PREPARATIVE OPERATIONS IN FOOD INDUSTRY

The preliminary preparative operations in food processing include cleaning, sorting and
grading of food raw material. These may be considered as separation operation. Cleaning
involves the separation of contaminants from the desired raw materials. Sorting
involves the separation of the raw materials into different categories based on their
physical characteristics such as size, shape and colour. Grading involves the separation
of the raw materials into categories based on the differences in their overall quality.

CLEANING OF FOOD RAW MATERIALS

Cleaning is an essential preliminary operation in any food industry. The ultimate quality of
the finished product, storage stability, organoleptic properties, safety from health hazards,
and consumer acceptance depend on cleaning process. The methods adopted depend on the
type of raw material, type and extent of contamination, the degree of cleaning to be achieved
and the type of finished product. Different food raw materials are associated with different
types of contaminants. These include
 Mineral contaminants- soil, sand, stone metallic particles, grease and oil.

 plant part- stalks, pits, husks and rope,

 Animal parts and contaminants—excreta, hair, insects eggs and body part

 Chemical contamination- sprayed residues of pesticides, insecticides and

fertilizers

 Microbial contaminants—microorganisms and their metabolites.

The chosen cleaning process must satisfy the following requirements in order to achieve the
aforesaid objective:-
1. The separation efficiency of the process must be high and consistent and
should produce minimum wastage of good material

2. Damage of cleaned raw material must be avoided.

3. Recontamination of the cleaned food should be avoided by complete
removal of the contaminants.

4. The design of the process equipment should be such that recontamination of

the cleaned food due to flying dust or wash water is prevented.

5. The cleaning process must leave the cleaned surface in acceptable

condition,

6. The volume and concentration of liquid effluents must be kept be minimum

and the effluents should be disposed off effectively Complete cleaning of a raw material is
not possible and in practice, a balanced approach, considering the economic aspects of
cleaning and the need to produce good quality food, is usually adopted,

Cleaning Methods
The cleaning methods can be classified into two groups, namely
 Dry cleaning methods which include screening, brushing, aspiration,
abrasion and magnetic separation

 Wet cleaning methods which include soaking, spraying, flotation, ultrasonic

cleaning, filtration and settling.

Dry cleaning methods

These methods are relatively cheap and convenient as the cleaned surface is dry However, a
major drawback is the spread of dust.
Screening-Screens are primarily size separators or sorting machines but may be used as
cleaning equipment for removing contaminants of
different size from that of the raw material. These machines are useful in cleaning fine
materials such as flour and ground spices but must be frequently cleaned to remove oversized
contaminants which may otherwise get pulverized due to abrasion and spread contamination
of the raw material.
Abrasion cleaning- Abrasion between food particles or between the food and moving parts
of cleaning machinery is used to loosen and remove adhering contaminants. Tumblers,
vibrators, abrasive discs and rotating brushes are used for this purpose.

Aspiration cleaning- Aspiration (or winnowing) is based on the differences in the

aerodynamic properties of materials. The raw material to be cleaned is fed into a stream of air
flowing at controlled velocity to separate the raw materials into two or more streams (e.g.
light and heavy streams). The cleaned products are usually discharged as the middle stream
leaving the heavy debris (stones, pieces of metal or wood) behind while floating off the light
debris such as stalks, husks and hairs. This method is used in cleaning cereals, nuts, beans,
onions, melon, eggs and other

Unit operations in food processing by Mohit Jindal

Vol. 1.2 Page 15 of 90

foods which are not amenable to wetting. The method cannot be used with oxidation-
sensitive materials.

Magnetic cleaning- This type of cleaning involves where the food contaminated with high
amount of metallic material. Magnetic separators used for this type of cleaning include
rotating or stationary magnetic drums, magnetized belts, magnets located over belts carrying
the food or staggered magnetized grids through which the food is passed.
Miscellaneous dry cleaning methods-
Such cleaning methods include:
1. Electrostatic cleaning

2. radio isotope separation

3. X-ray separation.

Electrostatic cleaning- Electrostatic cleaning can be used in a limited number of cases

where the surface charge on raw materials differs from contaminating particles. The principle
can be used to distinguish grains from other seeds of similar geometry but differences in
electrostatic charging of materials under controlled humidity conditions, charged particles
being removed by oppositely charged or earthed rollers, grids, etc. and it has also been
described for cleaning tea. The feed is conveyed on a charged belt and charged particles are
attracted to an oppositely charged electrode according to their surface charge.

Radio isotope separation- Clods of earths and stones may be separated from the potatoes.
X-ray separation- Stones, gloss and metal fragments in foods such as confectionery can be
separated by this method.

Wet cleaning methods-

Wet cleaning has the advantage of removing firmly adherent soils and owing the use of
detergents and sanitizers. However, wet methods have a number of disadvantages such as the
use of large amounts of high quality water and generation of large volume of effluent (about
15,000 liters per ton of canned food). Wet cleaning methods include soaking, spray washing,
flotation washing and ultrasonic cleaning methods.
Soaking- This is the simplest method and is often used as preliminary stage in the cleaning of
heavily contaminated root vegetables and other foods. Soaking softens adhering soil and also
facilitates the removal of sand, stone, and ether abrasive material. The use of warm water and
detergents increase the efficiency but the use of chemicals may affect the texture of the food,
e.g, sodium hexametaphosphate softens peas while some metal ions toughen peas and
peaches destined for canning, Chlorination is used to decrease bacterial load of water in the
soak tank.
Spray washing. This is the most widely used method for wet cleaning of fruits and
vegetables. The surface of the food is subjected to water sprays, The efficiency of spray
washing depends on several parameters such as water pressure, volume of water,
temperature, the distance of the food from jets, the time of spraying and number of spray
jets used. A small volume of water at high pressure is the most effective combination. High
pressure sprays may be used to cut out parts of peaches and tomatoes and to remove
adherent soil and black moulds on citrus fruits. It may damage ripe fruits and vegetables
such as straw berries and tomatoes and delicate vegetables such as asparagus.

The washer is equipped with a central spray rod which is fitted with jets for spraying water.
A rubber disc cleaner requires less amount of water for cleaning. It uses soft rubber discs
spinning axially at about 500 rpm. The soil is collected into the base of the channel. The
disc cleaner uses only about 20 liters of water per ton of fruit while other washers use
1500-5000 litres.
Flotation washing- The method depends on the differences in buoyancy of the desired
and undesired parts of the food raw material to be cleaned. For example, bruised or
rotten apples sink in water and can be removed at the base of tank and the good fruit can
be collected as overflow. The flotation washer effectively removes stones, dirt and plant
debris from peas, beans, dried fruits and similar materials. Water requirement is about
4,000-10,000 liters per ton of raw material to be cleaned.
Froth flotation has been used to separate peas from weed seeds by immersing the peas in
dilute mineral oil-detergent emulsion through which air is blown, the contaminants float
on foam and are removed. The cleaned peas are given a final wash to remove the
emulsion.
Dewatering- Wet cleaning results in a cleaned product that may have some excess water
adhering to it. Dewatering may be effected by passing the food over vibratory screens or
specially designed rotary screens. In the case of cleaned peas for freezing, or washed
wheat for milling, centrifuges may be used. Occasionally it may be necessary to resort to
drying procedures, as in the case of cereals or fruits, which arc to be stored or sold as
fresh.

The two main objectives of cleaning food raw materials are

1. Removal of contaminants which constitute a health hazard or which are
aesthetically unacceptable

2. Control of microbiological loads and biochemical reactions which impair

subsequent process effectiveness and product quality.

SORTING OF FOODS
Sorting and grading are terms which are frequently used interchangeably in the food
processing industry, but strictly speaking they are distinct operations.
Sorting is a separation based cm a single measurable property of raw material
units, while grading is the assessment of the overall quality of a food using a number
of attributes". Sorting may be regarded as a separation operation based on the
differences in physical properties of the food raw materials or products such as colour,
size, shape or weights of the food raw material.
Sorting is an important operation in controlling the effectiveness of many processes in
food industry. For example, sorted vegetables and fruits are better suited for mechanized
operations of peeling, pitting and coring or blanching. Similarly, food materials of
uniform size or shape are better suited for efficient heat transfer during sterilization,
pasteurization, dehydration or freezing.
Sorting and grading can both damage the food raw material or product because of
improper handling by human operators (operator damage), dumping (dumping damage)
or dropping of material (drop damage). Such damages can be eliminated or minimized
by choosing effective food process.
Sorting Methods
Sorting methods include weight sorting, shape sorting, size sorting and photometric or colour
sorting.
Weight sorting- Weight is usually the most precise method of sorting. The weight of a
food unit is proportional to the cube of its characteristic dimension and hence weight
sorting is more precise compared to dimensional sorting. Meat cuts, fish fillets, fruits
such as apples, pears and citrus fruits, vegetables such as potatoes, carrots and onions
and eggs are sorted by weight using spring-loaded, strain gauge, or electronic weighing
devices incorporated

into conveying
systems.. An alternative system is to use the "catapult' principle where units are thrown
into different collecting section, depending on their weight. A disadvantage of weight
sorting is the relatively long time required per unit and other methods are more
appropriate with smaller items such as legumes or cereals, or if faster throughput is
required.
Size sorting- Different types of screens are used for size separation of foods,
The screen designs commonly used in food industry may be grouped into two types: (i)
variable aperture screens using cable, belt, roller or screw sorters and (ii) fixed aperture
screens using stationary, vibratory, rotary, gyratory or reciprocating screens. Fixed
aperture screens of flat-bed type are used in preliminary sorting of potatoes, carrots and
turnips. Multi-deck screens are used in size sorting of cereals, nuts and also partly
processed and finished foods such as flour, sugar, salt, ground spices and herbs. Drum
screens are used for sorting peas, beans and other similar foods capable of withstanding
tumbling action in a rotating drum screen. Variable aperture screens with continuously
variable apertures of roller, belt or screw type find use in size sorting of fruits and
vegetables.
Shape sorting- Shape sorting is adopted when food raw materials contain undesirable
material even after size or weight sorting and cleaning. For example, cleaned and size or
weight sorted wheat may still contain weed seeds of similar size and weight compared to
wheat. Shape sorting on the basis of a combination of length and diameter is useful under
such circumstances. A disc sorter is used for shape sorting wheat, rice, oats and barley.
The principle is that disks or cylinders with accurately shaped indentations will pick up
seeds of the correct shape when rotated through the stock, while other shapes will
remain in the feed.

Photometric/Color sorting- Photometric sorting uses optical properties of foods to

effect separation of desired material from contaminants. The goal is the separation of
items that are discolored, toxic, not as ripe as required, or still with hull. The color
separator separates the fruits, vegetables or grains due to difference in color or
brightness. The color separators are generally used for larger crop seeds like peas and
beans. These seeds differ in color because of varietal differences and also due to
immaturity or disease. Color sorters are also used for color sorting harvested foodstuffs,
such as coffee, nuts, rice, and other cereals such as wheat or rye and pulses.
Two photocells are fixed at a particular angle, which direct both beams to one point of
the parabolic trajectory of the grains. A needle is placed on the other side, which is
connected to a high voltage source. When a beam falls on a dark object through
photoelectric cells, current is generated on the needle. The needle end receives a charge
and imparts it to the dark seeds. The grains are then passed between two electrodes with a
high potential difference between them. The seed is compared with a selected
background or color range, and is separated into two fractions according to difference
in color. Since this machine views each produce individually, the capacity is low.
Reflectance properties are used to indicate:
1. Raw material maturity (e.g. color of fruit, vegetables and meat
indicates ripeness and freshness characterize ;)

2. the presence of surface defects (e.g. worm holed cereals or nuts

and bruised fruits)

3. The extent of heat processing (e.g. in manufacture of bread and

potato chips or crisps).
Other sorting methods- Sorting on the basis of surface roughness or stickiness may be
used for separating seeds. In Surface Texture/Roughness Separator the mixture to be
separated is fed over the centre of an inclined draper belt moving in upward direction. The
round and smooth grains roll or slide down the draper at faster rate than the upward motion of
the belt, and these are discharged in a hopper. The flat shape or rough surfaced particles are
carried to the top of the inclined draper and dropped off into another hopper.

GRADING OF FOODS
Grading is quality separation on the basis of an overall assessment of those properties, which
affect the acceptance of the food raw material for processing, and finished food product for
consumer acceptance and safety. The grading factors which determine the quality of the food
include:
1. Process suitability

2. consumer safety

3. Consumer acceptance.

The grading parameters commonly used in food industry include the following:
 size and shape as functional and acceptability factors,

 maturity to describe the freshness of eggs, ripeness of fruits and aging of

meat,

 texture to grade the crumb structure in bread and cakes, crispness in

apples and viscosity of creams

 flavour and aroma as indicators of ripeness of fruits as well as

effectiveness of processing conditions,

 colour as indicator for consumer acceptability and effectiveness of

process,

 Blemishes such as cloudy yolk, blood spot and shell cracks in eggs,
bruises in fruits and insect holes in coffee beans and cereals to indicate their defect and
impurity.
Contaminants and undesired parts such as rodent hair and insect parts in flour, soil and spray
residues on fruits and vegetables, microorganisms and their metabolites on meat, toxic metals
in shell fish, hone fragments in meat products, pod residues in peas and beans and stalks and
stones in fruits all these are the adverse qualities of the raw food materials.

Grading Methods
Grading methods may be classified into two types:
 Quality control procedures in which the quality of the food is determined by
laboratory tests on samples drawn statistically from a batch of food.

 Procedures in which the total quantity of food is subjected to physical

separation in quality categories. This grading may be carried out manually or by specialized
machines.

For proper grading, the food unit must be presented singly before the human grader or
machine for assessment. These devices may be roller or vibratory tables or rotating wheels
equipped peripherally with pneumatic devices which pick up food pieces, rotate them for
viewing and then release them at a given signal.
Manual grading is done by trained operators who are able to assess a number of grading
parameters simultaneously. For example, eggs are graded manually by candling.
. Machine grading is only feasible where quality of a food is linked to a single physical
property, and hence a sorting operation leads to different grades of material. But can be
carried out by combining a group of sorting operations so as to separate the food units on
quill it basis. Thus wheat of a particular variety may be graded by a combination of cleaning
and sorting operations. Sometimes a single property may be helpful in grading the food. Thus
peas of small size are recognized to be most tender and of highest quality so that size sorting
of cleaned peas results in quality grading. Peas may also be graded on the basis of their
density using flotation in brines of varying densities. Similarly, potatoes or high density,
desirable for manufacturing French fries, potato crisps and dehydrated mashed potato, may be
graded using Rotation in brines. Mechanical grading is cost effective and efficient.