SUB: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING MODULE-43A

MODULE-43A
Origin of soils, soil classification, three-phase system, fundamental
definitions, relationship and interrelationships
___________________________________________________________________________
Soil mechanics: It is the branch of civil engineering which deals with the application of the
principles of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering problems related to soils.

Origin of Soils: Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical

disintegration or chemical decomposition.

If the soil is located at the places of origin, it is called residual soil. If the soil located
away from the origin, it is called transported soil.

Soils deposited from suspension in running water are called “Alluvial deposits”.

Soils formed in still water like lakes are called “Lacustrine deposits”.

Soils formed in sea water are called “Marine deposits”.

Soils transported by wind are called “Aeolian soils”.

Soils transported by ice are called “glacial deposits”.

Three Phase System: The soil mass consists of solids, liquid and gases. Liquid and
gases together called voids.

In blocks diagram we show mass fractions on left side and volume fractions on right

Side.

air
water 0.544

solids

Let volume of solids be 1 and volume of water and volume air together represent
volume of voids and let it be „e‟, then block diagram becomes following.

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air
water
solids

We know that density of solids is mass divided by volume.

But

Also we know that specific gravity of solids G is equal to ratio of destiny of solids
and density of water.

G= →

The block diagram becomes

air
water
solids

Here we define water content. Water content is nothing but the ratio of mass of water
and mass of solids, and represented by .

= →

Block diagram is as below:

air
water
solids

The mass of air is negligible and it is “0”.

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As we know the mass of water, we can find the volume of water from fundamental
density relation.

Density of water .

Volume of water =

Now block diagram is as below.

air
water
solids

Degree of saturation:

Degree of saturation is defined as the ratio of volume of water and volume of voids.

S=

Air content is volume of air divided by e.

Percentage air voids % =

Porosity η= =

Bulk density γ = = =

Dry density

Saturated density is nothing but bulk density when the air becomes zero.

Submerged density = bulk density - . Due to buoyancy upward force acts if soil is
submerged in water.

Water content determination by oven drying method:

Let initial mass of soil be M1. After oven drying mass becomes M2. In drying process
the water present in soil will evaporate. So the difference M1-M2 represents the mass of water
present in soil. The M2 represent mass of solids.

Water content w=

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Water content determination by pycnometer method:

Let Mass of wet soil = M1

Mass of wet soil + pycnometer + water = M2

Mass of pycnometer + water = M3

G be the specific gravity of solids.

Let volume of soil solids be „x‟

In M2 we have „x‟ volume of solids and remaining volume of water. The mass of „x‟ volume
of solids is Gx because and

M = V.G = x.G.1

Let remaining volume of water & pycnometer having mass of M.

M2 = M + xG →1

In M3, there is a volume of x of water and remaining common volume of mass M.

x volume of water having mass x ⁄

M3 = M + x →2

Here, water content w=

From equation 1 and 2

M2 = M + xG
M3 = M + x

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____________
M2 - M3 = x(G-1)

x=

( )
w=
( )

Borrow pit and embankment

Let the borrow pit soil dry density and embankment soil dry density In both
the soils common thing is mass.

Mass of borrow pit = mass of embankment

As M =V
Vb. =

Vb = volume of borrow pit soil

Ve = volume of embankment soil.
Particle size distribution curve: It is also known as gradation curve, represents the
distribution of particles of different sizes in the soil mass. The percentage finer „N‟ than a
given size is plotted as y- coordinate and the particle size as x-coordinate (on log scale)

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In gap graded soil, the horizontal portion represents the corresponding size of soil
particles are missing in well graded soil having mild slope and covers the entire range of
particle sizes.

In uniform soils slope is very steep and having all the particles are almost same size.

D10: The particle size is such that 10% of total particles are smaller than this size.

D30: 30% of total particles are smaller than this size.

D60: 60% of particles are smaller than this size.

Cu: Uniformity co-efficient =

Cc: Co-efficient of curvature =

Relative density:Dr=

From block diagram

air
water
solids

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e=

If is minimum „e‟ is max and vice versa.

Dr= [ ]

Plasticity of soil:

Plasticity of soil is ability to undergo deformation without fracturing. It is due to

presence of clay minerals. The –ve charge of clay attracts water called adsorbed water. And it
imparts lubricating action.

Different states of soil:

volume

Semi solid plastic liquid

solid

Water content

Liquid limit:

Water content at which the soil changes from the liquid state to plastic state is called
liquid limit. It can be determined by Casagrande‟s apparatus. The water content, at which the
groove will close in 25 revolutions, is called liquid limit.

Slope of flow curve called flow index.

Flow index, If =

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Plastic limit:

It is the water content below which the soil stops behaving as a plastic material. It
begins to crumble when rolled into a thread of soil of 3mm diameter.

Shrinkage limit:

It is the smallest water content at which the soil is saturated. It is also defined as the
maximum water content of which a reduction of water content will not cause a decrease in
volume of the soil mass.

water

solids

1+e =

e=

Here e is volume of water.

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Mass of water
WG

w=

Shrinkage limit ( )

⁄
Shrinkage Ratio: S.R =

SR =
volume

Semi solid plastic liquid

solid

Water content

Plasticity index Ip =

Shrinkage index Is =

Liquidity index Il =

Consistency index Ic =

Toughness index It =

It is measure of shear strength at the plastic limit.

Sensitivity =

Thixotropy: It is the gain in strength of the soil with passage of time after it has been
remoulded.

Activity: A =

F = clay fraction % finer than 2µ.

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Soil classification:

Soil classification is the arrangement of soils into different groups such that the soils
in a particular group have similar behavior.

Group index G.I = 0.2(F-35) +0.005(F-35)( ) + 0.01 (F-15)(Ip-10)

F = % passing in 75µ

Negative values should be dropped in parenthesis.

G.I. should be rounded off to whole number.

G.I is lesser means higher than strength.

G.I is ranges from 0-20.

IS soil classification:

There are total 18 groups are present. Let a% of soil retained on 4.75mm sieve, b%
retained on 75µ sieve. Obviously (100-a-b)% will pass through 75µ sieve and it is c%.

Soils are divided into two groups:

If a+b>c coarse grained soil

a+b<c fine grained soil

Coarse grained soil further divided into Gravel & sands.

If a > b Gravel

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CL CI CH
H

7%
ML ML-CL MI/OI MH/OH
4%
ML ML/OL
10 20 35 50

a < b Sand

Gravel is divided into two groups( if fines < 5% i.e c<5%)

Well graded Gravel “GW” (if cu>4, cc: 1 to 3)

Poorly graded Gravel “GP”( if not satisfy above criteria.)

Sands are divided into two groups (if fines < 5% i.e. c<5% )

Well graded sand “SW”( if cu>6, cc: 1 to 3)

Poorly graded sand “SP”( if not satisfy above criteria.)

Gravel is divided into GM or GC based on A-line (if c>12%)

Sand is divided into SM or SC based on A-line (if c>12%)

Fine grained soils are divided into clay or silts/organic based on A – line. If the soil is
above A-line it is clay and if soil is below A-line it is silt/organic matter.

Plot (wl, Ip) on chart. Decide silt/organic by finding wL before oven drying and after
oven drying.

If then it is organic, otherwise silt. For Gravel and sand,

if c is in between 5 to 12 % then use dual symbol like GW-GM.

Clay mineralogy

Specific surface:

The surface area per unit volume is called specific surface. As particle size decreases,
its specific surface increases.

A material in which the surface forces are predominant is known as colloid. Clay
particles are the particles less than 2µ.

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Basic structural units of clay minerals:

1. Tetrahedral unit:

It consists of surrounded by four oxygen atoms O2- forming the shape of

tetrahedron. A number of tetrahedral units combine to form a sheet called silica sheet.

2. Octahedral unit:
It consists of six hydroxyls ( forming a configuration of octahedron and having
one aluminium atom at the center. Several octahedral units combine to form a gibbsite
sheet. (Alumina sheet).

Isomorphous substitution:

It is possible that one atom in a base unit may be replaced by another atom. This
process is known as isomorphous substitution.

Example: One silicon atom in a tetrahedral unit may be substituted by aluminium

atom. Magnesium atom may replace aluminium atoms in an octahedral unit.

a) Kaolinite mineral:

It consists of an alumina sheet G combined with silica sheet.

G
S

b) Illite mineral:

It is like montmorillonite but instead of water in between two structural units,

Potassium K+ will be present.

c) Montmorillonite mineral:

It consists of an alumina sheet sandwiched between two silica sheets. The negatively
charged surfaces of the silica sheet attract water in the space between two structural units.

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Adsorbed water:

The water held by electro-chemical forces existing on the soil surface is adsorbed
water. As the adsorbed water is under the influence of electrical forces, its properties are
different from that of normal water. It is much more viscous and its surface tension is also
greater.

Soil Structures:

1. Single grained structure: Gravitational forces are predominant and each particle is in
contact with those surrounding it. In loosest state void ratio is 0.9 and in densest state
it is 0.35
2. Honey-comb Structure: Arching action will present in between the particles and large
voids are present. Bulking of sand is due to this structure.
3. Flocculated Structure: This occurs in clays. The clay particles have a –ve charge on
the surface and the +ve charge on the edges. Inter particles contact develops between
the positively charged edges and the negatively charged faces. This results flocculated
structure. In this structure soils have low compressibility, high permeability and high
shear strength.
4. Dispersed Structures: Dispersed structure develops in clays that have been remoulded.
Remoulding converts the edge-to-face orientation to face-to-face orientation. The
soils in dispersed structure generally have a low shear strength, high compressibility
and low permeability.

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