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NERVOUS SYSTEM
The system which controls, regulates and coordinates various body activities is called nervous
system.
Functions of nervous system
 The nerve impulses are carried to or from the brain .These impulses are interpreted and
analyzed.
 It links and coordinates the activities of various systems and organs.
 It stimulates or inhibits the function of glands, visceral organs etc.
 The sensory organs like eye, ear, nose, tongue, and skin help to receive information from the
environment.
 It helps to maintain steady state of body.
Divisions of nervous system

Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Somatic nervous system Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Brain spinal cord Spinal nerves Cranial Nerves sympathetic Parasympathetic

NERVE CELL
The nervous system has nerve cells called neuron and neurons are supported by a special kind
of connective tissue called neuroglia.
NEURON
Neuron is defined as the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. It is also known
as nerve cell. These highly specialized nerve cells are responsible for communicating
information in both chemical and electrical forms. There are also several different types of
neurons responsible for different tasks in the human body.
TYPES OF NEURONS
1. According to functions
A) Sensory or afferent neurons:-
Sensory neurons are also called afferent nerve cells. These neurons carry the sensory impulses
from periphery to the central nervous system. The sensory neurons have a short axon and long
dendrites.
B) Motor or efferent neurons:-
Motor neurons are also called efferent nerve cells. These neurons carry the motor impulses
from central nervous system to the peripheral effector organs like muscles, glands, blood
vessels etc.
C) Mixed neurons:-
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They consist of both sensory and motor neurons outside the spinal cord.
2. According to number of poles
A) Unipolar neurons:-
The neurons having only one pole are called the unipolar neurons. This type of nerve cell is
present only in embryonic stage in human beings.
B) Bipolar neurons:-
The neurons of this type have two poles, one for axon and another for dendrite.
C) Multipolar neurons:-
Multipolar neurons have many poles. One of the poles gives rise to the axon and the other poles
give rise to dendrites.
3. According to length of axon
A) Golgi Type I:-
It contains very long axon that passes outside of the grey matter and enters the white matter.
B) Golgi Type II:-
It contains short axon, which does not leave the grey matter.
4. According to presence of myelin sheath
A) Myelinated neuron
The fibres have myelin sheath. These are found in white matter of brain and spinal cord, cranial
and spinal nerves. These are involved in the conduction of nerve impulses.
B) Nonmyelinated neuron
The neurons do not have myelin sheath. These are found in grey matter of brain and spinal
cord. These are involved in integration of nerve impulses.
STRUCTURE OF NEURON
The neuron is made up of three parts.
 Cell body
 Dendrites
 Axon.

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1. Cell body:- The cell bodies of neurons form grey matter and nuclei in the central nervous
system and ganglia in the Peripheral nervous system.
2. Dendrites: - The dendrites are the branched processes of the neuron, form the white matter
of the nervous system. The dendrites are conductive in nature and transmit impulses towards
the nerve cell body.
3. Axon: - The axon is the longer process of the nerve cell. Most axon is surrounded by myelin
sheath and neurilemma. Axons having a myelin sheath are said to be myelinated and those
without it are said to be nonmyelinated.
Functions of neuron:
 Neuron is responsible for perception, conduction, integration and transmission of nerve
impulse.
SYNAPSE
The junction between the two neurons is called synapse. The information from one neuron is
transmitted to another neuron through the synapse.
Function of synapse
 The main function of synapse is to transmit the impulses, i.e. action potential from one
neuron to another neuron.
REFLEX ACTION
Response to a peripheral nervous stimulation that occurs without our consciousness is known as
reflex action. It is a type of protective mechanism and it protects the body from irreparable
damages.
REFLEX ARC
The anatomical nervous pathway for a reflex action is called reflex arc. A simple reflex arc
includes five components.

 Receptor
 Sensory or afferent neuron
 Centre
 Motor or efferent neuron
 Effectors organ.

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Receptor:-It is the end organ, which receives the stimulus. When the receptor is stimulated,
impulses are generated in sensory nerve.
Sensory or afferent neuron:-Sensory neuron transmits sensory impulses from the receptor to
the centre.
Centre:-The center receives the sensory impulses via sensory nerve fibers and in turn, it
generates appropriate motor impulses. The centre is located in brain and spinal cord.
Motor or efferent neuron:-Motor neuron transmits motor impulses from the centre to the
effector organ.
Effector organ:-The effector organ like the muscle or the gland shows the response to the
stimulus.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The central nervous system consists of brain and spinal cord.

BRAIN
The brain lies in the cranial cavity. Average weight is about 1.5kg. The brain consists of the
following parts:
 Cerebrum
 Mid brain
 Pons Brain stem
 Medulla
 Cerebellum
CEREBRUM
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain which is made up of two cerebral hemispheres.
Such as right cerebral hemisphere and left cerebral hemisphere, both cerebral hemispheres are
connected by thick band of nerve fibers called corpus callosum.Each hemisphere contains a
cavity called the lateral ventricle.
The cerebrum is divided into four lobes such as frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe and
occipital lobe by three fissures such as central sulcus, lateral sulcus and parieto-occipital
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fissures. The surface of each hemisphere is covered by thin layer of grey matter called the
cerebral cortex.

Functions of cerebrum
 Mental activities such as thinking, memory, intelligence, reasoning, feeling, emotions,
speech.
 Sensory perception including perception of pain, temperature, touch, hearing, taste and
smell.
 Initiation and control of voluntary muscle contraction.
BRAIN STEM
Mid brain
Mid brain is the smallest part of brain. It lies between the cerebrum and the Pons varolii.It
consists of nuclei and nerve fibers (tracts), which connect the cerebrum with lower part of the
brain and with the spinal cord. The mid brain consists two parts:
 Tectum
 Cerecebral pedicles
Functions of mid brain:
 Midbrain controls many important functions such as the visual and auditory systems as well
as eye movement.
 Mid brain is involved in the control of body movement.
Pons
This is the middle part of the brain stem situated in front of the cerebellum, below the midbrain
and above the medulla oblongata, it consists of nerve fibers (white matter) that forms bridge
between the two hemispheres of the cerebellum. The Pons measures about 2.5 cm in length.
Functions of Pons:-
 Pons is important sensory relay system which provides information to different parts of the
nervous system like the cerebellum, cerebrum and even the spinal cord.
 The Pons also contains the sleep paralysis center of the brain and also plays a role in
generating dreams.
 The Pons contains accessory breathing centers called the Apneustic center and the
Pneumotaxic center.
o The Pneumotaxic center helps to turn off the inspiratory center.
o The Apneustic center helps to turn on the inspiratory center.
 The Pons is also a motor relay center.
o Descending motor nerve fibers frequently synapse in the Pons.
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o Thus, injury to the Pons can result in motor deficits (paralysis).

Medulla oblongata
The medulla oblongata is most caudal part of the brain stem, simply known as the medulla. It
extends from lower border of the Pons and above the 1 st cranial nerve where it is continuous
with spinal cord .It is about 2.5cm long and lies within the cranium above the foramen
magnum.
Functions of medulla:-
The medulla contains the vital centres.i.e cardiovascular center, respiratory center, reflex
centers, and vasomotor centre.
 The cardiovascular center of medulla controls the rate and force of cardiac contraction and
also controls the blood pressure.
 The respiratory center of medulla controls the rate and depth of respiration.
 The reflex center of medulla causes vomiting, coughing, sneezing and swallowing.
 The vasomotor centre of medulla controls the diameter of blood vessels.
CEREBELLUM
The cerebellum is the little brain, located behind the Pons & medulla and below the cerebrum
within posterior cranial fossa. The outer surface of cerebellum consist of grey matter and inner
surface consist of white matter.The cerebellum is connected to the brain stem by bundle of
nerve fibers called cerebellar peduncles.
Functions of cerebellum:
 It co-ordinates muscular body movement.
 The cerebellum maintains the tone, posture, and equilibrium.
 It controls reflex action of skeletal muscles activities.
 It receives information from ears and controls voluntary movements.
 Leaning through trial and error.
SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord is the elongated and cylindrical lower part of the central nervous system. It is
continuous above with the medulla and extends from the foramen magnum in occipital bone to
the lower border of the 1st lumbar vertebra. It is about 45 cm long in adult males and 40 cm in
adult females.
Structure of spinal cord
The spinal cord is divided into two parts:
 Grey matter
 White matter
A. Grey matter:-The grey matter is the inner part of spinal cord, seen in “H” shaped structure,
having two posterior, two anterior and two lateral columns. The grey matter of spinal cord
consists of nerve cell bodies, dendrites, and part of axon.

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B. White matter:-The periphery area of the spinal cord is called white matter which consists of
bundle of both myelinated and nonmyelinated nerve fibers. The white matter of the spinal
cord is arranged in three columns or tract, anterior, posterior and lateral.

Tracts of spinal cord

1Asecding tract
 Anterior spinothalamic tract
 Lateral spinothalamic tract
 Ventral spinocerebellar tract
 Dorsal spinocerebellar tract
2. Descending tract
 Anterior Vestibulospinal tract
 Lateral Vestibulospinal tract
 Reticulospinal tract
 Tectospinal tract
MENINGES
Meninges are connective tissue membrane, covering the brain and spinal cord. They lie
between the skull and the brain, between vertebrae and spinal cord. The meninges have three
layers.
 Dura mater(Outer)
 Arachnoid mater(Middle)
 Pia mater(Inner)

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The Dura mater and arachnoid mater are separated by a space called
subdural space. The arachnoid mater and Pia mater are separated by the subarachnoid space
containing cerebrospinal fluid.
Functions of meninges
 Meninges protect the brain and spinal cord.
 The folds of duramater prevent movement of the brain.
 It provides support to the spinal cord.
CEREBRO SPINAL FLUID (C.S.F)
The cerebrospinal fluid is the colourless, transparent, clear modified tissue fluid. It is contained
in the ventricular system of the brain and in the subarachnoid space around the brain and spinal
cord.
Formation of CSF
The cerebrospinal fluid is formed by ependymal cells of choroid plexuses of the lateral
ventricles, and lesser amounts of the choroid plexuses of the 3rd and 4th ventricles.
Rate of formation-0.5ml/minute
Volume – 150ml
Circulation of CSF
From Lateral ventricles
Through the interventricular foramen
(foramen of monro)
rd
3 ventricle
Through the cerebral aqueduct (aqueductus
Sylvius)
th
4 ventricle
Through the median aperture (foramen of
magendi) & lateral apertures (foramen of
luska)
Cisterna magna and cisterna lateralis

Spinal Subarachnoid space

Note: - The greater part of the fluid passes upwards, over the brainstem to the surface of
cerebral hemispheres)

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Absorption of CSF
CSF is absorbed chiefly through the arachnoids villi and granulation. It is also absorbed by
veins related to spinal nerves.
Composition of CSF
Volume – 150ml
Specific gravity:-1005
Reaction:-Alkaline
Water – 99.13%
Solids – 0.87%:- Protein, Amino acids, Sugar, Cholesterol, Urea, uric acid.
Functions of CSF
 It supports and protects the brain and spinal cord.
 It maintains a uniform pressure around the brain and spinal cord.
 It keeps the brain and spinal cord moist.
 It acts as a cushion and shock absorber between the brain and the cranial bones.
 The nutritive substances and waste materials are interchange into CSF and blood.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The peripheral nervous system consists of:
1. Somatic nervous system
2. Autonomic nervous system
1. Somatic nervous system
The somatic nervous system includes the nerves supplying the skeletal muscle. (Voluntary
controls).The somatic nervous system controls the movement of the body by acting on the
skeletal muscles. The somatic nervous system is composed of two types of nerves. These are:
 Cranial nerves
 Spinal nerves
CRANIAL NERVES
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves originating from nuclei in the inferior surface of the brain.
NO. NAME TYPE FUNCTION
I Olfactory Sensory Smell.
II Optic Sensory Vision, visual information.
III Oculomotor Motor Eye movement, pupil constriction. (Moving the
eye ball medially, upward and downward).
IV Trochlear Motor Eye movement (Moving the eye ball downward
and outward).
V Trigeminal Mixed Sensation for the face, motor to muscles of
chewing.
VI Abducent Motor Eye movement (Moving eye ball laterally).
VII Facial Mixed Taste sensation, facial expression, secretion of
tear and saliva.
VIII Vestibulocochlear Sensory Hearing, balance

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IX Glossopharyngeal Mixed Sense of taste, pharynx movement, secretion of

saliva.
X Vagus Mixed Heart, lungs, GIT, ear.
XI Accessory Motor Movement of neck, shoulder.
XII Hypoglossal Motor Tongue movement.
Note:-Some Says Marry Money But My Brother Says Bad Boy Marry Money.
 Largest cranial nerve:-Trigeminal.
 Longest cranial nerve:-Vagus.
 Smallest cranial nerve: - Trochlear.
 Shortest cranial nerve: - optic.

SPINAL NERVES
The nerves arising from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves. There are 31 pairs of spinal
nerves. These nerves arise from the side of spinal cord by passing through the intervertebral
foramina formed by adjacent vertebra. They are:
1. Cervical - 8 pairs (In neck region).
2. Thoracic – 12 pairs (In thorax region).
3. Lumbar - 5 pairs (Upper abdomen region).
4. Sacral – 5 pairs (Lower abdomen region).
5. Coccygeal – 1 pair (In tail region).
The spinal nerves are mixed nerve. They Carry both sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent)
impulses.
Each spinal nerve is originated by two roots: –
1. Dorsal or sensory or afferent root- It is continuation of dorsal horn and formed by grey
matter. It carries impulses towards the spinal cord.
2. Ventral or Motor or efferent root - It is continuation of ventral horn and formed by grey
matter. It carries impulses to the target organs like gland, muscles etc.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
The system which controls and co-ordinates various function of the body “automatically”
(Independently) are called autonomic nervous system. It “automatically” controls rate of heart
beat, movement of alimentary canal etc.It is also called visceral nervous system because it
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innervates the visceral organs. The activity of autonomic nervous system is controlled by
medulla oblongata and hypothalamus. The autonomic nervous system is divided into two
antagonistic divisions.
A. Sympathetic nervous system
B. Parasympathetic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system
It is also known as thoracolumbar outflow because it arises from thoracic and lumbar region of
spinal cord (T1-L2).
Parasympathetic nervous system
It is also known as craniosacral outflow because it arises from brain and sacral region of spinal
cord.
Effectors organs Sympathetic effects Parasympathetic effects
Eye
Ciliary muscle Relaxation. Contraction.
pupil Dilation. Constriction.
Lacrimal glands Decrease in secretion. Increase in secretion.
Salivary secretion Decrease in secretion and Increase in secretion and
vasoconstriction. vasodilation.
Gall bladder Relaxation. Contraction.
Urinary bladder Constriction of internal sphincter. Relaxation of internal
sphincter.
Sweat glands Increase in secretion. Decrease in secretion.
Heart Increase Rate and force of heart. Decrease Rate and force of
heart.
Blood vessels Constriction of all blood vessels Dilation.
except those in heart and skeletal
muscle.
Bronchioles Dilation. Constriction.

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