UNIT I

INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION

Data communications refers to the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the communicating
devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical
equipment) and software (programs). The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on
four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by
the intended device or user and only by that device or user.

2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.

3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless.
In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in
the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is
called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent
every 30ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30ms delay and others with 40ms delay, an
uneven quality in the video is the result.

NETWORK
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node
can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.

DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING

Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple computers. Instead
of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a process, separate computer (usually a
personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.
COMPONENTS OF A DATA COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
A data communications system has five components:
Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.

Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fibre-optic cable, and radio waves.

Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an

agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a
person who speaks only Japanese.

TRANSMISSION MODES:
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
Simplex
 In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the
two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
  Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only
introduce input; the monitor can only accept output.
 The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

Half-Duplex

 In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
 The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. When
cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait.
 In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of
the two devices is transmitting at the time.

Full Duplex

 In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

 The full-duplex mode is like a two way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the
same time.
 One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two
people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
NETWORK CRITERIA
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transmit time and response time.
Transmit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a
network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission
medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often need
more throughputs and less delay.
Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of
failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure.
 Security

Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery
from breaches and data losses.

TYPE OF CONNECTION
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway
that transfers data from one device to another. For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any
link as a line drawn between two points.
Point-to-Point:
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the
link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Multipoint:

A multipoint (also called multi drop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices share
a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or
temporally.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically: I/O or
more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. There are four basic topologies
possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.
1. Mesh Topology
Mesh In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it
connects. Node 1 must be connected to n - 1nodes, node 2 must be connected to n – 1 nodes, and
finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n (n - 1) physical links.

Advantages
The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire
system. There is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a
dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Point-to-point links make fault identification
and fault isolation easy.
Disadvantages
 Amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required.
 The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls, ceilings,
or floors) can accommodate.
 The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive.
2. Star Topology
 In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub.
 The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology
does not allow direct traffic between devices.
 The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the
data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device.
 Advantages
 A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology.
 In a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of
others. This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure.
 Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only
one connection: between that device and the hub.
 Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other
links remain active.
Disadvantages
 The dependency of the whole topology bon one single point, the hub. If the hub goes
down, the whole system is dead.
 Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a
central hub.
3. Bus Topology
The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus topology, on
the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a
network.
 Advantages
 Bus topology includes ease of installation.
 A bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.
Disadvantages
 Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
 A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices on the
same side of the problem.
4. Ring topology
Ring Topology In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection
with only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction,
from device to device, until it reaches its destination.

Advantages
 A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Fault isolation is simplified.
Disadvantages
 Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.
 In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire
network.
5. Hybrid Topology
A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch
connecting several stations in a bus topology.
CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS
Generally, networks are distinguished based on their geographical span. A network can be as small
as distance between your mobile phone and its Bluetooth headphone and as large as the internet itself,
covering the whole geographical world.
Networks can be of following types:
1. Personal Area Network (LAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
4. Wide Area Network (WAN)
5. Wireless
6. Inter Network (Internet)

1. Personal Area Network

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a user. This
may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has connectivity range
up to 10 meters. PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled
headphones, wireless printers and TV remotes.

For example, Piconet is Bluetooth-enabled Personal Area Network which may contain up to 8
devices connected together in a master-slave fashion.
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of
buildings or a factory. LANs are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot. Personal
computers and workstations are connected to each other through LANs. We can use different
types of topologies through LAN, these are Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc. LAN can be a simple
network like connecting two computers, to share files and network among each other while it
can also be as complex as interconnecting an entire building. LAN networks are also widely used
to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive etc.

Characteristics of LAN
 LAN's are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other regulatory controls.
 LAN's operate at relatively high speed when compared to the typical WAN.
 There are different types of Media Access Control methods in a LAN, the prominent ones
are Ethernet, Token ring.
 It connects computers in a single building, block or campus, i.e. they work in a restricted
geographical area.
Applications of LAN
 One of the computer in a network can become a server serving all the remaining
computers called clients. Software can be stored on the server and it can be used by the
remaining clients.
 Connecting. Locally all the workstations in a building to let them communicate with each
other locally without any internet access.
 Sharing common resources like printers etc are some common applications of LAN.
Advantages of LAN
 Resource Sharing: Computer resources like printers, modems, DVD-ROM drives and
hard disks can be shared with the help of local area networks. This reduces cost and
hardware purchases.
 Software Applications Sharing: It is cheaper to use same software over network instead
of purchasing separate licensed software for each client a network.
 Easy and Cheap Communication: Data and messages can easily be transferred over
networked computers.
  Centralized Data: The data of all network users can be saved on hard disk of the server
computer. This will help users to use any workstation in a network to access their data.
Because data is not stored on workstations locally.
 Data Security: Since, data is stored on server computer centrally, it will be easy to manage
data at only one place and the data will be more secure too.
 Internet Sharing: Local Area Network provides the facility to share a single internet
connection among all the LAN users. In Net Cafes, single internet connection sharing
system keeps the internet expenses cheaper.
Disadvantages of LAN
 High Setup Cost: Although the LAN will save cost over time due to shared computer
resources, but the initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high.
 Privacy Violations: The LAN administrator has the rights to check personal data files of
each and every LAN user. Moreover he can check the internet history and computer use
history of the LAN user.
 Data Security Threat: Unauthorised users can access important data of an organization if
centralized data repository is not secured properly by the LAN administrator.
 LAN Maintenance Job: Local Area Network requires a LAN Administrator because,
there are problems of software installations or hardware failures or cable disturbances in
Local Area Network. A LAN Administrator is needed at this full time job.
 Covers Limited Area: Local Area Network covers a small area like one office, one
building or a group of nearby buildings.

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

It was developed in 1980s.It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN and
uses the similar technology as LAN. It is designed to extend over the entire city. It can be means
to connecting a number of LANs into a larger network or it can be a single cable. It is mainly
hold and operated by single private company or a public company.

Characteristics of MAN
 It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)
 Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibres, cables etc.
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
 Advantages of MAN
 Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as
fibre optic cables.
 It provides a good back bone for large network and provides greater access to WANs.
 The dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission of data in both directions
simultaneously.
 A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a city or an entire city.
Disadvantages of MAN
 More cable required for a MAN connection from one place to another.
 It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers and industrial espionage (spying)
graphical regions.

4. Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased network. It is used
for the network that covers large distance such as cover states of a country. It is not easy to design
and maintain. Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN or Satellite links. WAN
operates on low data rates.

Characteristics of WAN
 It generally covers large distances (states, countries, continents).
 Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are
connected by routers.
Advantages of WAN
 Covers a large geographical area so long distance business can connect on the one
network.
 Shares software and resources with connecting workstations.
 Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network. These messages can
have picture, sounds or data included with them (called attachments).
 Expensive things (such as printers or phone lines to the internet) can be shared by all
the computers on the network without having to buy a different peripheral for each
computer.
  Everyone on the network can use the same data. This avoids problems where some
users may have older information than others.
Disadvantages of WAN
 Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the network.
 Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated. The bigger the
network the more expensive it is.
 Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job which requires network
supervisors and technicians to be employed.
 Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability to use information
from other computers. Protection against hackers and viruses adds more complexity
and expense.

5. Wireless Network
Digital wireless communication is not a new idea. Earlier, Morse code was used to implement
wireless networks. Modern digital wireless systems have better performance, but the basic idea
is the same. Wireless Networks can be divided into three main categories:
 System interconnection
 Wireless LANs
 Wireless WANs
System Interconnection
System interconnection is all about interconnecting the components of a
computer using short-range radio. Some companies got together to design a short-range wireless
network called Bluetooth to connect various components such as monitor, keyboard, mouse and
printer, to the main unit, without wires. Bluetooth also allows digital cameras, headsets, scanners
and other devices to connect to a computer by merely being brought within range. In simplest
form, system interconnection networks use the master-slave concept. The system unit is normally
the master, talking to the mouse, keyboard, etc. as slaves.
Wireless LANs
These are the systems in which every computer has a radio modem and
antenna with which it can communicate with other systems. Wireless LANs are becoming
increasingly common in small offices and homes, where installing Ethernet is considered too
much trouble. There is a standard for wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11, which most systems
implement and which is becoming very widespread.
Wireless WANs
The radio network used for cellular telephones is an example of a low-
bandwidth wireless WAN. This system has already gone through three generations. The first
generation was analog and for voice only. The second generation was digital and for voice only.
The third generation is digital and is for both voice and data.
 6. Inter Network
Inter Network or Internet is a combination of two or more networks. Inter
network can be formed by joining two or more individual networks by means of various
devices such as routers, gateways and bridges.

THE OSI MODEL

 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to
the software application in another computer.
 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
 OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984,
and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
 OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model:

 The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
 The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are
implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end
user and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to
the layer just above another layer.
 The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and
the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest
layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly
responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.

1. PHYSICAL LAYER

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to
another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:
o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or
full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.

2. DATA-LINK LAYER

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local
network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver
that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
 o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer
and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
Functions of the Data-link layer
o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as
Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is
added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.

o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the
header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique
through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get
corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing speed
does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the message
frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then the receiver
sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control over
the link at a given time.

3. NETWORK LAYER

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
 o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network
conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing
services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
Functions of Network Layer:
o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It
provides a logical connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the
frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best
optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts them
into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).

4. TRANSPORT LAYER
 o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which
they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection
between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:
o Transmission Control Protocol
o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data into
smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using multiple
routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The transmission control
protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
Functions of Transport Layer:
o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason,
the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer to another
computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header that
contains the address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the
network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the
responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper
layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a
sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the
destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet,
and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service
makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the
packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-
end rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that
message reach at the destination without any error.

5. SESSION LAYER
o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between
two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes
which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.

o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission
will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and
recovery.

6. SESSION LAYER
 o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation format
to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character
strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods, the presentation
layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the data
from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the common format into
receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting
the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message over the
network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the number
of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio,
video.

7. APPLICATION LAYER
 o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network
service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access
the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a
remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to
provide that global information about various objects.

PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

Protocol:
In Order to make communication successful between devices, some rules and procedures should
be agreed upon at the sending and receiving ends of the system. Such rules and procedures are called as
Protocols. Different types of protocols are used for different types of communication.
In above diagrams Protocols are shown as set of rules. Such that Communication between Sender and
Receiver is not possible without Protocol.

Standards:
Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are needed for exchange of information
among devices. It is important to follow Standards which are created by various Standard Organization
like IEEE, ISO, and ANSI etc.
Types of Standards:
Standards are of two types:
1. De Facto Standard.
2. De Jure Standard.
De Facto Standard:
The meaning of the work” De Facto” is” By Fact” or “By Convention”. These are the standard
s that have not been approved by any Organization, but have been adopted as Standards because of its
widespread use. Also, sometimes these standards are often established by Manufacturers. For example:
Apple and Google are two companies which established their own rules on their products which are
different. Also they use some same standard rules for manufacturing for their products.
De Jure Standard:
The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By Law” or “By Regulations”. Thus, these are the
standards that have been approved by officially recognized body like ANSI, ISO, and IEEE etc. These
are the standard which are important to follow if it is required or needed. For example : All the data
communication standard protocols like SMTP , TCP , IP , UDP etc. are important to follow the same
when we needed them.

STANDARD ORGANIZATION:
Data Communication is a phase of swapping data or information. This process contains a
communication system that is created from hardware and software. The hardware part contains the
sender and receiver devices and the intermediate devices through which the data moves. The software
element includes specific rules which determine what is to be connected, how it is to be connected, and
when. It is also referred to as a Protocol. The primary standards organizations for data communication
are as follows −
International Standard Organization (ISO)
ISO is the international organization for standardization on a broad range of subjects. It includes
mainly members from the standards committee of several administrations throughout the world. It is
important for developing models which support a high level of system compatibility, quality
development, improved productivity, and decreased costs. The ISO is also responsible for supporting
and integrating the work of the different standards organizations.
International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Sector (ITU-T)
ITU-T is one of the four permanent parts of the International Telecommunications Union located
in Geneva, Switzerland. It has created three sets of descriptions: the V series for modem integrating and
data transmission over telephone lines, the X series for data transmission over public digital networks,
email, and directory services. The I and Q series for Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and its
continuation Broadband ISDN. ITU-T membership includes government authorities and representatives
from several countries and it is the present standards organization for the United Nations.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
IEEE is an international professional organization established in the United States and is
composed of electronics, computer, and communications engineers. It is presently the world’s largest
professional society with over 200,000 members. It creates communication and data processing
standards with the basic goal of advancing theory, creativity, and product quality in any area associated
with electrical engineering.
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
ANSI is the authorized standards agency for the United States and is the U.S voting
characteristics for the ISO. ANSI is a private, non-profit organization of supplied manufacturers and
users of data processing equipment and services. ANSI membership is composed of people from
professional societies, market associations, governmental and regulatory bodies, and user goods.
Electronics Industry Association (EIA)
EIA is a non-profit U.S. trade association that creates and recommends modern standards. EIA
activities involve standards development, boosting public awareness, and promoting and it is responsible
for developing the RS (recommended standard) sequence of standards for records and communications.
Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)
TIA is the leading trade association in the communications and data technology industry. It
supports business development opportunities through industry development, trade promotion, trade
shows, and standards development. It defines manufacturers of communications and data technology
products and also supports the convergence of new communications networks.
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
The IETF is a large international community of network designers, operators, vendors, and
researchers concerned with the development of the Internet architecture and continuous services of the
Internet.
Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)
The IRTF promotes research of importance to the evolution of the future Internet by generating
focused, long-term and small research groups working on topics associated with Internet protocols,
software, architecture, and technology.