data at a speed
at which the receiver can receive it else if there is an overflow at the receiver side
the data will be lost.
 Error control
The data link layer imposes error control mechanism to identify lost or
damaged frames, duplicate frames and then retransmit them.
 Access Control
The data link layer imposes access control mechanism to
determine which device has right to send data in a multipoint connection scenario.
3. Network Layer
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 The Data Link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by providing error
detection and correction mechanisms.
 The network layer makes sure that the data is delivered to the receiver despite
multiple intermediate devices.
 The network layer at the sending side accepts data from the transport layer,
divides it into packets, adds addressing information in the header and passes it
to the data link layer.
 At the receiving end the network layer receives the frames sent by data link
layer, converts them back into packets, verifies the physical and the send the
packets to the transport layer.
 The network layer is responsible for source to destination of delivery of data.

Hence it may have to route the data through multiple networks via multiple
intermediate devices. In order to achieve this the network layer relies on two
things: a)Logical Addressing b)Routing
 Logical Addressing
o The network layer uses logical address commonly known as IP address
to recognize devices on the network.
o The header appended by the network layer contains the actual sender
and receiver IP address.
 Routing
o The network layer divides data into units called packets of equal size
and bears a sequence number for rearranging on the receiving end.
o Hence every intermediate node which encounters a packet tries to
compute the best possible path for the packet. This is called “Routing”.
4. Transport Layer
 The transport layer takes care of process to process delivery of data and makes sure
that it is intact and in order.
 At the sending side, the transport layer receives data from the session layer,
divides it into units called segments and sends it to the network layer.
 At the receiving side, the transport layer receives packets from the network
layer, converts and arranges into proper sequence of segments and sends it to
the session layer.
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 To ensure process to process delivery the transport layer makes use of port
address.
 The Transport layer is responsible for segmentation and reassembly of the
message into segments which bear sequence numbers.
 Flow Control & Error control: the transport layer alsocarries out flow control
and error control functions; but unlike data link layer these are end to end
rather than node to node.
5. Session Layer
 The Session Layer allows users on different machines to establish active
communication sessions between them. The other functions are:
 Dialog Control: This layer allows two systems to start communication with
each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
 Token Management: This layer prevents two parties from attempting the
same critical operation at the same time.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are
considered as
synchronizatio
n points into
stream of
data.
6. Presentation Layer
 It is used to present data to the application layer (layer 7) in an accurate, well-
defined and standardized format.
 It checks for syntax and semantics of data that is transferred.
 It works in translation of data means at sender end it receives data in sender
format and convert it to common format & at receiver end it takes data
change it from common format to receiver understandable format
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 Example : Sender:- sender format data->common format

Receiver:- common format->receiver format data
 It works in encryption and decryption of messages.In encryption ,message is
transferred to other form and in decryption message is transferred to its
original format
 Compression:- In helps in data compression, in this we convert data into bits.
It is mostly used for audio/ video data compression.
7.Application Layer
 It is the top most layer of OSI Model. Manipulation of data(information) in
various ways is done in this layer which enables user or software to get access
to the network.
 Some services provided by this layer includes: E-Mail, transferring files,
distributing the results to user, directory services, network resources, etc.
 Mail Services: This layer provides the basis for E-mail forwarding and storage.
 Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host. The
application creates software emulation of a terminal at the remote host.
User's computer talks to the software terminal which in turn talks to the host
and vice versa. Then the remote host believes it is communicating with one of
its own terminals and allows user to log on.
 Directory Services: This layer provides access for global information about
various services.
 File Transfer, Access and Management (FTAM): It is a standard mechanism to
access files and manages it. Users can access files in a remote computer and
manage it. They can also retrieve files from a remote computer.
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TCP/IP Model
 TCP/IP, or the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, is a suite of
communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet.
 It is a collection of protocols. IT is a hierarchical model, I e. There are multiple
layers and higher layer protocols are supported by lower layer protocols.
 It existed even before the OSI model was developed.
 TCP/IP Originally had four layers (bottom to top):
 Host to Network Layer
 Internet Layer
 Transport Layer
 Application Layer
 The figure for TCP/IP model is as follows:
 The structure TCP/IP model is very similar to the structure of the OSI
reference model. The OSI model has seven layers where the TCP/IP model
has four layers.
 The Application layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Application Layer
of Session, Presentation & Application Layer of OSI model.
 The Transport layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Transport Layer of
OSI model
 The Network layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Network Layer of OSI
model
 The Host to network layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Physical and
Datalink Layer of OSI model.
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Functions of the Layers of TCP/IP model:

A. Host to Network Layer
 This layer is a combination of protocols at the physical and data link layers.
 It supports all standard protocols used at these layers.
 This layer sends TCP/IP packets on the network medium and receives TCP/IP
packets off the network medium.
 TCP/IP was designed to be independent of the network access method,
frame format, and medium.
B. Internet layer or IP
 Also called as the Internetwork Layer (IP). It holds the IP protocol which is a
network layer protocol and is responsible for source to destination
transmission of data.
 The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is a connection-less&unreliable protocol.
 The Internet layer responsibilities include addressing, packaging, and routing
functions. The Internet layer is analogous to the Network layer of the OSI
model.
 IP is a combination of four protocols:
1) ARP 2) RARP 3) ICMP 4) IGMP
1) ARP – Address Resolution Protocol

o It is used to resolve the physical address of a device on a network, where
its logical address is known.
o Physical address is the 48 bit address that is imprinted on the NIC or LAN
card, Logical address is the Internet Address or commonly known as IP
address that is used to uniquely & universally identify a device
2) RARP– Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

o It is used by a device on the network to find its Internet address when it
knows its physical address.
3) ICMP- Internet Control Message Protocol

o It is a signaling mechanism used to inform the sender about datagram
problems that occur during transit.
o It is used by intermediate devices.
o In case any intermediate device encounters any problem, it may use ICMP
to send a message to the sender of the datagram.
4) IGMP- Internet Group Message Protocol

o It is a mechanism that allows sending the same message to a group of
recipients.
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C. Transport Layer
 The Transport layer (also known as the Host-to-Host Transport layer)
provides the Application layer with session and datagram communication
services.
 The Transport layer encompasses the responsibilities of the OSI Transport
layer.
 TCP establishes connections, sequences and acknowledges packets sent, and
recovers packets lost during transmission.
 The transport layer contains three protocols:
1) TCP 2)UDP 3)SCTP
1. TCP – Transmission Control Protocol

o TCP is a reliable connection-oriented, reliable protocol. i.e. a
connection is established between the sender and receiver before the
data can be transmitted.
o It divides the data it receives from the upper layer into segments and
tags a sequence number to each segment which is used at the
receiving end for reordering of data.
2. UDP – User Datagram Protocol

o UDP is a simple protocol used for process to process transmission.
o It is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do not
require flow control or error control.
o It simply adds port address, checksum and length information to the
data it receives from the upper layer.
3. SCTP – Stream Control Transmission Protocol
o SCTP is a relatively new protocol added to the transport layer of TCP/IP
protocol suite.
o It combines the features of TCP and UDP.
o It is used in applications like voice over Internet and has a much
broader range of applications
D. Application Layer
 The Application layer allows applications to access the services of the other
layers, and it defines the protocols that applications use to exchange data.
 The Application layer contains many protocols, and more are always being
developed.
Addressing in TCP/IP
The TCP/IP protocol suited involves 4 different types of addressing:
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1. Physical Address
2. Logical Address
3. Port Address
4. Specific Address
Physical Addresses
 The physical address, also known as the link address, is the address of a node
as defined by its LAN or WAN.
 The size and format of these addresses vary depending on the network. For
example, Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit) physical address.
 Physical addresses can be either unicast (one single recipient), multicast (a
group of recipients), or broadcast (to be received by all systems in the
network.
Logical Addresses
 Logical addresses are used by networking software to allow packets to be
independent of the physical connection of the network, that is, to work with
different network topologies and types of media.
 A logical address in the Internet is currently a 32-bit address that can
uniquely define a host connected to the Internet. An internet address in IPv4
in decimal numbers 132.24.75.9
 The physical addresses will change from hop to hop, but the logical addresses
remain the same.
Port Addresses
 There are many applications running on the computer. Each application run
with a port no.(logically) on the computer.
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 A port number is part of the addressing information used to identify the

senders and receivers of messages.
 Port numbers are most commonly used with TCP/IP connections.
 These port numbers allow different applications on the same computer to
share network resources simultaneously.
 The physical addresses change from hop to hop, but the logical and port
addresses usually remain the same.
 Example: a port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal
number 753
Application-Specific Addresses
 Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that
specific application.
 Examples include the e-mail address (for example,
computernetworks@cntu.edu) and the Universal Resource Locator (URL) (for
example, www.mhhe.com). The first defines the recipient of an e-mail; the
second is used to find a document on the World Wide Web.
Encapsulation and Decapsulation

One of the important concepts in protocol layering in the Internet is encapsulation/
decapsulation. Figure 2.8 shows this concept for the small internet in Figure 2.5.
In Figure 2.8, we show the encapsulation in the source host, decapsulation in the
destination host, and encapsulation and decapsulation in the router.
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Encapsulation at the Source Host:-

At the source, we have only encapsulation.
1. At the application layer, the data to be exchanged is referred to as a message. A
message normally does not contain any header or trailer, but if it does, we refer to
the whole as the message. The message is passed to the transport layer.
2. The transport layer takes the message as the payload, the load that the transport
layer should take care of. It adds the transport layer header to the payload, which
contains the identifiers of the source and destination application programs that
want to communicate plus some more information that is needed for the end-to-
end delivery of the message, such as information needed for flow, error control, or
congestion control. The result is the transport-layer packet, which is called the
segment (in TCP) and the user datagram (in UDP). The transport layer then passes
the packet to the network layer.
3. The network layer takes the transport-layer packet as data or payload and adds its
own header to the payload. The header contains the addresses of the source and
destination hosts and some more information used for error checking of the header,
fragmentation information, and so on. The result is the network-layer packet,
called a datagram. The network layer then passes the packet to the data-link layer.
4. The data-link layer takes the network-layer packet as data or payload and adds its
own header, which contains the link-layer addresses of the host or the next hop (the
router). The result is the link-layer packet, which is called a frame. The frame is
passed to the physical layer for transmission.
Decapsulation and Encapsulation at the Router
At the router, we have both decapsulation and encapsulation because the router is
connected to two or more links.
1. After the set of bits are delivered to the data-link layer, this layer decapsulates the
datagram from the frame and passes it to the network layer.
2. The network layer only inspects the source and destination addresses in the
datagram header and consults its forwarding table to find the next hop to which the
datagram is to be delivered. The contents of the datagram should not be changed by
the network layer in the router unless there is a need to fragment the datagram if it is
too big to be passed through the next link. The datagram is then passed to the data-
link layer of the next link.
3. The data-link layer of the next link encapsulates the datagram in a frame and
passes it to the physical layer for transmission.
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Decapsulation at the Destination Host

At the destination host, each layer only decapsulates the packet received, removes
the payload, and delivers the payload to the next-higher layer protocol until the
message reaches the application layer. It is necessary to say that decapsulation in the
host involves error checking.
Addressing
It is worth mentioning another concept related to protocol layering in the Internet,

addressing. As we discussed before, we have logical communication between pairs
of layers in this model. Any communication that involves two parties needs two
addresses:
 source address and
 destination address.
Figure 2.9 shows the addressing at each layer.
address, such as someorg.com, or the e-mail somebody@coldmail.com.

At the transport layer, addresses are called port numbers, and these define
the application-layer programs at the source and destination. Port numbers are local
addresses that distinguish between several programs running at the same time.
At the network-layer, the addresses are global, usually called IP addresses.

Which are used as unique address globally. A network-layer address uniquely
defines the connection of a device to the Internet.
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The link-layer addresses, sometimes called MAC addresses, are locally

defined addresses, each of which defines a specific host or router in a network (LAN
or WAN).
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
Since the TCP/IP protocol suite uses several protocols at some layers, we can say
that we have multiplexing at the source and demultiplexing at the destination.
Multiplexing in this case means that a protocol at a layer can encapsulate a packet
from several next-higher layer protocols (one at a time);
Demultiplexing means that a protocol can decapsulate and deliver a packet to several
next-higher layer protocols (one at a time). Figure 2.10 shows the concept of
multiplexing and demultiplexing at the three upper layers.
To be able to multiplex and demultiplex, a protocol needs to have a field in its

header to identify to which protocol the encapsulated packets belong. At the
transport layer, either UDP or TCP can accept a message from several application-
layer protocols. At the network layer, IP can accept a segment from TCP or a user
datagram from UDP. IP can also accept a packet from other protocols such as ICMP,
IGMP, and so on. At the data-link layer, a frame may carry the payload coming from
IP or other protocols such as ARP.
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1.1 Difference between OSI and TCP/IP

Reference Model
Following are some major differences between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP
Reference Model, with diagrammatic comparison below.
OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet

Protocol)
1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols around
standard, acting as a communication which the Internet has developed. It is a communication
gateway between the network and end user. protocol, which allows connection of hosts over a
network.
2. In OSI model the transport layer 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
guarantees the delivery of packets. guarantees delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP model
is more reliable.
3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.
4. OSI model has a separate Presentation 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation layer
layer and Session layer. or Session layer.
5. Transport Layer is Connection Oriented. 5. Transport Layer is both Connection Oriented and
Connection less.
6. Network Layer is both Connection 6. Network Layer is Connection less.

Oriented and Connection less.
7. OSI is a reference model around which 7. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the OSI
the networks are built. Generally it is used as model.
a guidance tool.
8. Network layer of OSI model provides both 8. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
connection oriented and connectionless connectionless service.
service.
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9. OSI model has a problem of fitting the 9. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols into the model.
10. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and 10. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
are easily replaced as the technology
changes.
11. OSI model defines services, interfaces 11. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are not
and protocols very clearly and makes clear clearly separated. It is also protocol dependent.
distinction between them. It is protocol
independent.
12. It has 7 layers 12. It has 4 layers
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1.1.1 Diagrammatic Comparison between OSI

Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model
Review Questions:
1. Explain the concept of layered task.
2. What is the OSI model? List its layers and explain their responsibility in exactly
one line.
3. Explain how the communication takes place between layers of OSI model.
4. Write a short note on encapsulation of data in OSI model.
5. Differentiate between the working of Data link layer, Network layer and
Transport layer.
6. Explain the structure of TCP/IP protocol.
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7. Explain in short the functions of every layer of TCP/IP.

8. Differentiate between OSI model and TCP/IP model.
9. Explain the function of every protocol of the IP layer.
11.Explain the concept of IP addresses in detail

12. Explain the process of Encapsulation and decapsulation in networking.
13.What is protocol layering ? Explain the first scenario layering.
15.What is protocol layering ? Explain the second scenario of layering.
16 What is Protocol layering? Explain the principles involved in protocol layering.
17. Explain Peer-to-Peer process communication networking.
18.Explain the functions of each and every layer of OSI and TCP/IP model.
19. With a neat diagram explain OSI model.(Note: all layers in short imp points you
have to explain)
20 With a neat diagram explain TCP/IP model. (Note: all layers in short imp points
you have to explain)
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL LAYER
Unit Structure
3.1Introduction
3.2 Data & Signals
3.2.1 Data –types
3.2.2 Signal – types
3.2.3 Periodic & Non Periodic Signals
3.3 Analog Signal
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3.3.1 Characteristics of Analog Signal

3.3.1.1 Peak Amplitude
3.3.1.2 Frequency
3.3.1.3 Phase
3.3.2 Relation between Frequency & Period
3.3.3 Wavelength
3.3.4 Time & Frequency Domain Representation of a signal
3.3.5 Composite Signal
3.4 Digital Signal
3.4.1 Definition
3.4.2 Level
3.4.3 Bit length or Bit Interval
3.4.4 Bit Rate
3.4.5 Baud Rate
3.5Types of Channel
3.5.1 Low pass Channel
3.5.2 Band pass Channel
3.6Transmission of Digital signal
3.6.1Baseband Transmission
3.6.2 Broadband Transmission
3.7 Transmission Impairments
3.7.1 Attenuation
3.7.2 Distortion
3.7.3 Noise
3.8 Data Rate Limits
3.9 Performance
INTRODUCTION
Computer networks are designed to transfer data from one point to another.
During transit data is in the form of electromagnetic signals. Hence it is important
to study data and signals before we move to further concepts in data
communication.
DATA & SIGNALS

 Data can be Analog or Digital.
 When we transmit data from source to destination, the transmission media
actually carries data in the form of signals. So we need to convert our data in the
form of signals.
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1. Analog data refers to information that is continuous; ex. sounds made by a

human voice
2. Digital data refers to information that has discrete states. Digital data take on
discrete values. For example, data are stored in computer memory in the form of
Os and 1s
 Signals can be of two types:

1. Analog Signal: They have infinite values in a range.
2. Digital Signal: They have limited number of defined values.
 Periodic and Non periodic signals

Signals which repeat itself after a fixed time period are called Periodic Signals.
The
 completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.
Signals which do not repeat itself after a fixed time period are called Non-Periodic
Signals.

In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and non-
periodic digital signals.
Periodic ANALOG SIGNAL :-

 Periodic analog signals can be classified as Simple or Composite
 A Simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into
simpler signals.
 A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves.
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A sine wave can be represented by three

parameters:
1. Peak Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase
Peak Amplitude
The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity,
proportional to the energy it carries.
For electric signals, peak amplitude is normally measured in volts. Figure 3.4 shows
two signals and their peak amplitudes.
Period and Frequency

Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete 1 cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of periods in 1 s. Note that period and frequency are
just one characteristic defined in two ways. Period is the inverse of frequency, and
frequency is the inverse of period, as the following formulas show.
F = 1/T and T=1/f
Figure 3.5 shows two signals and their frequencies. Period is formally expressed in
seconds. Frequency is formally expressed in Hertz (Hz), which is cycle per second.
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Frequency is nothing but number of cycles per second.
Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time. Change in a

short span of time means high frequency. Change over a long span of
time means low frequency.
Phase
The term phase, or phase shift, describes the position of the waveform relative to
time 0. If we think of the wave as something that can be shifted backward or forward
along the time axis, phase describes the amount of that shift. It indicates the status of
the first cycle. Phase is measured in degrees or radians
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Wavelength
Definition: Wavelength can be defined as the distance between two
successive crests or troughs of a wave. It is measured in the direction of the
wave.
Description: Wavelength is the distance from one crest to another, or from

one trough to another, of a wave (which may be an electromagnetic wave, a
sound wave, or any other wave). Crest is the highest point of the wave
whereas the trough is the lowest. Since wavelength is distance/length, it is
measured in units of lengths such as metres, centimetres, milimetres,
nanometres, etc.
Crest
Trough
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Time and frequency domains
We know that time and frequency are inverse to each other.
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Since period and frequency are inverses of each other, time domain analysis
and frequency domain analysis are, in a way, inversely related as well..
The time domain refers to a description of the signal with respect to time.
The basic tool for analyzing signals in the time domain is called an
oscilloscope.
While the basic use of a scope is to determine the magnitude of the signal as
time is changing, it can also be used to indirectly measure the frequency of a
signal if that signal is periodic. To do this, simply configure the scope to show
at least one period of the signal, then measure the time of that period. The
frequency of the signal is then .
1.2 Frequency Domain
When you do a measurement of the signal’s frequency, then you are said to be analyzing
the signal in the frequency domain. While some oscilloscopes can be used for analyzing a
(periodic) signal in the frequency domain (they need special functionality), a better tool for
doing this is called a spectrum analyzer. A spectrum analyzer displays a two dimensional
graph of a signal’s power in the y-axis, and the signal’s frequency in the x-axis. Such a
graph is called the frequency spectrum of a signal because it shows how strong a signal
is at all frequencies.
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The simplest example of a signal in the frequency domain, is the perfectly periodic signal
the sine wave. The frequency spectrum of a 100 Hz sine wave consists of only one
frequency (100 Hz), and so the frequency spectrum will look like this:
Composite Signals
 A composite signal is a combination of to or more simple sine waves with
different frequency, phase and amplitude.
 When we change one or more characteristics of a single--frequency signal, it
becomes a composite signal made of many frequencies.
 A composite signal can be periodic or non-periodic.

 A periodic composite signal can be decomposed into a series of simple sine
waves with discrete frequencies, frequencies that have integer values (1, 2,
3, and so on).
 A non-periodic composite signal can be decomposed into a combination of
an infinite number of simple sine waves with continuous frequencies,
frequencies that have real values.
Bandwidth
The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its bandwidth.
The bandwidth is normally a difference between two numbers. For example, if a
composite signal
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contains frequencies between 1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000 1000, or
4000.
DIGITAL SIGNAL

 Information can also be explained in the form of a digital signal.

 A digital is a signal that has discrete values.
 The signal will have value that is not continuous.
Level:-
 Information in a digital signal can be represented in the form of voltage
levels.
 Ex. In the signal shown below, a ‗1‘is represented by a positive voltage and
a ‗0‘ is represented by a Zero voltage.
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A digital signal with level 4
In general, if a signal has L levels then, each level need Log2L bits
Example: Consider a digital Signal with four levels, how many bits are required per
level?
Answer: Number of bits per level = Log2L= Log24=2
Hence, 2 bits are required per level for a signal with four levels.
BIT LENGTH or Bit Interval (Tb)

 It is the time required to send one bit. It is measured in seconds
Bit rate
 It is the number of bits transmitted in one second.
 It is expressed as bits per second (bps).
 Relation between bit rate and bit interval can be as follows
 Bit rate = 1 / Bit interval
Baud Rate
It is the rate of Signal Speed, i.e the rate at which the signal changes.
A digital signal with two levels ‗0‘& ‗1‘will have the same baud rate and bit rate
& bit rate.
The diagram below shows three signal of period (T) 1 second
a) Signal with a bit rate of 8 bits/ sec and baud rate of 8 baud/sec
b) Signal with a bit rate of 16 bits/ sec and baud rate of 8 baud/sec
c) Signal with a bit rate of 16 bits/ sec and baud rate of 4 baud/sec
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TYPES OF CHANNELS:
Each composite signal has a lowest possible (minimum) frequency and a
highest possible (maximum) frequency.
From the point of view of transmission, there are two types of channels:
 Low pass Channel

This channel has the lowest frequency as ‗0‘and highest frequency as some non-
zero frequency ‗f1‘.
This channel can pass all the frequencies in the range 0 to f1.
 Band pass channel
This channel has the lowest frequency as some non-zero frequency ‗f1‘and highest
frequency as some non-zero frequency ‗f2‘.
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This channel can pass all the frequencies in the range f1 to f2.
TRANSMISSION OF DIGITAL SIGNAL

Signal: A signal is the variation of an electrical current or another physical
magnitude that is used to transmit information.
There are two different approaches for the transmission of digital signals: baseband
transmission and broadband transmission.
There are two different approaches for the transmission of digital signals:
baseband transmission and broadband transmission.
1. Baseband transmission
Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a channel without
changing the digital signal to an analog signal.
Baseband transmission requires low pass
channel for transmission. A low pass
channel is a channel whose bandwidth
starts from zero.
2. Broadband Transmission
Broadband transmission means sending a digital signal over a channel after
changing the digital signal to analog signal i.e. it requires modulation.
Broadband transmission can use band pass channel. A band pass channel is a
channel whose bandwidth does not start from zero. A band pass channel is more
available than a low pass channel.
If the available channel is band
pass, we cannot send the digital
signal directly to the channel, it
must be converted to an analog
form before transmission
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS
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In any communication system, the received signal is never is identical to

the transmitted one due to some transmission impairments. The quality of analog
signals will deteriorate due to transmission impairments as given above.
Attenuation:
 The strength of a signal decrease with the increase in distance travelled over
a medium.
 Attenuation means loss of energy. Attenuation decides the signal to noise
ratio hence the quality of received signal. Attenuation is given in decibels as:
 Attenuation (dB) = 10log10 (Pout/Pin)
 Where, Pin= Power at the sending end
Pout= Power at the receiving end
Distortion (Harmonic):
 Another meaning of distortion is change in shape of the signal. This type of
distortion is observed for the composite signals made by different
frequencies.
 If the medium is not perfect, then all the frequency components present at
the input will not only be equally attenuated and will not be proportionally
delayed.
Noise:
 When the data travels over a transmission medium, noise gets added to it.
 Noise is a major limiting factor in communication system performance. Noise
can be categorized into four types as follows:
(i) Thermal noise
(ii) Intermodulation noise
(iii) Crosstalk
(iv) Impulse noise
DATA RATE LIMITS

A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send
data, in bits per second, over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
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Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist
for a noiseless channel, another by Shannon for a noisy channel.
1. Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

 For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical
maximum bit rate
BitRate = 2 * bandwidth 3 log2L
 In the above equation bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the
number of signal levels used to represent data, and BitRate is the bit rate in
bits per second.
2. Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

 We cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy. Shannon
capacity is used, to determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy
channel:
Capacity = bandwidth * log2(1 + SNR)
 In the above equation bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, SNR is the
signal-to-noise ratio, and capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per
second.
PERFORMANCE
Network performance refers to measures of service quality of a network.
There are many different ways to measure the performance of a network, as each
network is different in nature and design.
The following measures are often considered important:
 Bandwidth commonly measured in bits/second is the maximum rate that
information can be transferred
 Throughput is the actual rate that information is transferred
 Latency the delay between the sender and the receiver decoding it, this is
mainly a function of the signals travel time, and processing time at any nodes
the information traverses
 Jitter variation in packet delay at the receiver of the information
 Error rate the number of corrupted bits expressed as a percentage or
fraction of the total sent
1. Bandwidth
The available channel bandwidth and achievable signal-to-noise ratio
determine the maximum possible throughput. It is not generally possible to send
more data than dictated by the Shannon-Hartley Theorem.
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Shannon-Hartley Theorem
The Shannon–Hartley theorem states the channel capacity C, meaning the
theoretical tightest upper bound on the information rate of data that can be
communicated at an arbitrarily low error rate using an average received signal
power S through an analog communication channel subject to additive white
Gaussian noise of power N:
 C is the channel capacity in bits per second, a theoretical upper bound
on the net bit rate(information rate, sometimes denoted I) excluding
error-correction codes;
 B is the bandwidth of the channel in hertz (passband bandwidth in
case of a bandpass signal);
 S is the average received signal power over the bandwidth (in case of a
carrier-modulated passband transmission, often denoted C), measured
in watts (or volts squared);
 N is the average power of the noise and interference over the
bandwidth, measured in watts (or volts squared); and
 S/N is the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) or the carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR)
of the communication signal to the noise and interference at the
receiver (expressed as a linear power ratio, not as
logarithmic decibels).
2. Throughput
 Throughput is the number of messages successfully delivered per unit time.
 Throughput is controlled by available bandwidth, as well as the available
signal-to-noise ratio and hardware limitations.
 The Time Window is the period over which the throughput is measured.
3. Latency
 The speed of light imposes a minimum propagation time on all
electromagnetic signals.
 It is not possible to reduce the latency below where s is the distance and
cm is the speed of light in the medium. This approximately means 1 extra
millisecond RTT for 100 km/62miles of distance between hosts.
4. Jitter
 Jitter is the undesired deviation from true periodicity of an assumed
periodic signal in electronics and telecommunications, often in relation to a
reference clock source.
 Jitter may be observed in characteristics such as the frequency of successive
pulses, the signal amplitude, or phase of periodic signals.
IT/CS Dept. Page 53
 Jitter is a significant, and usually undesired, factor in the design of almost all
communications links. In clock recovery applications it is called timing jitter.
5. Error rate
 In digital transmission, the number of bit errors is the number of
received bits of a data stream over a communication channel that have been
altered due to noise, interference, distortion or bit synchronization errors.
 The bit error rate or bit error ratio (BER) is the number of bit errors divided
by the total number of transferred bits during a studied time interval. BER is
a unitless performance measure, often expressed as a percentage.
 The bit error probability pe is the expectation value of the BER. The BER can
be considered as an approximate estimate of the bit error probability. This
estimate is accurate for a long time interval and a high number of bit errors.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define analog and digital signals.
2. Explain Composite analog signals.
3. Explain Time and Frequency Domain Representation of signals
4. Explain the characteristics of an Analog signal
5. Explain the characteristics of an Digital signal
6. Explain transmission of digital signals.
7. Explain the difference between
a) Lowpass and Bandpass channel
b) Narrowband and wideband channel
8. Explain why a digital signal requires to undergo a change before transmitting it
through a band pass channel
8. Write short note on maximum data rate of a channel.
9. Explain different types of Transmission impairments.
10. Explain Network performance.
11.Explain time and frequency domains.
13.Explain different forms of sine waves.
14.Explain the terms peak amplitude,frequency and phase.
IT/CS Dept. Page 54

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Unit 1 : Computer Networks

DATA & INFORMATION

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 This process involves a communication system which is made up of hardware

CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

Components of Data Communication

Fig. Components of a Data Communication System

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There are two possible types of connections:

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TOPOLOGIES (NETWORK TOPOLOGIES)

Types of network topologies:

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Advantages of bus topology

Disadvantages of bus topology

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Advantages of Ring Topology

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

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Advantages of Star topology

Disadvantages of Star topology

2. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the

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Advantages of Mesh topology

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

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A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology. For example a

Advantages of Hybrid topology

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

A. Local Area Networks (LAN)

B. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

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C. Wide Area Network (WAN)

The Internet :- It is defined as Network of Network (I.e interconnection of many

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Standard Organizations in field of Networking

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 Both the parties should follow simple set of rules.

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Let us assume that Maria sends the first letter to Ann.

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Principles of Protocol Layering:-

Let us discuss two principles of protocol layering.

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2. Harder to maintain: Without clear separation, combining different layers’

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Communication & Interfaces in the OSI model

LAYERS OF OSI MODEL

a) Mechanical specification of electrical connectors and cables, for example

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2. Data Link Layer

 Physical Addressing (inside / outside senders network)

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 The network layer is responsible for source to destination of delivery of data.

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 Example : Sender:- sender format data->common format

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Functions of the Layers of TCP/IP model: