1. Write a detailed note on quality control & inspection in construction management.

QUALITY CONTROL & INSPECTION IN CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

The quality of the construction process is based upon humans, materials, machineries, process
methodologies and work environment, also known as process quality; it reflects the quality of
products. In order to ensure the quality of construction project, the quality of each process must
be controlled, which is the focus of quality control during construction. Process quality control
is implemented on the process conditions for the activities (the quality input of process
activities) and effectiveness of the process activities (the quality of sub-project). The following
work should be focused on during process quality control.

• Determining the program of process quality control On the one hand, specific measures to
ensure quality of technology for the different processes, and the provision of inputting materials
and the order of activities are required. On the other hand, the work flow and quality inspection
system are needed.
• Controlling the quality of conditions of process activities actively There are five main factors
affecting the quality of process conditions: human, materials, machinery and equipments,
methods, and the environment.
• Inspecting the quality of effectiveness of process activities in a timely manner The
implementation includes self-inspection, mutual inspection, the handover inspection of upper
and lower working procedure, especially for hidden works and sub-items (Section).
• Setting the process control point (process management point) with key control 19 Process
quality control points are major control objects determined for the key components affecting
quality or weaknesses. Control points should be set correctly and implemented strictly.

Setting and management of process quality control points:

The principle of setting quality control points includes:
• the important and key construction process and parts
• the construction process and parts without assured quality
• the construction position and parts with hard condition and technological difficulty
• the construction projects and contents with strict requirements of quality standards or precision
• the construction process and parts influencing the quality or safety of subsequent construction
• the construction sites and parts using new technology and materials construction

The management of process quality control points includes two aspects:

The design of measures of quality control points after choosing points for each segment, the
control measures should be designed reasonable. Main steps and contents are as follows:
• Listing the quality control points list
• Designing construction flow chart of control points  Analyzing the processes to find the
dominant factors
• Setting the process quality control table, to make clear control ranges and requirements for the
dominant factors
• Working out work instruction assuring quality
• Drawing up network diagram, marking the measuring instruments, numbers, precision etc. in
order to do accurate measurement
• Auditing the quality control points by the leadership of the designers
The implementation of quality control points

• Clarification. The design of control measures of control points should be explained clearly to
the operation team, to make workers understand operating essentials.
• The quality controllers must give guidance, inspection, checking and acceptance on
construction sites.
• Workers should do the operation according to working instruction, ensuring the quality of each
aspect of the operation.
• The construction site should be checked seriously and regularly, and the data should be
recorded.
• The analysis and improvement should be done constantly with the method of data statistics
until the quality control points get qualified.
• Duties and responsibilities of workers and quality controllers should be clear in the
implementation of quality control points.

2. Explain with help of example the preparation of construction schedules budgets using
CPM.

The most widely used scheduling technique is the critical path method (CPM) for
scheduling, often referred to as critical path scheduling. This method calculates the
minimum completion time for a project along with the possible start and finish times for the
project activities. Indeed, many texts and managers regard critical path scheduling as the
only usable and practical scheduling procedure. Computer programs and algorithms for
critical path scheduling are widely available and can efficiently handle projects with
thousands of activities.

The critical path itself represents the set or sequence of predecessor/successor activities
which will take the longest time to complete. The duration of the critical path is the sum of
the activities' durations along the path. Thus, the critical path can be defined as the longest
possible path through the "network" of project activities. The duration of the critical path
represents the minimum time required to complete a project. Any delays along the critical
path would imply that additional time would be required to complete the project.

There may be more than one critical path among all the project activities, so completion of
the entire project could be delayed by delaying activities along any one of the critical paths.
For example, a project consisting of two activities performed in parallel that each require
three days would have each activity critical for a completion in three days.

Formally, critical path scheduling assumes that a project has been divided into activities of
fixed duration and well defined predecessor relationships. A predecessor relationship
implies that one activity must come before another in the schedule. No resource constraints
other than those implied by precedence relationships are recognized in the simplest form of
critical path scheduling.
To use critical path scheduling in practice, construction planners often represent a resource
constraint by a precedence relation. A constraint is simply a restriction on the options available
to a manager, and a resource constraint is a constraint deriving from the limited availability of
some resource of equipment, material, space or labor. For example, one of two activities
requiring the same piece of equipment might be arbitrarily assumed to precede the other activity.
This artificial precedence constraint insures that the two activities requiring the same resource
will not be scheduled at the same time. Also, most critical path scheduling algorithms impose
restrictions on the generality of the activity relationships or network geometries which are used.
In essence, these restrictions imply that the construction plan can be represented by a network
plan in which activities appear as nodes in a network. Nodes are numbered, and no two nodes
can have the same number or designation. Two nodes are introduced to represent the start and
completion of the project itself.

With an activity-on-branch network, dummy activities may be introduced for the purposes of
providing unique activity designations and maintaining the correct sequence of activities.
A dummy activity is assumed to have no time duration and can be graphically represented by a
dashed line in a network. Several cases in which dummy activities are useful are illustrated, the
elimination of activity C would mean that both activities B and D would be identified as being
between nodes 1 and 3. However, if a dummy activity X is introduced, as shown in part (b) of
the figure, the unique designations for activity B (node 1 to 2) and D (node 1 to 3) will be
preserved. Furthermore, if the problem in part (a) is changed so that activity E cannot start until
both C and D are completed but that F can start after D alone is completed, the order in the new
sequence can be indicated by the addition of a dummy activity Y, as shown in part (c). In
general, dummy activities may be necessary to meet the requirements of specific computer
scheduling algorithms, but it is important to limit the number of such dummy link insertions to
the extent possible.
3. Write short note on:-

a) Crashing of networks.
Crashing is the technique to use when fast tracking has not saved enough time on the
schedule. It is a technique in which resources are added to the project for the least cost
possible. Cost and schedule tradeoffs are analyzed to determine how to obtain the greatest
amount of compression for the least incremental cost.
Crashing is a schedule compression technique used to reduce or shorten the project schedule.
The PM cans various measures to accomplish this goal. Some of the common methods used
are
• Adding additional resources to the critical path tasks
This option has various constraints such as the securing of the budget to add the resources,
and the availability of the resources.
• Reduce the project requirements or scope
This can be done only if the sponsor and major stakeholders agree to reduce the scope after
applying the crashing, the critical path might have changed and result in creating a different
critical path. Always revisit the project schedule to ensure the schedule has been crashed.
b) Vibration & temperature control
Vibration of Concrete
Vibration of concrete is carried out for the sake of consolidation. The main objective of
vibration is to compact the concrete and to achieve the maximum possible density of
concrete. Almost 5 to 8% by volume of freshly placed concrete in the form is occupied by air
bubbles. Air bubbles occupy this space in a high workable concrete mix.

Air bubbles can be removed by decreasing in the amount of required water, but it affects
workability of concrete. Therefore, vibration of concrete is the only suitable method that
helps without affecting much the properties of fresh concrete. Vibration is only affected in a
fresh mix concrete or one can say up to that time, when concrete has the ability to flow. This
stage exists before the starts of initial setting.

Vibration reduces the internal friction by randomizing concrete. This able the concrete to
rearrange the particles (these particles include coarse aggregates and fine aggregates). When
rearrangement of particles occur than a close configuration of coarse aggregate is achieved.
Close packing expels most of the entrapped air in between, but still some air bubbles left.
100% air bubbles are difficult to remove from concrete.

Concrete Vibrators:
During the vibration of concrete, site engineer should ensure that vibration is applied to the
entire mass of concrete uniformly. This is so, because if not applied uniformly than some
volume of concrete get fully compact and some parts remain un-compacted. Site engineer
should also strictly follow the vibration time period, because over vibration of concrete cause
segregation and bleeding of concrete. Therefore, proper consistency is required during the
vibration.
The effects of temperature early in the life of concrete can strongly influence long-term
stability.

In general, concrete temperature peaks at 48 hours and remains constant for seven days. The
larger the concrete structure, the more heat it will likely generate. Differential temperature,
air temperature and concrete mix temperature are all important factors. Monitoring the
temperature of concrete during the curing process is a critical factor in making sure the
product sets to its full strength and knowing when it is safe to build on.
Curing is the hardening of cement over time; it can take three weeks or longer. As cement
mixes with water, a chemical reaction known as hydration occurs during which heat is
generated:

• Heat gets trapped and cannot escape quickly

• The core continues to heat while surface cools.
• Large temperature differentials can form between the core and surface of the concrete
structure. These temperature differentials can lead to thermal cracks, which in turn can cause:
• Increased permeability for easy penetration of water and air
• Reduced durability and structural integrity.
• Generally, concrete temperature should be maintained above 10°C for adequate strength.
• Uniform temperatures need to be maintained – a challenge with weather extremes.

HIGH CONCRETE TEMPERATURE ISSUES

• Increased water demand; and therefore cost
• Increased chance of shrinkage – leading to cracking
• Decreased concrete strength after 28 days
• Increased potential for corrosion of reinforcements
• Hot weather can speed up the curing process and lead to short-term strength gains, but
excessive heat ultimately leads to weaker concrete.

LOW CONCRETE TEMPERATURE ISSUES

• Water freezes in concrete capillaries at -2°C; this can lead to cracks as the water expands
when freezing.
• Up to a 50% strength reduction if concrete freezes before reaching 500 psi.

THE NEED FOR CONCRETE TEMPERATURE MONITORING DURING THE

CURING PROCESS
• Concrete temperature monitoring is critical to ensure the long-term strength and stability of
concrete structures. Monitoring is necessary to verify:
• Temperature differentials did not go beyond safe limits
• Concrete did not cool more than 2.8°C per hour during the first 24 hours
• The core temperatures at various stages, in order to determine any necessary temperature
control strategies to put in place
• Temperature consistency was maintained during the curing process.
• Curing concrete in cold weather is costly: the real costs are not just in the rental equipment
but in the fuel and labour to operate the heating systems. Accurate temperature monitoring
during curing helps to minimise fuel usage.
c) Construction cost control
During the execution of a project, procedures for project control and record keeping become
indispensable tools to managers and other participants in the construction process. These tools serve
the dual purpose of recording the financial transactions that occur as well as giving managers an
indication of the progress and problems associated with a project. The problems of project control
are aptly summed up in an old definition of a project as "any collection of vaguely related activities
that are ninety percent complete, over budget and late." The task of project control systems is to give
a fair indication of the existence and the extent of such problems.

1. Use construction management software

Using construction management software with data management capabilities helps with updating
everyone on the job site on any changes to the scope of the project. And these happen frequently. It
also helps connect back-office staff with workers on the job site to ensure an active line of
communication across everyone involved in the project.

2. Regularly update cost plan

Consistently analyze and re-evaluate cost plans to determine if it is necessary to make any
alterations. If costs are higher than expected in one aspect of the process, make sure to balance it out
by reducing costs in another area. Additionally, remember that costs can be altered because of
outside forces as well. External factors such as inflation or a shortage of materials can cause prices
to change, and therefore, a project that may have been within budget before could now be over
budget. Another benefit of having construction management software that is integrated with the
accounting program provides stakeholders with real-time labour productivity and costs data to make
smart decisions.

3. Consistently submit cost reports

Ensure you are consistently providing cost reports to the client to help keep them informed and
satisfied with the progress on the project. Doing this also enables you to check the cost report
against the cost control plan to determine the financial health of the project.

4. Prepare and review contingency plans

By having set risk management procedures, project managers can plan for delays and budget
overruns and have a set plan of action on how to remedy the issues ahead of time. Contingency
plans help prevent having to pay premiums to get the project done on time when something goes
wrong at the last minute. For example, construction management software can provide statuses of
important submittals, RFIs, Change Orders, etc., which can signal the project has a bottleneck and
unexpected major delay about to occur.

5. Encourage project team to design within the cost plan at all stages
Make sure you are following design development control procedures. For example, there is a
general rule that 80% of the cost is determined by design and 20% by construction. Additionally,
make all team members aware that no team member has authority to increase costs in elements of
the work without balancing it out in another area. Lastly, ensure each worker understands that
construction plans are created per the total budget, and making changes could result in unplanned
costs that exceed the projected budget.
4. Explain the significance & variability in estimation of risk. Explain with help of
an example.

Every project has some uncertainty. There is always a chance that an unfortunate event
might happen during the project. This unwanted event has an adverse effect on the project.
It is termed as risk. A risk must be identified before the project starts and its impact on the
project is determined. A type of non-event risk called variability risk shows the
uncertainty in a planned activity of the project. Variability risk basically show the
variation or deflection form a planned activity or decision on the basis or an uncertain
event. Variability risk can be considered and taken care of using Monte Carlo simulation.

The variation is shown by the probability distributions, and the corrective actions are
recommended. Examples of variability risk include unseasonal weather conditions,
productivity variations with respect to the target etc.

Ensuring that adequate and timely risk identification is performed is the responsibility of
the owner, as the owner is the first participant in the project. The sooner risks are
identified, the sooner plans can be made to mitigate or manage them. Assigning the risk
identification process to a contractor or an individual member of the project staff is rarely
successful and may be considered a way to achieve the appearance of risk identification
without actually doing it.

It is important, however, that all project management personnel receive specific training in
risk management methodology. This training should cover not only risk analysis
techniques but also the managerial skills needed to interpret risk assessments. Because the
owner may lack the specific expertise and experience to identify all the risks of a project
without assistance, it is the responsibility of DOE’s project directors to ensure that all
significant risks are identified by the integrated project team (IPT). The actual
identification of risks may be carried out by the owner’s representatives, by contractors,
and by internal and external consultants or advisors. The risk identification function
should not be left to chance but should be explicitly covered in a number of project
documents:

•Statement of work (SOW),

•Work breakdown structure (WBS),
•Budget,
•Schedule,
•Acquisition plan, and
•Execution plan.
5. 'Construction Planning is an eclectic science circumscribed by multilateral
operations' DISCUSS.

Analytic eclecticism is more modest and pragmatic. It is intended to generate diverse and
flexible frameworks, each organized around a concrete problem, with the understanding that
it is the problem that drives the construction of the framework. Moreover, the value added by
eclectic scholarship depends to a large extent on the continued success of existing research
traditions.

Neither aspiring to uncover universal laws, nor content with statistical associations or
interpretations of specific phenomena, analytic eclecticism is best thought of as operating at
the level of what Robert Merton called “the middle range.” Midrange theories are designed
to be portable within a bounded set of comparable contexts where certain cause-effect links
recur. The task for a mid-range theorist is to recognize the conditions under which some of
these links become more causally significant while others do not. Such an effort is quite
different from the construction of a grand theory or general law that is intended to be
portable not only across patio-temporal contexts but also across a wide range of substantive
problems

Analytic eclecticism may utilize but is not synonymous with methodological triangulation or
multi-method research. Any attempt to investigate the interaction between general macro-
and micro-level processes and specific contextual factors would benefit from attention to
different kinds of approaches employing different techniques of empirical analysis. Yet, it is
important to note that analytic eclecticism does not require the acquisition or use of multiple
methodological skills; it simply requires a broad understanding of the relative strengths and
tradeoffs of different methods and an openness to considering causal stories presented in
different forms by scholars employing different methods

The combinatorial logic of analytic eclecticism depends not on the multiplicity of methods
but on the multiplicity of connections between the different mechanisms and social processes
analyzed in isolation in separate research traditions. In principle, such a project can be
advanced by the flexible application of a single method—be it formal modelling, multiple
regression, historical case studies, or ethnography—so long as the problem and the
explanandum feature efforts to connect theoretical constructs drawn from separate research
traditions.