Alimentando La Palma, Revisión de La Nutrición de La Palma PDF

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Feeding the Palm: A Review of

Oil Palm Nutrition
T.T. Tiemann*, C.R. Donough*, Y.L. Lim*, R. H€ardterx, R. Norton{,
H.H. Tao*, jj, R. Jaramillo#, T. Satyanarayana**, S. Zingorexx and
€ r*, 1
T. Oberthu
*International Plant Nutrition Institute, Penang, Malaysia
x
International Potash Institute, Kassel, Germany
{
International Plant Nutrition Institute, VIC, Australia
jj
Tropical Plant Production and Agricultural Systems Modelling (TROPAGS), University of G€ ottingen,
G€ ottingen, Germany
#
International Plant Nutrition Institute, Quito, Ecuador
**International Plant Nutrition Institute (IPNI), Gurgaon, India
xx
International Plant Nutrition Institute, Sub-Saharan Africa c/o IFDC - East & Southern Africa Division,
Kasarani, Nairobi, Kenya
1
Corresponding author: E-mail: TOberthur@ipni.net
Contents
1. About This Review 3
2. Oil Palm Production 4
2.1 Macro-Economic Context 4
2.2 The Oil Palm and Its Growing Environment 6
2.3 Fruit Development 8
2.4 Stresses That Impact on Fruit Development 9
2.5 Oil Palm Yield Gaps 11
2.6 Contribution of Nutrition Management to Yield Gap Closure 14
3. Nutrients in an Oil Palm System 17
3.1 Soil Nutrient Inputs, Stocks, and Dynamics 17
3.2 Soil Test Critical Values 21
3.3 Nutrient Stocks in the Tree 25
3.3.1 Trunk Nutrients 25
3.3.2 Leaf Nutrients 26
3.3.3 Bunch Nutrients 29
3.4 Plant Tissue Critical Values 29
3.5 Nutrient Transfers and Recycling 33
3.6 Nutrient Effects, Deficiency Symptoms, and Beneficial Elements 35
3.6.1 Nitrogen 36
3.6.2 Phosphorus 37
3.6.3 Potassium 38
3.6.4 Magnesium 39
3.6.5 Sulfur 39
Advances in Agronomy, Volume 152

© 2018 Elsevier Inc.
j
ISSN 0065-2113
https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2018.07.001 All rights reserved. 1
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2 T.T. Tiemann et al.
3.6.6 Chlorine 40
3.6.7 Boron 40
3.6.8 Copper 41
3.6.9 Zinc 42
3.6.10 Manganese 42
3.6.11 Iron 43
3.6.12 Molybdenum and Calcium 43
3.6.13 Silicon 44
3.6.14 Imbalances and Nutrient-Related Diseases 44
4. 4R Nutrient Stewardship Concept 45
4.1 Right Source 45
4.1.1 Concepts and Principles 45
4.1.2 Considerations for Macronutrient Sources 46
4.1.3 Practical Management Considerations 48
4.2 Right Rate 49
4.3 Right Time 62
4.3.2 Nutrient-Related Management Considerations 63
4.3.3 Location-Related Management Considerations 64
4.4 Right Place 67
5. Knowledge Gaps and Conclusions 72
5.1 Knowledge Gaps and Research Opportunities 72
5.1.1 Data on Natural Basis 72
5.1.2 Data on Management 75
5.2 Conclusions 76
References 77
Abstract
After more than a century of cultivation and more than 80 years since the first field
experiments on fertilizer use, there seems to be sufficient knowledge of oil palm
mineral nutrition to support a productive and profitable industry. Still, changing condi-
tions, especially in view of the allotment of new cultivation areas, newly developed
genetic material, social and technological developments and consequential manage-
ment changes, climatic changes, and so on, we summarize here the accessible informa-
tion on mineral nutrition in mature Tenera oil palm generated over the past 50 years.
We attempt to provide information that is both scientifically sound and practically
relevant in order to bridge the gap between fundamental research and plantation
management. Our scope covers an overview of oil palm development and adverse
conditions, with a specific focus on plant nutrition. We shed light on the current
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Feeding the Palm 3
understanding of yield potential and the origin of yield gaps and discuss the role
nutrition plays in improved oil palm performance, including current systems to assess
appropriate nutritional status. This leads to surveying information on nutrient
deficiency effects and to an analysis of the applicability of and existing knowledge
gaps in the 4R nutrient stewardship concept. We end with a comprehensive analysis
regarding knowledge gaps and research opportunities and give a brief outlook into po-
tential future research pathways.
1. ABOUT THIS REVIEW

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is a tropical tree crop, which is mainly
grown for the industrial production of vegetable oil. Although in use for
millennia in local economies and highly regarded as machine grease during
the British Industrial Revolution, the plant and the oil extracted have been
intensively produced only since the middle of the 20th century. Its unrivaled
oil production rate has fueled its aggressive adoption around the small
tropical belt that provides suitable conditions for it to thrive.
With a total planted area of approximately 14.2 million ha (Palmoilresearch,
2014) and strong industrialization of palm oil production, best practices,
reaching from plantation management to postharvest processing, continue
to evolve along with change in commercially grown planting material,
and rapid expansion into areas that may lack experimental information.
Oil palm is one of the highest dry matter producers among C3 plants and
requires large amounts of nutrients. Even fertile soils are not able to sustain
high-yielding palm oil production over extended periods, so that fertilizer
application is essential to achieve and sustain adequate palm nutritional status
and high yields. Plant nutrient management is therefore a key aspect for
profitable oil palm production, and considerable advances have been made
in understanding nutrient requirements of this crop over the last few decades.
While nutrient requirements represent the crop demand, nutrient supply is a
function of the availability of mineral nutrients from the soil, which in turn is
affected by soil pH, soil texture, water availability, root density, and nutrient
loss. While some of these factors are relatively constant, others follow seasonal
or other patterns which are location specific. Because of these complexities,
the development of fertilizer best management practices (BMPs) is a complex
issue which needs to achieve efficient and effective nutrient use as well as high
productivity. The aim of this review is to summarize the current literature to
identify knowledge gaps in oil palm nutrient management in order to help
define best nutrient management practices and suggest areas deserving further
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research. Even though the focus is mainly on mineral nutrition of mature oil
palm, we have included the most common organic sources, such as empty
fruit bunches where appropriate, as they are widely used in this industry.
Young palms will only be referred to where it helps gaining improved under-
standing of oil palm development in general. Also, as palm variety plays an
important role in nutrient contents, unless specifically mentioned, this review
focuses on data for Tenera palms, which currently are the only variety grown
in commercial operations.
2. OIL PALM PRODUCTION

2.1 Macro-Economic Context
Oil palm is now the most important supplier of plant-based oil in
the world. While it occupies only about 5.5% of agricultural land planted
with oil crops, it accounts for 32% of global supply of oils and fats
(c. 53.67 million tons), more than any other crop (Palmoilresearch, 2014).
During the past 25 years, the world production of oils and fats has
increased by more than 150%, most of which was accounted for by palm
oil. Between 2012 and 2017, the average annual world consumption growth
of oils and fats was reported at 6.4 million tons. About 1.6 million tons of
these major oils and fats are used for biofuels, and 10%e15% of palm oil
production is used for biodiesel. Around 4.8 million tons are used for
food and all other end uses (ISTA Mielke GmbH, 2017; Neslen, 2016;
Priyati et al., 2016). Indonesia and Malaysia produce about 85% of the
world’s palm oil; other major producers are Thailand, Colombia, Nigeria,
Papua New Guinea, and Ecuador. Palm oil production is also of importance,
for some local economies such as Goa, India (Behera et al., 2016b), or Para,
Brazil (Bastos de Matos et al., 2017). It is predicted that the global demand
for palm oil will continue to rise, primarily for food consumption due to
population growth and rising living standards, and that by 2027, an
additional 25 million tons of palm oil per year will be needed (ISTA Mielke
GmbH, 2017).
Two types of oil are extracted from oil palm: the red palm oil from the
fleshy fruit mesocarp (commonly referred to as crude palm oil) and the
kernel oil from the kernel in the nut or seed (commonly referred to as
palm kernel oil). The latter is very similar to coconut oil and chemically
quite different from the former (Verheye, 2010). Based on the characteristics
of currently exploited planting material in Southeast Asia, the ratio of crude
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Feeding the Palm 5
palm oil to palm kernel oil produced from each ton of fresh fruit bunches is
around 10:1 in volume terms. As palm kernel oil has a higher market price
than crude palm oil, in value terms, the ratio is around 6:1 at current market
prices (as at Sept. 2017).
Biofuel derived from palm oil has attracted a lot of attention, but its
production is not always economically viable for all producer countries.
This is because a large diesel market is required to make blending facilities
viable. Malaysia’s domestic market is too small to make domestic biofuel
use economically feasible, and export to the European market is not
possible, as Malaysian biofuel does not meet the 35% carbon reduction on
life cycle analysis required there (Pool, 2014). In Indonesia, diesel accounts
for about half of the petroleum-based fuels. The Indonesian government
introduced a biofuel subsidy in summer 2015, equalizing the price with fossil
fuels and leading to a strong increase in domestic biodiesel use (Wright and
Rahmanulloh, 2016). But this development is highly dependent on crude
oil prices and is of uncertain stability.
Oil palm production has faced a lot of criticism in recent years due to
negative social and environmental impacts. In response, several public and
private efforts, in both consumer and producer countries, have emerged
to improve the governance of palm oil production. Indonesia, for example,
has implemented policies to regulate the expansion of oil palm, with
different degrees of effectiveness (Brockhaus et al., 2012; Busch et al.,
2015). Together with Malaysia, both countries have adopted independent
auditing schemes to ensure compliance with local laws and regulations
(Hospes, 2014). Some consumer countries have tried to encourage sustain-
able practices by introducing private sustainability standards (Dixon et al.,
2016) and voluntary certification standards (Morley, 2015). Growing con-
cerns about the environmental impacts of palm oil helped initiate the
Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), a nonprofit, industry-led
trade organization with the stated mission to “provide RSPO-certified
palm oil to the market in a clear and transparent manner” and to “promote
the growth and use of sustainable palm oil.” Trying to work with a highly
heterogeneous group of actors with small funding, the RSPO has been
criticized for its lack of impact (Laurance et al., 2010). This is a consequence
of a large proportion of palm oil being consumed by emerging markets
especially China and India, where commodity price is more of a concern
than environmental sustainability. As a result, balancing sustainability targets
with social and economic needs in producer and consumer countries
remains a challenging problem (Pacheco et al., 2017).
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2.2 The Oil Palm and Its Growing Environment

The genus Elaeis (Palmae-Cocoideae) includes the coconut (Cocos nucifera),
contains two main oil palm species: E. guineensis or African oil palm and
E. oleifera or American oil palm. The latter is only used in producing hybrids.
The African palm has three distinct fruit forms. “Dura” has large nuts, a thick
endocarp, and thin mesocarp, while “Pisifera” has fruits with naked kernels
without endocarp. “Tenera” is the third type and is a hybrid of the Dura and
Pisifera forms, with fruits having small nuts with a thin endocarp and thick
mesocarp. The Dura form was cultivated at the beginning of the commercial
industry in Southeast Asia in the early 1900s but was replaced by the Tenera
form from the early 1960s.
Cultivars within these fruit types are not being distinguished, as breeders
have not developed true inbred lines to produce genetically uniform F1
hybrids. Based on individual origins though, five accessions, Deli, La Mé,
Pobé, Yangambi, and Sibitiare, are recognized (Gascon and Berchoux,
1964). A classification of the commercially planted pseudo-varieties is
mainly based on these origins of the Dura and Pisifera parents (e.g., Deli
Dura) used to create Tenera. Breeders have mainly focused on improving
fruit structure and yield, and commercial cultivars show a thinner endocarp
and a thicker mesocarp (Verheye, 2010). In both Latin America and West
Africa, more disease-resistant E. oleifera E. guineensis hybrids have been
developed. These hybrids have a wider agroecological adaptability (Cochard
et al., 2001), but considerable variability in their oil quality and agronomic
behavior exists (Corley and Tinker, 2016). Despite successful clonal propa-
gation since the mid-1970s (Fairhurst and H€ardter, 2003; Jones, 1974;
Rabechault and Martin, 1976), technical inefficiencies persist, and clonal
planting material still constitutes only a small fraction of the annual planting
requirement (Soh, 2012).
Although oil palms may live up to 200 years, yield rapidly decreases
after about 30 years (Verheye, 2010). Plantations will normally replant
after about 25 years when the average height exceeds about 10 m, which
is when harvesting becomes impractical (Corley and Tinker, 2016). For
optimal growth and production, the crop requires at least 2000 mm annual
rainfall, distributed evenly through the year (Carr, 2011) with little or no
dry season. Evapotranspiration has been measured in Malaysia between
3.3 mm/day for immature palms with cover crops and 2.5e3.5 mm/day
for young and old stands (Corley and Tinker, 2003). According to statis-
tical model data and other work, every 100 mm of water deficit reduce
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Feeding the Palm 7
yield by 8%e10% in the first year, and 3%e4% in the second year after the
stress event (Caliman and Southworth, 1999; Hartley, 1988a; Ochs and
Daniel, 1976). Corley and Tinker (2016), citing Palat et al. (2008), suggest
that the yield loss even doubles, with each 100 mm increase in mean water
deficit resulting in a 5.9 t/ha or about 20% decrease of a 30 t/ha yield over
2 years after the event. Cock et al. (2016) reported that water excess,
similar to water deficit, could depress future yield, and that extreme years
where both water deficit and excess occurred had the greatest depressive
effect on yield.
Looking at the areas of highest productivity in Indonesia and Malaysia,
Carr (2011) concluded that relative humidity above 85% and an average of
5 h of sunshine per day throughout the year (equivalent to 16e17 MJ/m2/
day in solar radiation) were conducive to high yields. Furthermore, stable
average temperatures between 24 C and 28 C, with seasonal variations of
less than 6 C seem to present ideal conditions (Corley and Tinker, 2003).
Mean temperatures below 17 C will result in more than 50% growth
reduction, and at maximum daytime temperatures of 15 C, no growth
occurs anymore (Corley and Tinker, 2003). As to altitude, the crop grows
mainly in tropical lowlands below 400 m altitude. In the K€ oppen-Geiger
climate classification, these conditions would most fit categories Af
and Am.
In order to provide an optimal growing environment and facilitate
plantation management, the layout of plantations is largely standardized.
Generally, three management zones can be distinguished, namely the
palm circle, the harvesting path, and the frond stack row or interrow (Nelson
et al., 2015). In most plantations, it is universal practice to clean weed within
the palm circle of 2e3 m radius around individual palms. This is seen as
essential during the immature period when young palms are very sensitive
to competition, and is maintained during the mature period to facilitate fruit
collection. The clearing of interrows has been shown to reduce competition
further, leading to higher short-term yields, but on infertile inland soils
where left bare, very serious soil erosion and loss of nutrients through
run-off and leaching may occur (Foster, 1975; Lim, 1990). Over time,
clearing the interrow also leads to reduced soil organic matter, resulting in
decreasing soil fertility and lowered soil health. However, on fertile coastal
soils, the benefit of clean weeding is small, and it has become general practice
to establish a cover plant in the interrows (Foster, 1975). The harvesting path
is a plant-free corridor of approximately 5 m width used for agriculture-
related traffic. The frond stack area is usually located in the interrow
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alternating with the harvesting paths, between trees, but pruned oil palm
fronds can also be stacked between palms within the planted rows
(Lim, 1990). Understory vegetation in the frond stacks is allowed to
grow, with the exception of woody plants and weeds known to adversely
affect oil palm yield. These three management zones often show differences
in their biophysical environment due to the effect of management on
localized soil properties, such as compaction, pH, and soil organic matter
(Pauli et al., 2014), which in turn affects the spatial distribution of palm roots
(Fairhurst, 1996).
2.3 Fruit Development

The stages of oil palm development have been described in detail (Hormaza
et al., 2012), and this review will focus only on few crucial phases. Inflores-
cence development starts sometime during the nursery stage, but most initial
inflorescences abort due to the shock of transplanting. In well-planted fields
the first inflorescences become visible within 12 months from the time of
field planting. The palm is temporally dioecious (Adam et al., 2011),
meaning that one tree has separate male and female flowers and those occur
on the same tree in alternate cycles. Inflorescence primordia develop in the
leaf axil and in synchrony with leaf initiation. The leaf reaches the central
spear stage within 2 years, and after another 9e10 months, the inflorescence
will flower. Each flower primordium can produce either male or female
inflorescences. About 1 year after floral primordia initiation, sexual differen-
tiation occurs, influenced by genes but also a variety of external factors.
Constant water availability (e.g., high and regular rainfalls) leads to similar
numbers of male and female inflorescences. Male inflorescence production,
on the other hand, is promoted by water deficit and defoliation, a circum-
stance used in Pisifera palms to exert some control over sex ratios (Verheye,
2010).
The total inflorescence number per palm depends on the number of
leaves and inflorescence abortions. A high number of female inflorescences
is obviously desired for high yields, but at present, the influence of develop-
ment patterns and underlying mechanisms of sexual differentiation are not
well understood. Sex determination and abortions seem to be guided by
similar physiological mechanisms (Corley and Tinker, 2016), which are
apparently triggered by acute or persisting stress, such as drought (Corley
and Tinker, 2003), high planting density (Breure and Menendez, 1990),
severe pruning of roots (Gray, 1969), or defoliation (Corley, 1976).
Abortions can be induced by defoliation, but this occurs much later than
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Feeding the Palm 9
is required for sex differentiation, around 4e6 months prior to flower

maturity and can be influenced by palm age (Adam et al., 2011). So far there
is little evidence that plant nutrition is a factor for either sex determination or
abortion, even though some authors suggest that it might have an influence
as one of many potential stress factors (Breure, 2007).
When the female inflorescence develops successfully, it consists of a
central stalk (peduncle) to which spikelets are attached, on which the
fruits develop out of a pollinated whitish flower of about 1 cm diameter.
The male inflorescence is rod-shaped and produces 10e40 g of pollen.
The success of pollination depends on the presence of insects, and
different locations host different pollinators. Main pollinators are
Coleoptera species Elaeidobius kamerunicus, E. subvittatus, and Mystrops
costaricensis, bugs of the family Anthocoridae, thrips, but also bees such
as Nomia spp. and Apis mellifera (Meléndez and Ponce, 2016).
Cross-pollination is the normal breeding system, as it is rare for the
same palm to have an anthesising male inflorescence and a receptive
female inflorescence at the same time.
The development from floral initiation to fruit takes 42 months,
including 10 months from establishment to initial sexual differentiation,
subsequent 24e26 months until flowering, and then 5e6 months from
flowering to ripe fruits. The ripe fruit bunch sits tightly in the leaf axil
and contains 1000e4000 fruits, each fruit weighing 10e20 g, adding up
to a total weight of 15e25 kg and occasionally up to 50 kg, depending
on tree age and vigor. The fruit pulp of fresh fruit bunches has an average
oil content of 50%e60% (20%e22% of bunch weight), while the fruit
kernels contain 48%e52% oil (2%e3% of bunch weight), respectively
(Verheye, 2010). Fresh fruits account for 60%e65% of bunch weight,
the rest are inflorescence parts, namely stalk and spikelets (Fischer et al.,
2014).
2.4 Stresses That Impact on Fruit Development

The impact of stresses on fruit development only becomes visible
20e30 months after the occurrence because of the long development period
between floral initiation and fruit maturity in oil palms. This makes it diffi-
cult to separate and quantify individual stressors (Adam et al., 2011). Stress-
sensitivity varies throughout fruit development with three most critical
periods due to their impact on productivity: sex determination (months
8e20 after leaf initiation), potential inflorescence abortion (months 28e
32), and potential bunch failure (months 36e38; Woittiez et al., 2017),
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a condition in which sparse or no fruit set is followed by complete drying

or rotting of the affected bunches for a variety of reasons (Corley and
Tinker, 2016). While water conditions (Bredas and Scuvie, 1960;
Broekmans, 1957; Corley, 1976; cited by Woittiez et al., 2017; Henson
and Dolmat, 2004) and defoliation seem to play an important role in
fruit development (Corley et al., 1995), nutrition also clearly has a role
to play.
Nutrient deficiencies in plants in general have been shown to result in
plant stress on several levels. Potassium helps in reducing oxidative stress
on subcellular level (Cakmak, 2005), and many other nutrients, such as
zinc and magnesium have been shown to have similar effects. Most tangibly
though, proper nutrition contributes to healthy, vigorous, and more
stress-tolerant plants and indeed a reduction in yield can be interpreted as
a sign of stress in itself. When comparing fresh fruit bunch yields on a yearly
basis between plots with fertilization and ceased fertilization, reduced
productivity becomes noticeable after 2 years and after 1 year on very
poor soils (Fig. 1; Manjit et al., 2014; Nazeeb et al., 1993), highlighting
the crucial importance of good nutrition for plant health and optimal
performance.
Figure 1 Fresh fruit bunch yield (t/ha/y), with fertilization (dotted lines) and ceased
fertilization (continuous lines). Based on Nazeeb, M., Tang, M.K., Letchumanan, A., Loong,
S.G., 1993. Trials cessation of manuring before replanting, In: Proceedings of 1993 PIPOC
PORIM International Conference, Palm Oil Congress: Update and Vision. Presented at the
1993 PIPOC PORIM International Conference, Palm Oil Congress: Update and Vision. Palm Oil
Research Institute of Malaysia (PORIM), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp. 293e312.
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Feeding the Palm 11
2.5 Oil Palm Yield Gaps

Crop yield is generally defined as the weight of grain or other product, at
some agreed standard moisture content, per unit of land area harvested per
crop per time period (Fischer et al., 2014). Yield is a consequence of the inter-
action of genetics, environment, and management. The genetic component
expresses the maximum yield under perfect conditions that a genotype is
able to produce. The environment affects the expression of the genetic
component and is summarized as the site yield potential, defining the obtain-
able yield on a specified site, with optimal nutrient supply, no soil constraints
and good pest and disease control (Corley and Tinker, 2016). The difference
between the site yield potential and the actual yield is called yield gap and is
the management component that can be deployed for the production
system to meet the environmental and genetic potential. The achievable
yield, which is the yield a prudent farmer may achieve on good land in
good seasons, is somewhat less than the potential yield and so can become
the target for BMPs.
Assessing regional maximum or achievable yields is important in order to
manage realistic expectations of the potential of management interventions
to raise yields. In smallholder plantations of less than 50 ha, which produce
around 40% of crude palm oil worldwide, peak oil yields of 12 t/ha/year
have been achieved, with a maximum theoretical yield of 18.2 t oil/ha/
year estimated from simulation models (Corley, 1996). Oberth€ ur et al.
(2017), on the other hand, report maximum recorded achievable farm yields
of 9e10 t/ha/year but noted that there is high variability both spatially and
temporally. This led those authors to estimate maximum plantation block
yields of 7e8 t/ha/year and about 6 t/ha/year on the most productive
plantations as a whole. Average crude palm oil productivity worldwide
has stagnated at around 3 t/ha/year and about 4 t/ha/year in Indonesia
and Malaysia, which are the most advanced producers (Oberth€ ur et al.,
2017; Woittiez et al., 2017). The exploitable yield gap between attainable
and actual yield in commercial oil palm cropping assessed in four sites in
Southeast Asia ranges from 5 to 7 t fresh fruit bunches/ha/year (Hoffmann
et al., 2017). To meet the approximated global demand for oil palm in 2050,
a need for an increase to 5.2 t/ha/year has been estimated (Corley, 2009a),
whichdbased on the previous discussiondseems achievable.
Yield responses in general are only partly explicable, and especially those
related to waterlogging, drainage, micronutrients, and biotic stresses in
mature plantations are still poorly understood. It is uncontroversial that these
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physical influences contribute to yield gaps. In oil palm plantations, reasons

for yield gaps are generally related to three major factors: poor plantation
establishment, nutrient deficiencies, and poor plantation management.
Fairhurst (2010) point out that there are several factors within these cate-
gories that affect plant development and consequently yields. When planta-
tions are established, common failures are poor nursery technique and
culling, erosion and compaction at land clearing, incorrect planting density
or inaccurate lining, failure to replace unproductive palms, poor gap filling at
planting, gaps due to palm death, and failure to establish legume cover
plants. Most common nutrient-related issues are the inadequate handling
of soil spatial variability, faulty leaf sampling, insufficient field inspection
to corroborate results of leaf analysis, failure to use long-term data trends,
and failure to make spatial analysis of nutritional trends. Poor harvesting
and management include inadequate infrastructure such as palm to mill
access, poor control of harvest intervals, poor harvest supervision, failure
to implement fertilizer and crop residue application programs accurately,
and imperfect human resource management.
There is surprisingly little information on the individual impact of those
factors on plantation output. The most comprehensive analysis as to the
impact of different factors on oil palm productivity and the closing of yield
gaps in the past was calculated based on data from Kluang estate in Malaysia
(Davidson, 1991). In 1951, oil yields of 1.3 t/ha/year were reached on that
estate. Addressing improved fertilization, using a Deli Dura selection, and
the introduction of Tenera each increased this yield by 1ton or more
(Fig. 2). Other agronomic improvements and increased factory efficiency
added another 0.8 t/ha/year, adding up to a total of 5.4 t/ha/year by
1991 (Davidson, 1991).
Even though better genetics have provided significant yield improve-
ment, BMPs imply the use of high yielding, and in some parts of the world,
disease-resistant progeny which has been a major focus in the past (Khatun
et al., 2017). The continuing importance of good progeny selection was
demonstrated by Ollivier et al. (2017), showing that crossbreed accessions
could differ in yields of more than 1.8 t crude palm oil/ha/year despite
the same K uptake. This points to a significant increase in nutrient use
efficiency.
Regionally specific yield gap closure holds opportunities at many levels.
In some environments with seasonal or irregular rainfalls, such as in Ghana,
water availability is the single most important yield constraint, reducing
potential by more than 20% relative bunch yield (Rhebergen et al., 2016).
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Feeding the Palm 13
Figure 2 Impact of different changes in oil palm management since 1951. Based
on Davidson, L., 1991. Management for efficient cost-effective and productive oil palm
plantations, In: Progress, Prospects Challenges towards the 21st Century. (Agriculture).
Presented at the PORIM International Palm Oil Conference. Palm Oil Research Institute of
Malaysia, Ministry of Primary Industries, Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp. 153e167.
Experiments on six commercial sites in Indonesia suggested potential yield

increases of 1.5% to up to 23% if BMPs were applied (Donough et al.,
2009). These trials also revealed that both bunch numbers and bunch weight
increased with such practices over a 5-year period, and that the increase was
progressive for the first 4 years.
Developing BMPs is an important strategy to improve both economic
and environmental sustainability by closing yield gaps. Within a BMP for
oil palm, the efficient and appropriate supply of nutrients to oil palms is a
core component. However, nutrient practices need to be placed within a
wider set of BMPs for plantation management. The first step for improve-
ment should always be a yield assessment in such a way that all bunches are
harvested and all loose fruits collected, allowing spatial distribution
mapping of current yields across the plantation (Oberth€ ur et al., 2012b).
It has been shown that poor harvest and processing management results
in losses, which means lower effective yields reaching the mills (yields
taken), compared with the potential yields growing on the trees (yields
made; Cock et al., 2014, 2016; IPNI SEAP, 2015; Oberth€ ur et al.,
2012a). Improving harvest efficiency alone presents a great opportunity
for improved yields.
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As a second step, canopy management needs to be addressed with

respect to correct pruning, removal of abnormal and diseased palms,
and supplying vacant planting points (Donough et al., 2010), while pests,
diseases, weeds, and cover crops must be controlled according to estate
standards. Subsequently, soil conditions should be optimized through
drainage and water conservation measures, as well as improved soil
management.
Once these factors are addressed, nutrient management and fertilizer
application strategies may be developed to identify the requirements to
achieve optimal yields. The importance of good nutrient management is
highlighted by the results of field audits in a leading plantation group, in
which 30%e40% of fields were found to have uneven or late application
of fertilizers (Mathews and Foong, 2010), leading to suboptimal yields.
Finally, in order to optimize inputs, well-designed field fertilizer experi-
ments are required.
Such an optimization process is challenging for small-scale farmers and
large plantations alike, but the gained understanding and consequent
management strategies developed have been clearly shown to pay off
economically as well as in terms of management efficiency and environ-
mental sustainability.
2.6 Contribution of Nutrition Management to Yield Gap

Closure
The importance of good nutrient practices is clear. There is a direct relation-
ship between plant nutrition and yields, and fertilizer expenditure together
with harvesting costs account for 50%e70% of the on-farm production costs
in commercial operations (Veloo et al., 2013). However, it is not common
to measure or report nutrient performance. This is mainly because the way
yields are assessed under commercial conditions does not provide the same
unambiguous data clarity as experimental data do. In plantations, there are
no control treatments, and various confounding factors, such as year-to-
year variation in harvesting efficiency, fertilizer management, and weather
conditions make comparisons very difficult (Hoffmann et al., 2017). To
address those issues, new approaches to estimate recovery efficiencies and
production quality have been suggested, such as measuring variables that
allow calculating field oil recovery efficiency, potential oil extraction rate,
mill extraction efficiency, and many more (Cock et al., 2014).
Across a wide range of soil types, it has been shown that yield increases
can occur where adequate nutrients are supplied (Fig. 3). Even so, it is not
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Feeding the Palm 15
35.0
Maximum Yield Plots Control Plots
30.0 31.6
30.5 30.6 30.5 31.1
29.1
26.4
25.0
21.9 21.8
20.0
19.9
18.5
15.0
14.3
10.0
5.0
ium
LL
ol
ol
ol
ol
dA
xis
tis
tis
ltis
ov
ep
ep
do
an
oll
du
nc
inc
Inl
an
dc
an
di
Inl
l
ta
an
an
Inl
as
Inl
Inl
Co
Figure 3 Maximum versus control fresh fruit bunch yield from 23 fertilizer trials in
Malaysia. Based on Tarmizi, A.M., Dolmat, M.T.H., Zakaria, Z.Z., 1992. Maximum yield of
oil palm in peninsular Malaysia: yield response and efficiency of nutrient recovery. Pre-
sented at the 1990 ISOPB International Workshop on Yield Potential in the Oil Palm.
October 29e30. Palm Oil Research Inst. of Malaysia, Phuket, Thailand, pp. 145e153.
possible to make general recommendations on an ideal fertilization regime

because of the complexity and variability of plantenutrienteclimateesoil
interactions. One example is the interaction between P, K, and Mg, which
directly influences yields. Plantation trials in Indonesia showed only a small
yield response with fertilizer applications above 2 kg urea and triple super-
phosphate (TSP), 2.5 kg muriate of potash, and 1.5 kg kieserite per palm
per year (BLRS, 1997). Doubling urea and TSP while keeping KCl and
kieserite unchanged resulted in the highest fresh fruit bunch yield (28 t/
ha/year), but doubling K and kieserite application resulted in the highest
oil yields (9.5 t/ha/year).
The role of N varied depending on location and was not important
for increased yields on a red podzolic derived from liparitic tuff or on a
yellowered podzolic with good drainage from former rubber plantations.
On an alluvial soil with poor drainage and former rubber plantation, N alone
led to a 21% yield increase and even to a 41% fresh fruit bunch increase
when applied together with P (BLRS, 1997).
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In Indonesia, the application of K in form of 2.5 kg muriate of potash per

palm per year led to a significantly increased kernel:bunch ratio but
decreased the oil:bunch ratio. The application of Mg given as 1.5 kg of
Kieserite, on the other hand, significantly increased the mesocarp:fruit ratio,
leading to an improved oil:bunch ratio (BLRS, 1997). However, other
authors have not reported significant responses, and so the effect of K and
Mg on bunch parameters is inconclusive (Azman et al., 1996).
The additional application of slow nutrient-releasing recycled material can
further contribute to yield gap closure. In Malaysia, the application of 300 kg
of empty fruit bunches per palm per year over a 10-year period led to an
increase in soil organic matter from 1.5% to 2.7% and a 9% increase in yield
compared with fertilizer treatments alone (Rosenani et al., 2011). In P. Ram-
bong estate in Indonesia on a yellowebrown podzolic, applying 80 t/ha
empty fruit bunches every 2 years was found to increase leaf nutrient levels
to the optimum, while mineral fertilizer application alone would result in
deficient leaf K levels, and empty fruit bunches alone in low N, P, and Mg
levels (BLRS, 1997).
Beneficial cover plants offer further performance gains, even though the
effect is less immediate than some other management practices. The above
ground dry matter content of a leguminous cover peaks by about the end of
the third year after planting (Foster, 1975). Thereafter it declines until at
about the end of the sixth year, almost all legumes have disappeared due
to competition from the tree crop. A legume cover, in comparison with a
nonleguminous cover, can thus be expected to benefit a tree crop in the
initial years because it does not compete for soil nitrogen, and in the fourth
to sixth year, it will have its greatest effect when it returns a considerable
amount of nitrogen as well as other nutrients to the soil as it dies and decom-
poses. Foster (1975) calculates that, ignoring the contribution from roots, the
total nitrogen content of a legume crop is equivalent to 2 kg N per palm
applied annually over 3 years, while during the decline of the cover,
124 kg N per hectare per year are returned to the soil in phosphate fertilized
plots, compared with 12 kg N per hectare in unfertilized plots. On a per
hectare basis, 150 kg N derived from the atmosphere (fixed) per year have
been reported, plus the additional uptake from the soil of about the same
amount in the early years of establishment, all of which is released later
when the crop dies off (Agamuthu and Broughton, 1985). Additionally,
the cycling of organic materials from the cover crop can return about
30 kg P/ha and 80 kg K/ha (Foster, 1975). The cover crop slows water
movement across the soil surface compared with a bare soil, resulting in less
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Feeding the Palm 17
runoff and leaching which in turn promotes better nutrient retention

(Agamuthu and Broughton, 1985). Legume cover crops have been shown
to be more effective in raising leaf N concentration in young oil palms
than the application of 2 kg ammonium sulfate per palm (Foster, 1975).
However, this response is very variable depending on the success of the cover
crop, soil conditions, and environment. Table 1 shows N input from legumes
can range from 50 to 300 kg N/ha (Fairhurst and H€ardter, 2003).
Once fully established, nonleguminous cover crops seem to become
self-supporting, maintaining a stable soil organic matter layer through which
nutrients are recycled (Foster, 1975). This mulch can then serve as a leaching
and run-off barrier that traps mobile nutrients and helps prevent erosion,
while the increased soil organic matter increases nutrient and water holding
capacity and ultimately soil health.
3. NUTRIENTS IN AN OIL PALM SYSTEM

3.1 Soil Nutrient Inputs, Stocks, and Dynamics
The supply of nutrients to plants from soils comes from soil mineral
and organic nutrient stocks, rainfall, organic matter from vegetation, and
from agronomic inputs, such as fertilizers and crop residues. Soil mineral
nutrients come from the weathering of the parent material by physical,
microbial, and geochemical processes as well as mineralization from organic
matter, providing a supply of nutrients, although often the rate of this
process is very slow and unable to match the demand of crops. At the
same time, leaching, biological processes, and erosion leads to the removal
of nutrients as well as their removal in crop products. Once a balance of
input and removal is reached, only negligible depletion of soil nutrients
will occur, if any. Given the large differences in soil types, substantial
variations in soil nutrient supply and nutrient regeneration speed exist
(Goh, 2011). Still, compared with temperate soils, soils in the tropics tend
to be more acidic, highly weathered, and leached. Poor drainage due to
compacted layers is a common problem, and rapid cycling of organic matter
generally prevents the accumulation of deep humus layers.
In oil palm plantations like other managed agroecosystems, additional
nutrient removals will occur in the crop or livestock products. Transfers
of nutrients away from the site through leaching, run-off, erosion, or
volatilization represent unrecoverable losses from the system. Some nutrients
stored in plant organs such as trunk, roots, fronds, and male flowers may be
18
Table 1 Quantification of Nutrient Inputs and Losses in Oil Palm Systems
Input Losses
Rain Legumes Leaching Wash Off P-Fixation N-Volatilization
Nutrient kg/ha/y kg/ha % of Applied % of Applied g/kg soil kg/ha/y
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N 3e12 50e300 2.4e23 2e15.6 5.4e18.6
P 0.1e0.5 4.5e18.5 1.6e2.6 0.6e3.5 0.01e2.7
K 2e38 15.5e188 2.7e31 0.8e10.8
Mg 2e18 9.5e36 15e48 2.2e8.7
Ca 2e22 67e138 0.8e6.8
S 2e12 57e66
Micronutrients 0.1e1 kg 3.3e34
References Beavington Han and Chew Chang et al. Kee and Chew Rahman (1979), Pardon et al.
(1979), Ling (1982), (1995), Foong (1996), Maene Warren (1992) (2016b)
(1984), Zhang Houngnandan (1991), Omoti et al. (1979)
et al. (2007, et al. (2000), et al. (1983)
1999) Sanginga
(2003), Watson
et al. (1964)
T.T. Tiemann et al.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
Feeding the Palm 19
Figure 4 Nutrient cycles in oil palm plantations. FFB, fresh fruit bunches; EFB, empty
fruit bunches, POME, palm oil mill effluent. Adapted from Corley, R.H.V., Tinker, P.B.
(Eds.), 2016. The Oil Palm, fifth ed John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ.
temporarily sequestered but become released at some time later. The

recycling of empty fruit bunches, other plant parts, and mill waste products
provides a recoverable source of nutrients. Finally, nutrients are exported in
fresh fruit bunches. Fig. 4 shows a summary of the pathways of nutrients
within an oil palm plantation (Corley, 2009a).
The mobility and chemical stability of different nutrients vary, and a good
understanding of these processes is crucial for optimal use. Nitrogen is domi-
nantly present in organic forms that are first mineralized to ammonium and
then nitrified to nitrate. As an anion, nitrate is the preferred form for nutrient
uptake by plants but is highly mobile in the soil and so highly prone to loss by
leaching and run-off. Other important nitrate loss processes are through deni-
trification where nitrate is reduced to various oxides of nitrogen and ulti-
mately to molecular nitrogen. Ammonium N is a cation so can become
adsorbed onto soil colloids, but it can volatilize to ammonia if at the soil sur-
face. Losses due to leaching and run-off can be up to 48% of applied N within
7 days of application on sandy clay loam soils in the humid tropics, with even
higher losses expected on light-textured soils (Kee et al., 2005).
Potassium is generally supplied as KCl or sulfate of potash, which
dissociates to provide K cations that bind to colloidal exchange sites. While
generally immobile, K can be displaced off the colloid by hydrogen ions in
acid soils or by other cations with a higher charge density such as calcium and
magnesium.
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Much of the phosphorus in soils is present in low solubility compounds

or as organic P, but these pools are in equilibrium with water-soluble P,
which is the main P resource for plants (Plassard and Dell, 2010). Inorganic
phosphate can be rapidly precipitated or bound by cations (e.g., Ca2þ and
Mg2þ, as well as Fe3þ and Al3þ in acid soils), rendering it unavailable to
plants. It binds strongly to soil particles, and P losses can occur through
erosion or runoff (Corley and Tinker, 2016). Phosphorus compounds can
be mineralized from the degradation of plant litter, microbial detritus, and
soil organic matter and are also an important source of P for plants (Shen
et al., 2011). It is unclear if organic P compounds can be taken up directly
by plant roots (Rennenberg and Herschbach, 2013), but some residues
produce orthophosphate which is available to plants (Nowak, 2014).
Root exudates such as acid phosphatases, malic acid, and citric acid can foster
the release of inorganic P from organic P compounds (Gan et al., 2016).
As organic P can account for a large percentage of total soil P, both organic
and inorganic sources are seen as important for total P supply in agricultural
and natural ecosystems.
To estimate the amount of nutrient losses in oil palm plantations,
Kee and Chew (1996) conducted a run-off trial on a Rengam series soil,
measuring cumulative nutrient losses from the first five rain events after
fertilizer application in April and October. They found that over 32% of
N, 46% of K, nearly 25% of P, and 60% of Mg were lost to run-off each
year. The validity of these data though needs further confirmation as other
factors such as timing, nutrient source, slope, soil type, and rainfall intensity
are likely to affect the magnitude of losses. Pauli et al. (2014) showed
the mobility of available P through moving soil particles over time. In
0e20 cm soil depth, P was typically around three to five times higher in
weeded circles than in deeper layers or the adjoining frond stack area.
Over time it decreased though in the upper weeded circle layer and
increased in deeper layers and beneath the frond stacks, indicating a certain
mobility of P in oil palm systems, which over time leads to significant
nutrient relocation.
The amount of nutrient input from rainfall varies with location, and
deposition of N and S tends to be highest near human settlements and cities
(Zhang et al., 1999). Dust and sand from desert storms, as well as salt spray
from the ocean, contribute to nutrient input (Beavington, 1979).
Some vegetation is able to retain or even provide additional nutrients to
the system. Legumes, through the action of symbiotic bacteria, are the most
well-known example, with the capacity to convert atmospheric nitrogen
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Feeding the Palm 21
into organic forms. As a consequence, N deficiency is less common in

plantation stands with leguminous cover crops than in stands with other
cover plants (Uexk€ ull and Fairhurst, 1999).
Some other plant species have the ability to sequester N, such as
Parasponia andersonii which has evolved a rhizobial symbiosis indepen-
dently of legumes (Op den Camp et al., 2012). Similarly, some Casuar-
inaceae, Myricaceae, and Rhamnaceae species can fix N through an
actinorhizal symbiosis with Frankia fungi (Santi et al., 2013). Certain
grass species have the ability to produce biological nitrification inhibitors
that suppress the conversion of ammonium to nitrate in the soil
(Subbarao et al., 2013), reducing potential leaching and denitrification
losses of N. Quantitative contributions from several different sources
are given in Table 1.
Soil nutrient stocks depend on parent material and various pedogenic pro-
cesses to produce the soil properties that affect nutrient dynamics. Despite the
large differences in soils, there are some generalizations that can be made. For
example, the strength with which phosphate adsorption takes place in tropical
soils can be roughly described as oxisol > ultisol > alfisol > entisol, and mol-
lisol, but with great variation and overlap (Warren, 1992). In certain soils, P
adsorption and absorption can be so strong, that the nutrient becomes unavai-
lable to plants. This process follows a saturation dynamic where the absolute
amount of sorbed P increases, but at decreasing rates, leading to lower sorp-
tion percentages at higher P application rates (Rahman, 1979).
3.2 Soil Test Critical Values

While it is possible to compensate for low soil nutrient concentrations with
fertilizers, intrinsic soil properties will always influence the availability of
both native and added nutrients and consequently affect the nutritional state
of the plant (see Section 3.1, e.g., P adsorption). In general, optimum leaf
levels of P and K seem to increase with rainfall, while critical P levels corre-
late with planting density (Foster, 1995; Foster and Tarmizi, 1988). The
same authors indicate that on the rather infertile Malaysian inland soils,
critical K levels are negatively correlated to higher silt content alone (the
higher the silt content, the lower tend critical K levels to be), whereas on
more fertile coastal soils, critical K levels are lower the higher silt content
and cation exchange capacity (CEC) are. This is in line with findings
from Indonesia, where critical soil test K levels were affected by soil type,
clay type, and CEC. Those authors also reported that some K from fertilizer
became fixed into the nonexchangeable pool and so probably unavailable to
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plants (Ollagnier et al., 1987). Potassium supply, as indicated by leaf concen-

trations, appears to be strongly dependent on soil type and is reduced on soils
with higher water holding capacity. There are also interactions among
cations such as NHþ þ 2þ
4 K , Mg , and Ca
2þ
as they compete for exchange
sites, so that an excess of one may interfere with the availability of the others
(Senbayram et al., 2015). Potassium and Mg also compete for specific trans-
porters in the roots, so that depending on the relative concentrations of these
two cations in the soil solution uptake of Mg in particular can be disturbed
(Senbayram et al., 2015). There are indications that K and Mg and maybe Ca
in soil solutions play an important role, as antagonists and their ratio could be
useful in explaining low leaf K levels (Corley and Tinker, 2016; Fallavier
et al., 1989). Soil water content also affects cation solution concentrations,
which adds to the complexity of these interactions.
The relationships between tree performance and extractable soil P using
Bray II were shown for rubber. It was concluded that the same extraction
procedures were appropriate for other plantation crops such as oil palm,
cocoa, and coconuts in Malaysia (Pushparajah, 1994). However, while on
inland soils in Malaysia, the Bray II procedure corresponded with both
leaf phosphorus values and yields; in the small number of coastal soil sites
studied, no relationship was found (Foster et al., 1988).
Table 2 gives a summary of the desirable soil chemical properties for oil
palm. In Southeast Asia, oil palms have been planted on a wide variety of soils,
with eight types identified as the most common (Mutert, 1999). A selection of
soil properties from plantations in Southeast Asia and India are shown in
Table 3. It is estimated that more than 95% of oil palms planted in this region
are grown on acidic soils with low fertility and pH < 5. Seven out of these
eight soil types have low to very low available phosphorus (P), while half
of them have low to very low concentrations of nitrogen (N) and exchange-
able potassium (K), which becomes apparent when comparing Tables 2 and 3
The very low content of exchangeable magnesium (Mg) in Typic Palue-
dult is conspicuous, but when grown on any of the listed soil types except
Terric Troposaprist, Typic Sulfaquept, and Xanthic Kandiudox, oil palms
would be expected to respond strongly to applications of N, P, K, and Mg.
Despite these generalizations, soil fertility is not just a function of soil
nutrient content but is also affected by soil physical properties such as soil
texture and structure, soil depth, and the presence of rocks or gravel. So,
even though Briah series soil has a higher K content (88.7 kg/palm/year)
than Selangor series soil (67.2 kg/palm/year), and both belong to
the same taxonomic family, the former will supply less K to palms
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Feeding the Palm 23
Table 2 Soil Suitability Parameters for Oil Palm

Very Very
Soil Parameter Low Low Moderate High High
pH <3.5 3.5e4.0 4.0e4.2 4.2e5.5 >5.5

Organic C (%) <0.8 0.8e1.2 1.2e1.5 1.5e2.5 >2.5
Total N (%) <0.08 0.08e0.12 0.12e0.15 0.15e0.25 >0.25
Total P (mg/kg) <150 150e250 250e350 350e500 >500
Available P (mg/kg) <10 10e25 25e40 40e60 >60
Exchangeable K <0.08 0.08e0.20 0.20e0.25 0.25e0.30 >0.30
(cmol(þ)/kg)
Exchangeable Mg <0.08 0.08e0.20 0.20e0.25 0.25e0.30 >0.30
(cmol(þ)/kg)
CEC (cmol(þ)/kg) <6 6e12 12e15 15e18 >18
Deficiency Likely Possible e e Induced
Hidden hunger e e Likely e Possible
Fertilizer response Definite Likely Possible e Possible
Methods: pH: H2O, 1:2.5; Organic C: Walkley & Black; Total N: Kjeldahl; Total P: 25% HCl;
Available P: Bray II; Exchangeable K, Mg and CEC: Leaching with 1M ammonium acetate at pH 7.0.
mol(þ)/kg ¼ meq/100g.
After Goh, K.J., Chew, P.S., 1997. Interpretations of Analytical Data from Soil Survey Reports for
Manuring Recommendations: Some Pointers (Annual Journal/Report), Royal Johore Planters’
Association. Royal Johore Planters’ Association, Indonesia; Mutert, E., 1999. Suitability of soils for oil
palm in Southeast Asia. Better Crops Int.: Oil Palm Nutr. Manage. 13, 36e38
(0.99 kg/palm/year vs. 1.38 kg/palm/year) compared with the latter. This is
probably because of the silty clay texture, firmer consistence, and poorer soil
structure of the Briah series (Goh et al., 1994).
Soil variability can be expressed at a range of scales, from field or regional
averages down to within and between plantation rows. Because of this
variability, choosing suitable soil sampling procedures is an important and
often neglected component of collecting good quality soil nutrient data in
oil palm stands. Nelson et al. (2015) proposed that regular sampling and
analysis are appropriate at the beginning of a planting and then every
3e5 years to monitor the effect of management practices on soil nutrient
status. Typical plantation practice is to treat individual management blocks
of commonly 25e30 ha as sampling unit for both soil and plant sampling.
In a stratified sampling scheme of every 10th palm in every 10th row,
samples are taken from soil around 1% of all planted trees in the block. Given
a plant density of 130e150 trees/ha, typical blocks result in 32e45 points or
1 point per 0.6e0.8 ha. At each point, typically four types of samples
are taken, from both the palm circle and from under frond heaps, at
0e20 cm and 20e40 cm depths each. The samples from all 32e45 sample
24
Table 3 Topsoil (0e30 cm) Characteristics of Eight Soil Types Commonly Used for Oil Palm in Southeast Asia (From Mutert, 1999) and
India (Behera et al., 2017)
pH Corg Ntot P Bray II Exchangeable Clay Silt Sand
Ca Mg K Al
Soil Type H2O % % mg/kg cmol(þ)/kg %
Southeast Asia
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Terric Troposaprist 3.8 24.5 1.1 35 0.85 1.56 0.24 9.5 55 32 13
Typic Sulfaquept 4.1 2.5 0.2 18 0.18 0.20 0.32 12.5 72 21 7
Typic Hapludox 4.4 1.1 0.1 6 0.28 0.25 0.16 0.6 37 9 54
Xanthic Kandiudox 4.3 1.8 0.2 15 0.86 0.48 0.24 3.2 63 5 32
Typic Paluedult 4.4 1.2 0.1 12 0.16 0.03 0.09 1.4 18 8 76
Typic Hapludult 4.1 1.4 0.1 8 0.76 0.18 0.15 1.8 20 19 61
Typic Kandiudult 4.9 0.8 0.1 5 0.19 0.10 0.05 0.8 33 7 60
Typic Melanudanda 4.8 6.4 0.5 8 1.86 0.25 0.07 0.8 18 53 29
India Soil EC (dS/m)
Alfisols (Andhra Pradesh) 5.4e8.3 0.08e3.1 0.05e2.15
Alfisols (Goa) 4.3e6.8 0.51e4.8 0.05e1.06
Alfisols Inceptisols 4.9e8.7 0.12e2.9 0.10e2.54
(Karnataka)
Inceptisols Alfisols 4.4e5.4 0.31e3.6 0.03e0.48
T.T. Tiemann et al.

(Mizoram)
Vertisols (Gujarat) 6.4e8.3 0.31e3.6 0.26e1.16
a
12% allophane was present in the less than 2 mm soil mineral fraction.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Feeding the Palm 25
points are pooled to one sample per type per block, resulting in a total of
four samples per management block of 25e30 ha. This can be expected
to give sufficiently precise information for management decisions
(Pushparajah, 1994).
However, soil analysis protocols may require further investigation
because most commonly soil variables are measured at pH 7, and it is ques-
tionable how relevant the results are when most soils on which oil palms are
grown have a pH of 5 or less.
3.3 Nutrient Stocks in the Tree

While soils provide nutrients for good growth, there are aspects of oil palm
physiology that should be considered as well. There is genetic variability
in oil palm that results in significant morphological differences in height,
canopy size, bunch size, mesocarp volume, kernel oil content, overall vigor,
and many more (Soh et al., 2003), which in turn all have an effect on yields
(Norziha et al., 2008). Despite its importance, there is little data available on
the normal ranges of mineral nutrient concentration in different tissues in oil
palm. A recent study by Ollivier et al. (2017) found significant differences in
the concentrations of nutrients immobilized in a range of plant tissues
derived from different planting materials. Differences in sampling strategy
and then nutrient analytic procedures exacerbate the difficulty in developing
critical plant levels.
Nutrient concentrations of oil palm tissues in Malaysia were studied
the first time by Ng and Thamboo (1967) on Dura planting material.
Twenty years later, Teoh and Chew (1988a) studied the distribution of
K content in various components of fresh fruit bunches on both coastal
and inland soils of Malaysia for Tenera planting material, and almost
another 20 years after that, Tarmizi and Mohd Tayeb (2006) in Malaysia
and Prabowo et al. (2006) in Indonesia verified and updated these data for
Tenera palms. Today, a major problem is that the most comprehensive
sources of published data for annual growth and tissue nutrient concen-
tration (Gray, 1969; Ng et al., 1968; Tan, 1976; Vossen, van der, 1970)
are either from Dura material, which is not used for commercial produc-
tion anymore, or are not in the public domain and therefore difficult to
access.
3.3.1 Trunk Nutrients

Even though various authors reported on nutrient composition in whole or
chipped trunks, for reasons of data consistency, we report nutrient
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concentrations on whole trunk data. While Ng et al. (1968) and Gray (1969)
both reported trunk and other tissue concentrations values with an unrivaled
degree of detail, most of it was done on Dura Dura material. Tenera palms
were new at that time, so age-related nutrient dynamics in the trunk could
only refer to palms up to 5 years old. Concentrations of all major nutrients in
the trunk declined with palm age in both studies, later confirmed by
Fairhurst (1996), and K trunk stocks were higher than all other nutrients,
being twice the concentration of N. According to Teoh and Chew
(1988a), the palm trunks alone contained 34%e50% of the total palm K.
The decrease in K concentration with age indicates the potential storage
capacity of trunk tissue including the mobilization of K reserves when
necessary (Ng et al., 1968). There were declines in both P and Ca concen-
trations, but these were less pronounced than those for other minerals.
Gray (1969) analyzed inner stem sections taken from different heights,
cutting the trunk in equal sections from 30 cm under the apex to the
base, numbering the apex 1 and the base 7 in the same palms. Fairhurst
(1996) on the other hand sampled trunks of 10-year-old palms in 1-m
intervals up to 6.5 m height. Both authors found nutrient gradients along
the trunk but in opposite directions. No clear explanation for these
findings can be provided, which underlines the insufficient knowledge
about nutrient dynamics in the palm. Teoh and Chew (1988a) found
that palms planted on coastal soils had a higher trunk K concentration
than palms planted on inland soils, which could indicate a so far
little-investigated interaction between location and plant nutrient
concentrations.
3.3.2 Leaf Nutrients

Unlike stem sampling, leaf sampling generally follows a more standardized
procedure (Fig. 5). The compound leaves are arranged in a spiral pattern
on the stem, and consist of leaflets (pinnae) carried on either side of the
rachis, connected to the stem by a spined petiole which is shorter than
the rachis. Samples taken from fronds 9, 17, 25, and 33 showed decreasing
concentrations of N, K, and Mg in frond pinnae with increasing frond age
(Fairhurst, 1996). P concentration in pinnae in frond 9 was larger than in
frond 1, but in both pinnae and rachis, P concentrations decreased
from frond 9 to frond 33. Calcium concentration however increased in older
fronds. Less clear were the comparative concentrations between pinnae and
rachis. The concentrations of N, P, Mg, and Ca were higher in pinnae than
in rachis tissue, but the concentration of K in leaf pinnae was lower
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Feeding the Palm 27
Figure 5 Frond number identification for standardized sampling.
compared with leaf rachis tissue in frond 9, 17, 25, and 33. Similar differ-
ences between pinnae and rachis nutrient concentrations were also found
by Ng et al. (1968), Gray (1969), and Teoh and Chew (1988b). This higher
concentration of N, P, and Mg is found in frond pinnae because it is the
most photosynthetically active tissue of the leaf (Fairhurst, 1996). On the
other hand, higher K concentrations were reported in the rachis, which
reflects its role in turgor maintenance of the pinnae, as well as other func-
tions such as activation of enzymes, and stomatal regulation.
When comparing palms on three soil types (nonlateritic, partially later-
itic, and nodular lateritic) over time (Tan, 1976), nutrient concentrations
of the whole leaf, as well as the trunk, increased up to a palm age of
7e8 years before flattening out or decreasing (Fig. 6). This dynamic was
similar for all three soil types.
28
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Figure 6 Quantities of leaf (left) and trunk (right) nutrients in 3- to 9-year-old palms on a nonlateritic soil. Based on Tan, K.S., 1976. Studies on
Growth and Nutrition of Oil Palm (Master thesis). University of Malaya, Singapore.
T.T. Tiemann et al.

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Feeding the Palm 29
3.3.3 Bunch Nutrients

Bunch analysis revealed that most of the nutrient K in a bunch is
contained in stalk, empty spikelets, and mesocarp (Table 4; Teoh and
Chew, 1988a, 1988b). The highest concentration of K was found
in stalks (5.8%e8.4% of dry matter (DM)), which accounted for
19%e26% of total bunch potassium. Higher bunch K concentrations
are positively correlated with K availability in the soil, including from
fertilizers. On a sandy soil in Kalimantan, bunch nutrient concentrations
in g/kg fresh fruit bunches were 3.02e3.2 N, 0.37e0.4 P, 3.76e4.02 K,
and 0.5e0.52 Mg.
Tarmizi and Mohd Tayeb (2006) measured nutrient concentrations in
fresh fruit bunch components of Tenera palms and compared these with
earlier data on Dura bunches from Ng and Thamboo (1967). They showed
significant differences between Dura and Tenera nutrient concentrations so
that recommendation based on Dura plantings cannot be directly applied
to Tenera. This is supported by observations that there are significant
differences in nutrient demand among planting materials of different origin
and progeny, but there is little reliable information on this important area
(Kushairi et al., 1996; Ollivier et al., 2013).
3.4 Plant Tissue Critical Values

Measuring plant response to nutrient supply is a basic approach to determine
nutrient requirements of a crop. According to R€ omheld (2012), an element
is deficient if growth and yield increase after its supply, the level is appro-
priate if yields remain constant, and it is too high, having toxicity effects if
yields decrease. In oil palm, tissue analysis is commonly used to determine
nutrient requirements, using frond 17 rachis tissue for potassium analysis,
Table 4 K Nutrient Concentration (% of Dry Matter) in Various Components of Fresh

Fruit Bunches (Teoh and Chew, 1988a)
Coastal Soils Inland Soils
Bunch Components Control Fertilized Control Fertilized
Stalk 7.60e8.00 6.60e7.60 5.80e7.40 7.80e8.40

(25.6) (20.4) (22.7) (19.0)
Spikelet 2.16e2.50 2.12e3.05 2.00e2.12 2.50e2.90
Mesocarp 1.07e1.20 1.21e1.68 0.83e1.00 1.28e1.40
Shell 0.11e0.14 0.17 0.07e0.28 0.13e0.18
Kernel 0.52e0.53 0.51e0.52 0.44 0.45e0.48
Figures in brackets indicate the proportion relative to total bunch K.
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and leaf tissue for all other nutrients (Foster and Prabowo, 1996; Oberth€ ur
et al., 2012a; Teoh and Chew, 1988b). Combining leaf and soil analyses will
assist with identifying appropriate nutrient strategies, as tissue concentrations
may be low due to uptake competition such as between N and K or
between K and Mg. For example, leaf analysis may indicate a deficiency
of both N and K, but a parallel soil analysis may reveal that the soil K is
adequate and only N needs to be added, allowing significant cost savings
(Pushparajah, 1994). Nutrient concentrations in leaves can be influenced
by the selection of correct leaves, timing of sampling, and age of plantation,
and all need to be considered when interpreting the values. Critical concen-
trations are a fixed threshold value below which crop performance will be
adversely affected, and higher values in the sufficiency range indicate that
plant function can occur unimpeded by nutrient deficiency. The soil
nutrient availability is directly reflected in leaf concentrations, and falling
below this threshold indicates deficiency, which will result in poorer perfor-
mance or even disease-like deficiency symptoms.
Sufficiency ranges take into account a certain variability among
individual plants and give, similar to, for example, blood values in medical
check-ups, a range to be considered normal. Values below this range
indicate deficiency, while those above it suggest nutrient excess. Table 5
provides sufficiency ranges from experiments in southern India and from a
literature review focusing on Southeast Asia, as well as critical leaf values
for mature oil palm grown on different soils. The influence of environ-
mental factors such as soil quality on leaf nutrient concentration has been
observed (Acosta García, 2010) but is little understood.
The differences reported in Table 5 reflect the difficulty of developing
fertilizer recommendations because leaf nutrient concentrations decrease
with plant age and are influenced by several factors including leafage, leaflet
rank, leaf number, fruiting cycle, planting material, palm density, fertilizer
treatment, rainfall, and soil properties (Fairhurst, 1998; Oberth€ ur et al.,
2012a). Nutrient uptake can also be slow, so timing of tests relative to
application is important. For example, K uptake peaks around 21 weeks
after application, but residual effects can last up to 2 years after application
(Chan, 1982a). This may explain why optimal sufficiency ranges although
similar for N, vary for all other values among plantations across India and
Southeast Asia (Table 5). There is quite wide variation in the range of S
concentrations reported in Table 5, and survey data from IPNI SEAP
and partners have proposed a new critical S concentration of 0.15%
(Gerendas et al., 2015; Oberth€ ur, 2013), 25% lower than the published
Table 5 Sufficiency Ranges of Oil Palm Leaf Nutrients and Critical Levels of N, P, K in Frond 17 in Oil Palm
Caliman et al. (1994),
Behera et al. (2016a) Fairhurst and H€ardter (2003) Foster et al. (1988)
Data
Origin India, Mature Palms Palms Younger Than 6 Years Palms Older Than 6 Years Indonesia
Infertile Fertile
Inland Coastal
Nutrients Deficient Low Optimum High Excessive Deficient Optimum Excessive Deficient Optimum Excessive Soil Soil
N % <1.87 1.87e2.24 2.24e2.97 2.97e3.34 >3.34 <2.5 2.6e2.9 >3.1 <2.3 2.4e2.8 >3.0 2.65e3.00 2.40e2.65
P % <0.05 0.05e0.08 0.08e0.14 0.14e0.17 >0.17 <0.15 0.16e0.19 >0.25 <0.14 0.15e0.18 >0.25 0.170e0.185 0.155e0.175
K % <0.72 0.72e0.78 0.78e0.91 0.91e0.97 >0.97 <1.0 1.1e1.3 >1.8 <0.75 0.9e1.2 >1.6 1.00e1.15 0.85e1.05
Ca % <0.35 0.35e0.74 0.74e1.53 1.53e1.93 >1.93 <0.3 0.5e0.7 >0.7 <0.25 0.5e0.75 >1.0
Mg % <0.05 0.05e0.25 0.25e0.98 0.98e1.34 >1.34 <0.2 0.3e0.45 >0.7 <0.20 0.25e0.4 >0.7
S % <0.54 0.54e0.72 0.72e1.09 1.09e1.28 >1.28 <0.2 0.25e0.4 >0.6 <0.25 0.25e0.35 >0.6
Cl % <0.25 0.5e0.7 >1.0 <8 0.5e0.7 >1.0
B mg/kg <2.12 2.12e5.71 5.71e31.0 31.0e43.6 >43.6 <8 12e25 >40 <3 15e25 >40
Cu mg/kg <4.68 4.68e7.42 7.42e12.9 12.9e15.6 >15.6 <3 5e8 >15 <10 5e8 >15
Zn mg/kg <21.1 21.1e33.6 33.6e58.6 58.6e71.1 >71.1 <10 12e18 >80 12e18 >80
Mn mg/kg <46.4 46.4e82.5 82.5e681 681e1063 >1063
Fe mg/kg <55.1 55.1e82.8 82.8e936 936e1363 >1363
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value of 0.20% by Fairhurst et al. (2005) and six times lower than the
value given by Behera et al. (2016a) from their trials in India, which
are also not reflecting the normally assumed N:S balance of 12:1. Still,
even when taking 0.15% as the critical value, datasets from BMPs projects
in Indonesia indicate insufficient S leaf concentrations at all sites in the
largest oil palm production area of the world (Gerendas et al., 2015;
Oberth€ ur, 2013). It was proposed that this widespread deficiency was a
consequence of changing fertilizer products to dolomite instead of
kieserite and lack of the use of other S-containing fertilizers (Gerendas
et al., 2011). Inadequate S supply will directly affect fruit production
and general palm performance because of inhibition of essential protein
synthesis. The relationship between N and S through the S-containing
amino acids led Oberth€ ur (2013) to suggest an N/S ratio of 10/1 in
the fertilizer application regime, pointing at the moderate cost of adding
S into the fertilizer mix compared with the potential benefit due to
increase in oil yields and profits.
Another aspect of tissue nutrient concentration is the change of nutrient
demand over time. These demands change throughout the life of a palm,
and Table 6 summarizes data from several sources on the annual nutrient
demand of oil palm of various ages. The presented data are the only
published original data the authors could find. They highlight the lack of
consistency and the incompleteness of age-related nutrient removal data
currently available.
Table 6 Annual Nutrient Demand of Oil Palm of Various Ages (kg/ha)

Palm Age Plant Part N P K Mg Ca Reference
0e3 Whole palm excl. 40 6 55 7 13

Tan (1977) citing Tan
roots (1976)
3e9 Palm incl. prune 268 42 387 67 114 Tan (1977), Appendix 3
fronds and male infl
3e9 Palm excl. prune 191 32 287 48 85 Tan (1977), Appendix 3
fronds & male infl
9e12 Trunk þ root þ FFB 116 12 167 22 NA Tarmizi and Mohd
Tayeb (2006), Table 7
15e19 FFB þ Trunk only 215 26 199 29 NA Prabowo et al. (2006),
Table 4
15e19 FFB þ Trunk 386 45 368 55 NA Prabowo et al. (2006),
þ Frond Table 4
þ male infl
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Feeding the Palm 33
3.5 Nutrient Transfers and Recycling

On vegetated surfaces, nutrients are continuously extracted from the soil and
stored in plant organs. Depending on the longevity and further fate of these
plant parts, nutrients from fronds, flowers, empty fruit bunches, and trunks
may return to the soil as the materials are retained. On the other hand,
nutrients are removed from the field mainly in fresh fruit bunches. Once
the oil has been extracted from the fruits, a series of by-products including
empty fruit bunches, palm oil mill effluent (POME), decanter, and bunch or
boiler ash remains. These contain considerable amounts of nutrients, which
can be and often are fully or partly recycled. Table 7 lists ranges of nutrient
contents in these sources.
Palm fronds comprise about 52% of the total biomass produced by oil
palms (as trunk size increases over time, their share decreases from 78% in
young to 20% in 28-year-old palms) and fronds, trunks and empty fruit
bunches together account for more than 80% of biomass, while oil makes
up only about 10% (Teh, 2016). A yearly dry matter production of 12 t/ha
of pruned fronds can be expected, which contain large amounts of nutri-
ents (Table 8). For Indonesia, where oil palm production is the largest
source of agricultural biomass, total biomass from oil palm has been
estimated at about 570 Mt in 2013, of which 299 Mt are oil palm
fronds, 134 Mt are oil palm trunks, and 28 Mt are empty fruit bunches
(Teh, 2016).
However, for by-products as well as plant parts (especially fronds),
strategies to recycle these nutrients are not generally agreed. It is undisputed
that fronds contribute significant amounts of nutrients when recycled, if
placed carefully they can reduce erosion (Lim, 1990; Moradi et al., 2012),
and help reduce the spreading of weeds. Even so, plantation management
and economic constraints do not always allow for these potential benefits
to be captured. The Thai agricultural standard for oil palm, set by the
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, recommends as good agricultural
practices that palm frond pruning shall be managed in such a way that there
are only two fronds left subtending each bunch to support fruit filling. It is
recommended that pruned fronds be stacked around planted palms or spread
in neat lines in each alternate interrow to replenish organic matter to soil and
enhance moisture retention. This guide also proposes that organic residues
and empty fruit bunches be utilized as mulch around each palm to preserve
soil moisture (Korawis, 2008). This practice reflects normal field practice in
many oil palm plantations, where pruned fronds are heaped along every
Table 7 Nutrient Content Ranges in Recyclable Oil Palm By-Products
34
Nutrient EFB POME (7% H2O) POME Wet Decanter Bunch/Boiler Ash
N 0.61e1.05 % 2e2.3 % 47e1227 ppm 2.2e2.8 % 1.6 %

P 0.08e0.154 % 0.33e1.3 % 4.6e256 ppm 0.17e0.22 % 1.1e2.61 %
K 0.62e3.03 % 2e2.49 % 1008e3365 ppm 1.03e2.27 % 13e34.4 %
Mg 0.05e0.6 % 0.66e1 % 180e615 ppm 0.33e0.48 % 3e8.5 %
Ca 0.07e1.54 % 0.5 % 62e439 ppm 0.73e1.5 % 3.9e7.1 %
S 1.1 % 0.7 % 108 ppm 0.15e0.39 %
B 11e14 ppm ppm 7.6 ppm
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Cu 6e57 ppm 95.6 ppm 0.89 ppm
Zn 17e73 ppm 120 ppm 2.3 ppm
Fe 121e1076 ppm 0.8 ppm 47 ppm
Mn 10e230 ppm 180 ppm 2 ppm
Sources: Baharuddin et al. (2009), Baharuddin et al. Chan et al. (1980), Nahrul Haron et al. (2008), Awodun et al.
BLRS (1998), Chan et al. (2009), Singh et al. Hayawin et al. (2012), Paepatung (2007), Chan
(1980), Hornus and (1990) Prabowo et al. (2006), et al. (2009), Razak et al. (1980),
Nguimjeu (1992), Kala et al. Singh et al. (1990), et al. (2012), Sahad Omoti et al.
(2012), Khoo and Chew Sivapalan and Ripin (1997) et al. (2014), Yahya (1991)
(1979), Moradi et al. (2014), et al. (2010)
Nahrul Hayawin et al.
(2012), Prabowo
et al. (2006), Rosazlin
et al. (2011), Rosenani et al.
T.T. Tiemann et al.

(1996), Rosenani and
Wingkis (1999), Sal_etes et al.
(2004), Singh et al. (1982)
EFB, empty fruit bunches; POME, palm oil mill effluent.
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Feeding the Palm 35
Table 8 Nutrient Contents in Oil Palm Fronds

Nutrients Whole Palm kg/ha Fronds % Fronds kg/ha/year
N 588 0.75e0.98 104

P 58 0.08e0.096 10.6
K 1112 1.32e1.63 177
Mg 151 0.12e0.22 20.4
Ca 173 0.17e0.25 25.2
S 0.19 22.8
Sources Ng et al. (1968) Kala et al. (2012),
Ng et al. (1968)
Calculations for Frond Yields are based on average nutrient Levels, and 12 t/ha/y Frond Biomass as
Reported by Teh (2016).
alternate planting row, covering about 60% of total plantation area (Moradi
et al., 2012). Other recommendations involve the spreading of pruned
fronds evenly between palms to control erosion and recycle nutrients,
applying empty fruit bunch mulch evenly, and, less commonly so, using
compressed bunch mats (Corley and Tinker, 2016).
Replanting occurs normally after about 25 years, with a crop residue of
around 14 t/ha of fronds and 74.5 t/ha of trunks (Astimar, 2014 cited by
Teh, 2016). Almost all nutrients held in an old stand of palms are released
within the first 2 years after replanting, and Corley (2009b) recommends
to delay nutrient release by windrowing trunks instead of chipping or by
underplanting to delay felling and make nutrients available when the next
generation is developing. He assumes that uptake can be improved by
reducing other nutrient inputs such as fertilizers and empty fruit bunch
mulch and by improving vigor of the cover crop. He also suggests that
palm residues from old stands be transported to mature palm fields for
more efficient utilization because of the higher nutrient demand in the older
plantings compared with the replants.
3.6 Nutrient Effects, Deficiency Symptoms, and Beneficial

Elements
Unless attention is paid to nutrient management in oil palm plantations,
nutrient deficiencies and yield reductions are likely most commonly seen
as slow growth and delayed expansion of leaves (Tinker and Nye, 2000).
The delay in canopy development means a smaller total leaf area and alter-
ations in the root/shoot ratio resulting in a reduction of growth rate and
yield.
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Chan et al. (2000) reported the results of a survey on leaf symptoms and
described visible symptoms of nutrient deficiencies in oil palm. Corley and
Tinker (2016) however see the use of leaf symptoms only as indicator of fer-
tilizer requirements because visual symptoms are not able to be quantita-
tively assessed. Further to that, visible deficiency symptoms often only
occur in cases of serious nutrient shortage. Therefore, in modern plantation
practice, most plants do not show symptoms as fertilizer is generally used,
even if not to rates that can optimize production (Corley and Tinker,
2016). Imaging technology seems to offer the possibility to detect palm areas
with highly contrasting N, P, K, Ca, and Mg values and even boron and
molybdenum deficiencies by analyzing SPOT (multi-spectral Satellite
Pour l’Observation de la Terre e SPOT) imagery (Nguyen et al., 1995).
Until now, remote sensing has not been widely adopted commercially
mainly due to cloud cover, the size of the images generated, and the tech-
nology to automate image analysis. Unmanned aerial vehicles seem to offer a
range of possibilities for plantation sensing operations from plantation gaps,
nutritional assessments, and plant health and have received more attention
recently (Ng et al., 2012).
The effects of nutrient deficiencies in oil palm are often better known
than the exact role that different nutrients play in the plant. Based on the
amount required, plant nutrients are divided into macronutrients and micro-
nutrients. While N, P, and K are classified as macronutrients unanimously
because of the large quantities (tens of kg/ha) in which they are required,
calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S), are classified by some authors
as secondary macronutrients or mesonutrients, which are generally needed
in smaller quantities (kg/ha). For oil-palm, we do not distinguish between
primary and secondary macronutrients, given the high Mg and Ca tissue
values that exceed those of P. Micronutrients are elements only required
in small to trace quantities (g/ha) by the plant but which are still essential
to its health and vigor. These are boron (B), chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu),
iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), and zinc (Zn). There are
also some other nutrients such as silicon (Si) and nickel (Ni) that are consid-
ered as beneficial but not essential in all plants.
3.6.1 Nitrogen
Nitrogen is an integral part of every amino acid, the building blocks of
proteins, as well as a core component in many key molecules such as
chlorophyll, nucleic acids, and a wide range of secondary metabolites. It is
absorbed from the soil mostly as nitrate ðNO3 Þ.
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Feeding the Palm 37
Nitrogen deficiency is frequently observed in young palms grown in

areas with nonleguminous cover plants but is rare in old palms (Uexk€ ull
and Fairhurst, 1999). This is because the palm can translocate nitrogen
from older to younger tissue when supply is inadequate. As a consequence,
chlorosis which is the typical N deficiency symptom is typically found in
older fronds (Goh and H€ardter, 2003), with those fronds turning pale green
or yellowish due to a lack of chlorophyll. When young, the entire palm can
look pale, while in older palms, the midrib becomes bright yellow or orange,
in marked contrast to the lighter laminar tissue (Turner, 1981) or they have
an overall yellow or orange tinge from anthocyanins, which are no longer
masked by chlorophyll (Bould et al., 1983). The symptoms are equally
pronounced on both upper and lower rank pinnae. As N deficiency
increases in severity, vegetative growth, especially frond production, slows
(Rankine and Fairhurst, 1998). If N supply is not reestablished, necrosis
and the loss of leaves will follow (Hartley, 1988a). Nitrogen deficiency is
often associated with flooding and waterlogging or very low soil pH
(pH < 4) but may also occur on poor soils with competition from vigor-
ously growing weeds (Rankine and Fairhurst, 1998).
3.6.2 Phosphorus
Phosphorus is a central element in DNA and RNA, which make up the
genetic code, as well as compounds involved in energy regulation through
respiration and photosynthesis such as ATP and nicotinamide adenine dinu-
cleotide phosphate (NADP). They are also a component of phospholipids,
which are a major component of cell membranes. Phosphorus also specif-
ically promotes root development and is closely involved in the whole
reproductive process including fertilization, seed set, and fruit development.
Phosphorus deficiency can be found in areas where topsoil has been
removed or was lost due to erosion (Rankine and Fairhurst, 1998). Even
though P deficiency symptoms are less obvious than many other defi-
ciencies, plant performance and yield can still be reduced. Under severe
deficiency, plants become stunted with short, dark green fronds, and the
palm trunk takes on a pronounced conical shape (Rankine and Fairhurst,
1998). These effects though are rarely seen in the field. In young palms
and seedlings, P deficiency can result in reduced height and girth and
poor root development (Rankine and Fairhurst, 1999a). As palms grow
relatively slowly, fast-growing cover legumes, such as Pueraria phaseoloides,
can be used as indicators for P deficiency, as their leaves will remain small,
root nodulation will be sparse, and new establishment will be difficult.
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The invasive grass Imperata cylindrica that can often be found as weed on
plantations shows purplish discolorations on the leaf blade where P is lack-
ing. Indian rhododendron (Melastoma malabathricum) and tropical bracken
(Dicranopteris linearis) will start to out-compete other interrow species under
low soil P supply (Rankine and Fairhurst, 1998).
3.6.3 Potassium
Besides its contribution to high yields, K is required to sustain vegetative growth
of the palm (Chan, 1982a). It plays a crucial role by directly affecting the func-
tioning of chlorophyll. K also is essential to many turgor-related functions
including stomatal opening, regulating the exchange of carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis and evapotranspiration (Braconnier and d’Auzac, 1985), enzy-
matic functions, and protein synthesis. This gives it a key role in drought toler-
ance and the effects of biotic stresses such as wilting diseases caused by fungal
pathogens including such as Fusarium oxysporum var elaeidis (Hartley, 1988a).
Symptoms of potassium deficiency are common in oil palm and so have
common names, such as confluent orange spotting, orange blotch, and
diffused midcrown yellowing (Bull, 1954). In general, symptoms appear
on older leaves first as K is translocated from the older to younger fronds
(Rankine and Fairhurst, 1999b). In the early stage of the most common
condition, confluent orange spotting, rectangular spots appear on the frond
pinnae, which over time become more intense in color from yellow to
orange and expand across and between veins fusing into larger irregular
areas. Later, the palm gets a “bronzed” appearance, with chlorotic spots
often becoming necrotic and are then prone to secondary pathogenic
infections before wilting (Corley and Tinker, 2016).
Orange blotch or also known as “Mbawsi” in Nigeria, manifests as large
orange patches on pinnae, whereas the central midrib and the margins of the
pinnae remain green (Corley and Tinker, 2016). Midcrown yellowing
occurs on acid sands and peat soils, particularly after prolonged periods of
dry weather. Symptoms appear as a change of the crown color into a pale
yellow, without the usual orange tint (Corley and Tinker, 2016). In severe
cases, old fronds will suddenly wilt and die (Rankine and Fairhurst, 1998).
However, in well-managed nurseries and on suitable soils, serious K
deficiency is unusual (Rankine and Fairhurst, 1999a).
Behera et al. (2017) state that the symptoms of confluent orange spotting
begin to appear in older leaves, when the K tissue concentration of frond 17
falls below 1.0%, while other symptoms occur when the K concentrations
drop even further to 0.6%e0.4%.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Feeding the Palm 39
3.6.4 Magnesium
Magnesium is the central atom of the chlorophyll molecule and is as such of
vital importance for the binding of carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. It
is also involved in the mobilization of carbohydrates in older fronds for
translocation to fruits and roots. A primary and often unseen effect is the
decrease in root growth under Mg deficiency, leading to reduced nutrient
and water uptake (Cakmak et al., 1994; K þ S Kali, 2000). Deficiencies
are generally seen long before yield begins to suffer.
Magnesium deficiency in oil palm is easily and reliably recognized
(Dubos et al., 1999) and known as orange frond due to the vividly colored
chlorosis observed in severely deficient palms (Bull, 1961). Similar to N and
K, Mg is mobile and translocated from older to younger tissues (Goh and
H€ardter, 2003). Hence, initial symptoms of Mg deficiency appear as olive
green to ocher patches on the distal end of the older frond pinnae, especially
those exposed to full sunlight (Rankine and Fairhurst, 1998). In severe cases,
fronds become ocher to bright yellow and may eventually wilt (Goh and
H€ardter, 2003), though the youngest leaves do normally not exhibit defi-
ciency symptoms. A clear diagnostic feature of Mg deficiency is the shading
effect, meaning that leaves exposed to full sunlight show the strongest chlo-
rosis, while shaded pinnae remain dark green (Corley and Tinker, 2016).
In the penultimate stage of the disease, the chlorotic areas may be invaded
by secondary fungal infection especially Pestalotiopsis gracilis, which produces
purplish-brown lesions on the margins and distal ends of frond pinnae
(Rankine and Fairhurst, 1999b). In palm seedlings, Mg deficiency symptoms
manifest as a yellow rather than orange color (Corley and Tinker, 2016).
As magnesium is highly water soluble and due to its hydration very mobile,
this deficiency often occurs in very high rainfall areas (>3500 mm/year) and
on sandy textured soils with shallow topsoil as a result of leaching (Rankine
and Fairhurst, 1999b).
3.6.5 Sulfur
Sulfur is an important component in the essential amino acids methionine
and cysteine, which are important in determining the tertiary structures of
proteins through the formation of disulfide bonds.
In S-deficient plants, reductions in fresh leaf and root weight can be
observed (Bull, 1961). The early stages of S deficiency resemble N defi-
ciency. Symptoms include very pale yellow or almost white, chlorotic leaves
in seedlings (Corley and Tinker, 2016) and may result in increased incidence
of Cercospora infections (Calvez et al., 1976). It often occurs in young palms
ARTICLE IN PRESS
growing on acidic or poorly drained soils with low soil organic matter or
soils formerly covered by savannas (Calvez et al., 1976). In more severe cases,
small orange or brown necrotic spots appear on older leaves which eventu-
ally develop a terminal necrosis (Turner, 1981). There are no confirmed
reports of S deficiency in adult palms, and based on a survey conducted
by Ng et al. (1988), deficiency is considered rare in Malaysia. However,
as discussed in Section 3.4, in Indonesia, latent S deficiency seems to be
widespread.
3.6.6 Chlorine
Chlorine, present as the monovalent anion Chloride, affects the ability of the
plant to control turgor and osmosis-related processes such as the opening of
stomata and growth processes, and its deficiency leads to reduced vegetative
growth and wilting (Braconnier and d’Auzac, 1985; Corley and Tinker,
2016; Goh and H€ardter, 2003). Chlorine also plays an important role in
hydrolysis at the oxidizing site of photosystem II during photosynthesis
(Broadley et al., 2012). However, Cl also acts as a cation antagonist in cells,
which makes it difficult to identify its specific further effects, and much
uncertainty remains as to its role in the plant metabolism (Corley and
Tinker, 2016).
First reports of Cl deficiency in oil palm originate from Colombia
(Ollagnier and Ochs, 1971a, 1971b) where applications of muriate of potash
(KCl) resulted in yield increase. Leaf analyses revealed that chlorine contents
changed from 0.18% to 0.54%, whereas the leaf K concentration decreased,
suggesting the response was a consequence of improved Cl supply rather
than K. A similar response was reported later in Papua New Guinea (Breure
and Rosenquist, 1977; Wilkie and Foster, 1990). Chlorine also seems to
promote increased Mg uptake if K and Mg are imbalanced, leading to higher
leaf levels of this nutrient when Mg and Cl sources are provided simulta-
neously (BLRS, 1997). Visual recognition of deficiencies is difficult though,
as the only reported chlorine deficiency symptom is flaccid and olive-
colored leaves (Corley and Tinker, 2016).
3.6.7 Boron
Boron plays a role in a diverse range of plant functions including cell wall
formation and stability, maintenance of structural and functional integrity
of biological membranes, cell wall strength, meristematic growth, move-
ment of sugar and Ca, and pollination and fruiting.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Feeding the Palm 41
Boron deficiency is the most widespread micronutrient disorder in oil

palm, often occurring only temporary, thus sometimes seen as the most
elusive of deficiencies in oil palm (Hartley, 1988a). Boron seems to be a
rather immobile element in the plant, whose absence in growing points leads
to abnormal development of new tissues (Corrado et al., 1992). Boron defi-
ciency leads to impaired meristematic growth, resulting in retarded growth
of root tips and other apical tissues, including floral abortion due to failing
pollen germination and pollen tube growth (Goh and H€ardter, 2003). All
deficiency symptoms are characterized by abnormal leaf shape, particularly
at the distal end of the frond (Rankine and Fairhurst, 1998), termed Fish
Leaf, Hooked Leaf, Little Leaf, and Fish-bone Leaf, depending on its
manifestation. In general, an early sign is the shortening of younger leaves
(Rajaratnam, 1976), which in severe deficiency progresses to the Little
Leaf symptom resulting in palms producing small leaves and short petioles
(Corley and Tinker, 2016). This gives palms a “flat top” appearance, coming
from the emergence of progressively shorter new fronds. However, Uexk€ ull
and Fairhurst (1999) point out that Little Leaf has often been attributed to B
deficiency but is in fact a consequence of damage of growing points that can
be from a range of causes, such as Oryctes beetles, which is often followed by
secondary pathogenic infections in the spear that may lead to spear rot and
palm death. For differential diagnosis, a general feature of B-deficient leaves
is to become often corrugated, with sharply bent tips (Rajaratnam, 1972).
Boron deficiency usually appears under high rainfall conditions and on sandy
and peat soils where B is readily leached (Corley and Tinker, 2016).
Due to fear of the negative effects of B deficiency, overfertilization has
been observed in Colombia with toxicity symptoms including yellow stripes
on leaves, which in turn become necrotic and can show as leaf breakage
(Arias A. and Munévar M., 2006).
3.6.8 Copper
Copper activates certain enzymes involved in lignin synthesis, is required
for photosynthesis and plant respiration, and assists in the carbohydrate
and protein metabolic pathways.
Copper deficiency leads during the early stage to chlorotic rectangular
speckles (0.5e1.0 mm diameter) that appear on the youngest open frond
(Goh and H€ardter, 2003). As the deficiency intensifies, yellow, mottled,
interveinal stripes appear and rusty, brown spots develop on the distal end
of pinnae (Uexk€ ull and Fairhurst, 1999), often combined with frond
ARTICLE IN PRESS
shortening, chlorosis, and later necrosis on young pinnae (Corley and

Tinker, 2016). Copper deficiency is a well-known problem on peat soils
but can be equally serious on sandy mineral soils (Wanasuria and Gales,
1990). It was first observed on peat soils and described as “midcrown
chlorosis” (Ng et al., 1974; Ng and Tan, 1974). On a very sandy tertiary
sedimentary soil in Brazil, Pacheco and Tailliez (1986) reported copper defi-
ciency from nursery plants with leaf concentrations of only 2 ppm. While
this deficiency gets accentuated by the application of N and P fertilizers,
the application of K reduces its impact (Wanasuria and Gales, 1990).
Tohiruddin et al. (2010) found actually that in North Sumatra, N and P
application depressed leaf Cu and Zn levels, particularly in older palms
(17e20 years).
3.6.9 Zinc
Zinc is of relevance for the auxin metabolism, which regulates, as a plant
growth regulator, many physiological functions including wound response,
root and fruit growth and development, apical dominance, flowering, and
senescence.
Zinc-deficient palms are stunted, and root growth may be enhanced at
the expense of shoot growth. Zinc deficiency typically causes small, narrow,
white streaks on lower and midcrown fronds (Uexk€ ull and Fairhurst, 1999)
or a yellow-orange chlorosis of older fronds, while young fronds become
pale and chlorotic (Corley and Tinker, 2016). It is considered as the primary
cause of “peat yellow” disorder (Singh, 1988; Singh et al., 1987). Generally,
palms on field edges, where they are more exposed to light, show stronger
symptoms (Corley and Tinker, 2016). Zinc deficiency is not common in oil
palm but may be induced under high soil P status and occurs on ultrabasic
and ultramafic soils with high soil pH (Uexk€ ull and Fairhurst, 1999). A
decline in soil status under oil palm cultivation has been reported from
Nigeria (Obi and Udoh, 2012). The disorder can be cured or prevented
by spraying Zn solutions onto the foliage or by applying Zn salts to the
soil before planting (Corley and Tinker, 2016).
3.6.10 Manganese
Manganese is a cofactor for enzymes that take part in photosynthesis, respiration,
and nitrogen assimilation. It seems also involved in pollen germination, pollen
tube growth, root cell elongation, and resistance to root pathogens.
Manganese deficiency results in reduction of photosynthetic activity,
inhibition of root growth, reduced tissue lignification, and thus increased
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Feeding the Palm 43
susceptibility of roots to pathogenic attack. Discontinuous interveinal

chlorotic streaks first appear on younger fronds and eventually become chlo-
rotic with a striped appearance. Newly emerged fronds become progres-
sively smaller and chlorotic, and the palm canopy appears unthrifty and
retarded (Goh and H€ardter, 2003). In severe cases, chlorosis and necrosis
affect the newly emerged spear before frond pinnae have expanded (Kee
et al., 1995b). The symptoms are found on younger rather than on older
fronds and are equally pronounced in sun-exposed and shaded pinnae
(Uexk€ ull and Fairhurst, 1999). Manganese deficiency is not common but
can occur on highly leached tropical soils, deep peat soils, and sandy soils
with <10% clay and is sometimes also associated with soils with high
exchangeable Mg status (Uexk€ ull and Fairhurst, 1999; Goh and H€ardter,
2003). Kee et al. (1995a, 1995b) reported Mn deficiency in palms on a sandy
colluvium derived from Rengam series soil with total Mn concentrations less
than 20 ppm.
3.6.11 Iron
Iron has a vital role in respiration as a cofactor for enzymes in the Krebs cy-
cle, allowing the generation of energy in the cell, and assists in nitrate and
sulfate reduction.
Iron deficiency in oil palm is rarely recorded because tropical soils are
usually well supplied with Fe (Zakaria and Jamaluddin, 1992). However,
Fe deficiency can occur in areas with very high soil pH (>7.5) (Uexk€ ull
and Fairhurst, 1999) or close to termite mounds (Behera et al., 2017).
Setyobudi et al. (1999) observed Fe deficiency in mature palms on a Histic
Tropaquept in Northern Riau in Sumatra at leaf levels below 50 ppm. It is
known to be a worldwide problem in crop production on calcareous soils
though (Marschner, 1986). It causes droopy youngest fronds that show
diffuse blotchy yellowing and white freckles (Uexk€ ull and Fairhurst,
1999). At a later stage, they turn completely white, while many of the older
fronds turn yellow. This chlorosis is followed by brittleness, breakage,
and wilting of the fronds, resulting in arrested plant growth and death
(Wanasuria et al., 1999), which may occur after 1 year in severely Fe-
deficient palms (Goh and H€ardter, 2003).
3.6.12 Molybdenum and Calcium

Molybdenum plays a role in the nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur cycles being a
central element for nitrate reductase, nitrogenase (for leguminous cover
crops), xanthine dehydrogenase, aldehyde oxidase, and sulfite oxidase
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(Kaiser et al., 2005). Calcium plays a regulatory role in root development

and meristem growth.
Molybdenum deficiency occurs on very acidic soils (pH < 4) due to
adsorption of the element on soil sesquioxides (Fe and Al oxides) (Goh
and H€ardter, 2003). However, neither Mo nor Ca deficiency has been
reported in adult oil palms.
3.6.13 Silicon
The role of silicon is not well understood. Plants seem to absorb Si in
amounts almost equal to the macronutrients (Meena et al., 2014). Silicon
plays a role in lignin biosynthesis and cell wall rigidity and has also been
related to disease tolerance. It has been identified experimentally that
supplementary Si can have a positive impact on cases of spear rot in oil
palm (Floria Ramirez and Albertazzi, 2001). Mechanisms of action are
unknown, and at present, there are no clear data on deficiency effects or
plant tissue critical values.
3.6.14 Imbalances and Nutrient-Related Diseases

Oil palm is sensitive to a variety of pests and diseases, but there seems to be
no clear evidence for a direct relationship between plant nutrition and
disease incidence, with few exceptions (Fairhurst and H€ardter, 2003;
Turner, 2007). Generally, healthy and vigorous crops are considered more
resistant to adverse factors, but only a potential influence of potassium in
reducing the likelihood of Fusarium-induced vascular wilt (Ollagnier and
Renard, 1976) can be considered closely correlated with plant nutrient
status. From other plant species, wide evidence exists for the critical role
of potassium in biotic stress response (Wang et al., 2013).
Still, nutrient imbalances, meaning the excess of one nutrient relative to
another, can also lead to disorders. Higher susceptibility to pests and diseases
has been observed with unbalanced nutrient levels though, especially high
N/K ratios (leaf N >2.5% to leaf K <1.0%) and lack of B (Goh and H€ardter,
2003). For example, white stripe is a complex physiological disorder that is
common in young, vigorously growing palms. It is caused by a nutrient
imbalance due to excess N and insufficient K and B, which leads to the
development of long and soft pinnae. White stripe symptoms in combina-
tion with confluent orange spotting symptoms may be found when N
and K are imbalanced, and the status of B in the leaf is low (Uexk€ ull and
Fairhurst, 1999). High K applications combined with dolomite application,
on the other hand, may depress the uptake of Mg.
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Feeding the Palm 45
4. 4R NUTRIENT STEWARDSHIP CONCEPT

BMPs are built on a collection of other concepts that have been
proven effective in addressing concerns to ensure oil palm economic and
environmental sustainability. The 4R Nutrient Stewardship concept is an
approach to maximize plant nutrient efficiency in order to increase produc-
tion, profitability, environmental protection, and sustainability and a central
part of BMPs. The basic idea is not new and was described in the 1970s
(Foster and Goh, 1975) through observing that the efficiency of response
to a specific application of fertilizer also depended on a number of subsidiary
factors, including method, time and frequency of application, ground
management, and the type of fertilizer selected. Nevertheless, developing
BMPs is still topical, as management in many plantations can still be
improved by adjusting some or all these elements. In its present form, the
concept refers to four BMPs to get the required nutrients to where they
are needed, when they are needed. This is expressed as the 4Rs of selecting
the Right fertilizer source, applying it at the Right fertilizer rate, at the Right
time of application, and putting it in the Right place. These four basic
principles can be combined with other agronomic and conservation
practices to increase their effectiveness further and generate a healthy soil
environment that provides best possible nutrient conditions for the crop.
This also includes practices that prevent soil degradation and N reduction
after land-use conversion, by minimizing loss of soil microbial biomass. In
this context, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi inoculation has been discussed
as a means to improve nutrient uptake and overall sustainability (Phosri
et al., 2010). This review uses 4R as a central concept for improved palm
nutrition.
4.1 Right Source

4.1.1 Concepts and Principles
As discussed in detail in Section 3.1, the four major nutrient sources for oil
palm cultivation are soil stocks, mineral fertilizers, crop residues, and ground
cover vegetation with mineral fertilizers, the main source of nutrient inputs
in most oil palm plantations. Palm residues from pruned fronds or palm mill
by-products, such as empty fruit bunches or POME, are used as soil amend-
ments and supplementary nutrient inputs (Rosenani et al., 2011; Wu et al.,
2009). The same is true for composts made from oil palm residues and
used as organic fertilizers (Krishnan et al., 2017; Zainuddin et al., 2017).
Understory vegetation, especially legume ground cover of Mucuna bracteata,
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is widely used in young plantings for fixing and supplying N (Samedani

et al., 2014). Even though there is a wide range of commercial fertilizer
products, only a few are generally used in oil palm plantations. Even so,
the selection of one fertilizer over another can have significant impacts on
plant performance and plantation profitability and has to be decided to
suit the conditions of any given location.
As most nutrients cannot be applied or absorbed by the plant in their
elementary form, mineral fertilizers are chemical compounds that contain
one or more of these elements in the form of salts. As these salts can also
be blended and granulated or compressed in several ways resulting in straight
fertilizers, bulk blends, compound fertilizers, and enhanced-efficiency fertil-
izers (IPNI, 2015). Straight fertilizers contain one salt only such as KCl.
They are the basic building blocks for all other mineral fertilizer types.
Bulk blends are granulated fertilizers, in which each granule contains one
salt, but different salts are mixed in different proportions to achieve desired
nutrient rates. The different salt granules are often of different colors and
sizes. Compound fertilizers provide multiple nutrients that are cogranulated
so that each granule contains the same mixture and content of multiple salts.
Enhanced-efficiency fertilizers have special traits to increase their effective-
ness. They come coated with a protective polymer in order to reduce solu-
bility and/or increase resistance to microbial decomposition, leading to a
more controlled nutrient release, contain specific microbial inhibitors, or
have specific additional nutrient coatings.
4.1.2 Considerations for Macronutrient Sources

The most common straight N fertilizers in palm oil production are urea and
ammonium sulfate. Urea is extensively used in plantations because it is easily
accessible, easy to handle and store, and has most often the lowest price per
unit of N (Corley and Tinker, 2016). Urea is widely applied on coastal and
peat soils, but its use on inland soils raises concerns due to high volatilization
losses, a problem also observed with ammonium sulfate, though to a lesser
extent (Turner et al., 2012; Zakaria and Tarmizi, 2007). Given the high
mobility of nitrogen in soils, once the ammonium is nitrified, N from
both urea and ammonium sulfate are prone to leaching and runoff (Pardon
et al., 2016a). This can be slightly ameliorated by choosing the most suitable
physical form for a fertilizer, such as powder, tablets, granules and so on. For
example, urea and ammonium sulfate have similar efficiencies when applied
by broadcasting over an entire plantation area at a rate of 0.5 kg N/palm/
year (Zakaria et al., 1989). At higher application rates, urea with larger
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Feeding the Palm 47
granule size and ammonia sulfate of any granule size show higher efficiency
than urea with low granule size. Urea in powder form was also found to
release nutrients rapidly, whereas in tablet form, the release is slower, making
the latter better suited for less frequent application and for overall lower rates
due to higher efficiency (BLRS, 1997). Both urea and ammonium sulfate are
known to acidify soil because of the release of hydrogen ions during the
oxidation of ammonium to nitrate (Corley and Tinker, 2016; Tao et al.,
2016), which may need to be considered when selecting an N source.
Nitrate-based N sources such as potassium nitrate do not have an acidifica-
tion effect. Ammonium sulfate is further known to act as an antagonist to
magnesium, which can lead to magnesium deficiency (Tinker and Smilde,
1963).
Rock phosphate is still a common P source and is particularly effective in
acidic soils as it starts dissolving at pH < 5.5 (Corley and Tinker, 2016).
Several studies suggested applying rock phosphate at high rates during the
early stages of a plantation in order to raise the long-term soil P (Hartley,
1988b; Tan et al., 2013 cited by Corley and Tinker, 2016). However,
fertilizer markets are dynamic and location specific, and more recently,
some traditional P fertilizers such as rock phosphate and monoammonium
phosphate have lost market share or disappeared from national markets in
Southeast Asia, while others, such as diammonium phosphate, find wider
application. One reason is increased demand for constant quality, which
increases the price for rock phosphate, which is subject to natural variation
in citrate soluble P content, being a largely unmodified natural product
(IPNI, 2013). Single and triple super phosphate, on the other hand, have
become more and more popular in Indonesia, single superphosphate due
to its low price, and TSP due to its high nutrient density. With increased
supply of these products, prices for both have fallen in recent years, making
them competitive options as P sources. However, an experiment in Sumatra
reported that even though oil palms under a TSP regime had higher P tissue
levels than those given rock phosphate, both showed similar yield responses
(Mahadani Lubis et al., 2012). Economically, rock phosphate is still one of
the cheapest P sources available.
Potassium chloride (muriate of potash) has more than 75% of the
fertilizer market in Southeast Asia and is also in oil palm production, the
most common K fertilizer. However, where a supply of both K and Mg
is required, Langbeinite (potassium magnesium sulfate) can be used, as
well as blends and mixtures with sulfur (Rankine and Fairhurst, 1999b).
Most of the remaining market share is made up of compound fertilizers.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Calcium is supplied through rock phosphate or dolomite (calcium/

magnesium carbonate), and also single superphosphate contains 18%e21%
Ca. Kieserite (magnesium sulfate) and dolomite are common Mg fertilizers.
Some studies suggest that these Mg fertilizers may be useful for reducing soil
acidification due to liming effects (Comte et al., 2013), and dolomite is
preferred by growers over kieserite because of its lower price. No significant
differences in leaf Mg levels have been found between dolomite and
kieserite. Muriate of potash has been reported to stimulate Mg uptake due
to its Cl content (BLRS, 1997). As discussed in Section 3.4, where sulfur
is a limiting nutrient, kieserite may be a preferable fertilizer option.
4.1.3 Practical Management Considerations

Choosing the optimal fertilizer source is far from trivial and highly influ-
enced by local circumstances (IPNI, 2015). Fertilizer choice is frequently
limited by local availability and prices, which do often not reflect world
market developments due to national policies or local industries. Still,
once it comes down to the technical choices, many factors have to be
weighed against each other.
The fact that straight fertilizers allow the application of each nutrient
at the required rate is of particular advantage for plantations where
nutrient variability between blocks is high. They are also often the
most economical nutrient sources, although additional labor costs have
to be considered.
Fertilizer blends, on the other hand, have the advantage of supplying all
nutrients at once, greatly reducing labor requirements. They can be pur-
chased or mixed economically on the plantation using low-cost components
mixed using simple and inexpensive equipment (IPNI, 2015). This allows
blending site-specific mixtures to complement local soil conditions and
palm nutrient requirements (Corley and Tinker, 2016). For the same reason,
this approach may not be suitable where soils are not homogeneous, and
blocks require varying amounts of individual nutrients. A potential difficulty
of fertilizer blends lies in the risk of separation into individual fertilizer layers
during transport and handling due to different bulk densities and particle
sizes of the components (Rankine and Fairhurst, 1998).
Similar to fertilizer blends, compound fertilizers supply multiple nutri-
ents in one granule (Rankine and Fairhurst, 1998), but unlike blends,
they provide a more uniform distribution of nutrients, as all components
are cogranulated (Corley and Tinker, 2016). However, this also means
that the nutrient ratio is fixed and cannot be altered if it does not match
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Feeding the Palm 49
the required nutrient rate (IPNI, 2015). Compound fertilizers tend to be

significantly more expensive than straight fertilizers or blends (Rankine
and Fairhurst, 1998).
Enhanced-efficiency polymer-coated fertilizers have the advantage of
minimizing nutrient losses through leaching and runoff or denitrification,
which ultimately improves nutrient use efficiency (Bah et al., 2014). They
are most effective on light-textured soils under heavy rainfall, particularly
where N losses are high (Isherwood, 2000). Under such conditions, polymer
coatings significantly reduce runoff losses of N, K, and Mg when compared
with straight fertilizers (Bah et al., 2014). A number of individual products
have also been described as particularly effective in raising leaf K levels,
compared with standard K sources, but showed no advantage for other nu-
trients (BLRS, 1997).
While at any particular location, the number of products available is
somewhat limited; globally, there are many common mineral fertilizers
used in oil palm plantations (Table 9), with a wide range of potential
nutrient combinations. Unfortunately, adulteration is common, and fertil-
izer quality needs to be tested and confirmed by the buyer (Corley and
Tinker, 2016). Also, proper storage of fertilizers to minimize wastage and
contamination needs consideration, particularly when hygroscopic products
such as urea are stored under the high humidity typical of the tropics. Finally,
it is vital to train workers on proper application, inform them about the
quantity to be applied, and provide them with suitable tools such as cali-
brated containers in order to reduce errors in fertilizer application.
4.2 Right Rate

To achieve target yields with healthy palm growth, sufficient quantities of
each essential nutrient must be provided to meet the demands of growth
and yield (Corley and Tinker, 2016). Although requirements for yield and
growth can be estimated from nutrient concentrations in plant tissues
(Corley and Tinker, 2016), not many studies exist on nutrient budgets
due to the difficulties of working with a large plant like oil palm. The first
thorough investigations on the topic were done in the 1960s in Africa
(Tinker and Smilde, 1963) and Southeast Asia (Ng et al., 1968; Ng and
Thamboo, 1967) and continue to be used as guidance even though in the
case of the latter, the planting material studied is no longer commercially
grown. Later studies are relatively few (Prabowo et al., 2006; Tarmizi and
Mohd Tayeb, 2006), difficult to access (Tan, 1976), or held confidential
Table 9 Nutrient Contents of Common Mineral Fertilizers Used in Oil Palm Plantations
50
Nutrient Bulk Density Volume
Nutrient Source Nutrients Formula Content Behavior (kg/m3) (L/kg)
Straight Fertilizers
Ammonium N, Cl NH4Cl 28% N Acidifying 610 1.64
chloride 60% Cl
Ammonium N NH4NO3 33%e35% N Nonacidifying 850e1025 0.97e1.18
nitrate
Ammonium N, P NH4H2PO4 10%e11% N Slightly acidifying 850e1200 0.83e1.27
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phosphate 48%e55%
P2O5
Ammonium N, S (NH4)2SO4 21% N Acidifying 785e1200 0.83e1.27
sulfate 24% S
Calcium nitrate N, Ca Ca(NO3)2 16% N Quick acting 1900 0.53
28% CaO
Potassium nitrate K, N KNO3 13% N Quick acting 2100 0.48
44% K2O
Urea N CO(NH2)2 46% N Acidifying 720e900 1.11e1.39
Diammonium N, P (NH4)2HPO4 18% N Slightly acidifying 875e1200 0.83e1.14
phosphate 46% P2O5
Rock phosphate P, Ca Ca3(PO4)2 28%e35% Neutralizing, 1200e1800 0.55e0.83
P2O5 5%e14% citric
46%e50% acid soluble, very
T.T. Tiemann et al.

CaO slowly acting
Single P, Ca, S Ca(H2PO4)2 , H2O 16%e20% Fully water soluble, 900e1200 0.83e1.11
superphosphate þ CaSO4 , 2H2O P2O5 nonacidifying
11%e12% S
28%e30%
CaO
Triple P, Ca Ca(H2PO4)2 , 2H2O 46%e48% Fully water soluble, 950e1350 0.74e1.05
superphosphate P2O5 slightly acidifying
Feeding the Palm

20% CaO
2% S
Potassium K, Cl KCl 60% K2O Muriate of potash 950e1300 0.77e1.05
chloride 45% Cl
Potassium sulfate K, S K2SO4 50% K2O Sulfate of potash 1150e1500 0.66e0.87
18% S
Potassium K, S, Mg K2SO4, 2 MgSO4 22% K2O Langbeinite 1400 0.71
magnesium 18% MgO
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sulfate 22% S
Kieserite Mg, S MgSO4 , H2O 17%e27% Water soluble, quick 830 1.2
MgO acting
22% S
Kieserite, Mg, S MgSO4 , H2O 26%e27% Water soluble, quick 1350e1380 0.72e0.74
synthetic, MgO acting
ex. China 22% S
Dolomite Mg, Ca MgCO3 þ CaCO3 2%e20% Water insoluble, slow Depending on
MgO acting grinding
30%e47%
CaO
Sodium B Na2B4O7 , 5H2O 14% B Water soluble, quick 1230 0.81
tetraborate acting
Borax B Na2B4O7 , 10H2O 11% B Water soluble, 961 1.04
quick acting
Ulexite B, Ca CaNaB6O9 , 8 H2O 13%e14% B Citric acid soluble, 531e700 1.4e1.95
(Boron NaCaB5 14% CaO slow acting
atrocalcite) O6(OH)6 ,
5H2O
51
(Continued)
Table 9 Nutrient Contents of Common Mineral Fertilizers Used in Oil Palm Plantationsdcont'd
Nutrient Bulk Density Volume
52
Nutrient Source Nutrients Formula Content Behavior (kg/m3) (L/kg)
Calcium borate B, Ca Ca2B6O11 , 5H2O 10% B 977 1.02
(colemanite)
Copper sulfate Cu, S CuSO4 , H2O 35% Cu Water soluble, quick
monohydrate acting
Copper sulfate Cu, S CuSO4 , 5H2O 25% Cu Water soluble, quick 830e1260 0.79e1.20
pentahydrate acting
Copper chelate Cu Cu-EDTA 8%e14% Cu Water soluble, quick
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acting
Iron sulfate Fe, S FeSO4 , 7H2O 20% Fe Water soluble, quick 1281 0.78
acting
Gypsum C, S CaSO4 , 2H2O 32% CaO Slightly soluble, slow 673e881 1.13e1.49
18% S acting
Elemental sulfur S S 97% S Slow acting, 721e1121 0.89e1.39
acidifying
Compound fertilizers
12e12e17e2 N, P, K, Variable mixtures 12% N Variable, depending Variable Variable
Mg 12% P on composition
17% K
2% Mg
15e15e6e4 N, P, K, Variable mixtures 15% N Variable, depending Variable variable
Mg 15% P on composition
T.T. Tiemann et al.

6% K
4% Mg
15e15e15 N,P,K Variable mixtures 15% N Variable, depending Variable Variable
15% P on composition
15% K
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Feeding the Palm 53
(remarked in Corley and Tinker, 2016). Field experiments are also essential
to identify which nutrients are needed by comparing unfertilized and
fertilized plots in commercial fields or by using two-level factorial designs.
This is particularly needed on newly developed plantation regions, which
may deviate markedly from other cultivation areas. However, it is rare to
find farmer field plots in oil palm, as growers do not consider the potential
benefit from the information gained as large enough to compensate for their
lost profit during a trial. Plantation managers are assessed mainly on yield
figures and so may be tempted to forego long-term improvements for an
immediate productivity gain. Finally, field trials that help to characterize
plant responses to nutrient additions require larger factorial experiments
such as 3n (Corley et al., 1976; Verdooren, 2003), 3n 2n (Tarmizi and
Mohd Tayeb, 2006; Verdooren, 2003), or other more detailed treatment
designs.
Summarized results from such experiments are mostly from Malaysia
(Chan, 1982b, 1982c; 1982a; Chan and Rajaratnam, 1977; Tarmizi et al.,
1986) and include unfertilized yields (Tarmizi et al., 1992) and yields on
different soil types and in different environments Foster et al., 1985b,
1985a; Foster and Tarmizi, 1988; Goh (2011). Corley and Tinker (2016)
describe some major fertilizer decision support and recommendation systems
which use such data to determine suitable nutrient application rates such as the
French system, the Foster systems, the Palm Oil Research Institute
MalaysiadOil Palm Efficient Nutrient System (PORIMdOPENS),
Integrated Site-specific Fertilizer Recommendation System (INFERS), and
Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS). All these deci-
sion support systems use some variation of leaf analysis, soil analysis, nutrient
balance, and nutrient recovery efficiency, either alone or in combinations.
Approaches based on soil analysis are predicated on the understanding
that soil mineralogical and physicochemical data can indicate native nutrient
supply (Foster et al., 1985b). On this basis, general fertilization schedules
have been drawn up for different soils (Hew and Ng, 1968), and a general
soil nutrient status classification has been produced as guidance for mainte-
nance or improvement of nutrient supply to meet crop requirements
(Goh and Chew, 1997). Foster (2003) pointed out limitations in using soil
values as a diagnostic tool for estimating fertilizer rates due to a high risk
of sampling errors (Foster and Chang, 1977) and “inconsistent variability,”
that is, because of different times and methods of fertilizer application and
differences in other soil properties, which affect crop nutrient uptake
(Foster and Azhar, 1978; Law and Tan, 1973).
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Soil and site characteristics have also been used as a prognostic tool to
predict unfertilized yields (Foster et al., 1985b) and yields with different
nutrient combinations (Foster, 2003; Foster et al., 1985a). This approach
requires large datasets from field experiments to statistically generate yield
and yield response predictive equations (Foster et al., 1986). Using this
approach, Tarmizi et al. (1986) generated economic optimum fertilizer rates
for Peninsular Malaysia. However, Chew et al. (1994) indicated that this
method suffers from being purely statistical and so can produce results that
are biologically questionable.
A complementary approach based on leaf analysis data from a set of
Malaysian field trials was developed subsequently (Foster et al., 1988). It
uses total leaf cations (K, Mg, and Ca) to predict optimal leaf levels and
expected yield responses and includes correction for seasonal variations in
leaf contents. This approach has been reported to give a more reliable
indication of nutrient responses than those derived from the DRIS indices
(Foster et al., 1988) and the critical leaf level (Goh, 2011).
The PORIMdOPENS (Tarmizi et al., 1999) adds to that reported by
Foster et al. (1988) with a stepwise correction of nutrient deficiency, starting
with the most deficient nutrient until all nutrient requirements are met. The
equations were found to be valid for use in North Sumatra, but not for the
more extreme environment of Papua New Guinea (Foster, 2003). Depend-
ing on circumstances, these approaches alone and in combinations have been
shown to be of use despite limitations (Foster, 2003).
The French Agricultural Research Centre for International Develop-
ment (CIRAD) has developed a fertilizer rate prediction system based on
critical leaf values derived from around 100 field reference experiments
started in the 1940s in West Africa, Indonesia, and Latin America (Caliman
et al., 1994). Yield response curves and critical leaf levels have been derived
from those data and allow the determination of economic optimum fertilizer
rates. However, the approach needs a rigorous protocol for leaf sampling and
analysis to the extent that leaf samples collected in client plantations in
Indonesia have to be sent to a laboratory in France for analysis, as “the
accuracy and precision of leaf mineral analyses are prerequisites for the
success of the methodology” (Caliman et al., 1994).
The already-mentioned DRIS is based on the concept that total
nutrient values are only inadequately suited to describe the nutritional
status of a plant and uses plant nutrient concentration ratios to capture
imbalances between nutrients (Beaufils, 1973). The approach can also be
used to discriminate the order in which nutrients are likely to reach levels
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Feeding the Palm 55
of deficiency or excess. To assess the oil palm nutritional status, the N/P,
N/K, K/Mg, and K/B ratios are considered the most relevant (Fairhurst
and H€ardter, 2003). Similar to other approaches, the DRIS first assesses
the norms through field sampling, uses those data to identify the nutritional
range of a large sample of leaf values, and correlates those with yields. From
the leaf nutrient tissue concentrations, indices for different nutrient combi-
nations are calculated and fed into an overall nutritional status model. Based
on this, deficient, low, optimum, high, and excessive ranges of nutrients
can be determined (Behera et al., 2016a). This also shows the major
drawback of the system, namely that it requires computational power to
be employed, although user-friendly applications exist (Mour~ao Filho,
2004). Depending on circumstances, locally or regionally developed
DRIS norms may be more accurate in the diagnosis of nutritional
imbalances (Bastos de Matos et al., 2017), but so far those norms were
only established for parts of Colombia (Herrera Pe~ na, 2015), parts of India
(Behera et al., 2016b, 2016a), and parts of Brazil (Bastos de Matos et al.,
2017), and only in Brazil were cultivar and palm age considered.
The INFERS was developed by Applied Agricultural Resources
group of Malaysia and is a nutrient balance approach, which is based
on achieving a predicted site yield potential and takes into account
nutrient supply and demand (Kee et al., 1994). A series of complex
calculations are involved in INFERS, most of them not publicly available
beyond an outline by Goh (2011). Site yield potential is determined
using the AAR Site Yield Potential (ASYP) model (Kee et al., 1999).
Nutrient demand for canopy, trunk, and root growth are estimated by
allometry, plant analysis, or predetermined equations (Goh, 2011),
whereas fresh fruit bunch nutrient demand is based on values derived
from trials undertaken by the Applied Agricultural Resources group.
Nutrient losses via surface wash, erosion, and leaching are estimated
(Goh, 2011), and nutrient recovery efficiency is included based on local
fertilizer experiments if available. Although highly complex, comparisons
between actual fertilizer rates that achieved predicted yields and
INFERS-predicted rates showed very good agreement for K and fairly
good agreement for N (Corley and Tinker, 2016).
All these methods are quantitative and need a large dataset from well-
conducted field trials in representative environments, and many equations
used in the process are unpublished. The applicability of results is restricted
to the environmental conditions as well as planting materials of the trials
included in the datasets. Also, with the exception of the INFERS system,
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nutrient demand for growth until palms reach maximum size, and replace-
ment for nutrients removed in fresh fruit bunches are not explicitly
addressed, and differences in nutrient recovery efficiency are not accounted
for.
Instead of the quantitative methods mentioned previously, various ad
hoc approaches are used by agronomists who do not have access to large
experimental datasets, based on combinations of available information
from published sources and actual information on field conditions, palm
growth, rainfall data, plant tissue contents, and soil analysis data. One of
the most common ones is the balance sheet approach, which is based on
the concept of “nutrient balance” first proposed for oil palm by Hew and
Ng (1968) and reemphasized by Ng (1977). This method estimates nutrient
supply and demand in the oil palm system based on a set yield target. The
nutrient balance of the palms in a certain area is estimated using a nutrient
balance sheet and nutrient budgets from published sources that are thought
to reflect local conditions. A negative balance indicates that additional nutri-
ents are required by the system. This approach is the simplest quantitative
method for a first approximation of nutrient rates and especially useful in
areas for which no specific information is available. Examples of balance
sheets were given by Ng et al. (1999) for two yield levels with and without
return of empty bunches and milling effluents, and ignoring soil nutrient
supply, and one is shown in Table 10.
Even though most approaches stand on a firm theoretical basis, the
outcome of all these rate support systems is in the field affected by a range
of other factors, most notably, fertilizer or nutrient use efficiency,
including nutrient uptake efficiencies. Data on nutrient uptake efficiency
in oil palm though are too few and variable for conclusive interpretations
(Corley and Tinker, 2016), and a validation of recommended fertilizer
rates based on results in commercial operations is lacking. The current
approach in most commercial operations is to have fertilizer types and
application rates determined by agronomists, centrally procure the
required quantities at the best price, and finally sample the received fertil-
izers on-site to check product specifications before they get applied.
Despite fertilizers being the largest component of on-farm production
costs (Ramesh et al., 2013), little attempt is made in commercial operations
to measure or estimate return on investment of fertilizers applied. The
reasons for these shortcomings lie partly in the separation of responsibilities
in large commercial operations and in the difficulties of measuring actual
yield as discussed in Section 2.5.
Feeding the Palm
Table 10 Example of a Balance Sheet for a Target Fresh Fruit Bunch Yield of 25 t/ha for 7-Year Old Palms Planted at 148 Palms/ha on a
Low Fertility Soil
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Balance Component System Component N P K Mg Ref
Supply Rainfall deposition 17.0 2.4 31.6 4.8 Ng et al. (1999)

Soil supply 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Empty bunches return 14.4 1.8 52.1 2.3 Ng et al. (1999)
Subtotal supply ([ A) 31.4 4.2 83.7 7.1
Demand FFB removal 81.3 8.3 87.8 15.3 Tarmizi and Mohd Tayeb (2006)
Trunk immobilization 34.0 2.8 62.6 7.0 Ng et al. (1968)
Canopy growth 8.1 1.2 8.1 2.0 Ng et al. (1968)
Roots growth 7.0 0.6 13.6 1.3 Ng et al. (1968)
Environmental lossesa 21.0 1.9 27.9 5.7 Ng et al. (1999)
Subtotal demand ([ B) 151.4 14.8 200.0 31.3
Net balance ¼ Supply demand (A-B) 120.0 10.6 116.3 24.2
a
Combined annual nutrient lost in surface runoff and eroded sediments and leaching.
57
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The optimal application rate can be defined in at least two ways but has to be
determined in any case through field experiments (Verdooren, 2003). The
agronomic optimum rate aims at the application rate for maximum yields,
and the economic optimum rate aims at matching the net value of additional
yield from nutrient application with the cost of additional nutrients (Fig. 7).
Developing appropriate yield targets is an essential part of determining
the right rate. It is the first step in developing a nutrient balance sheet, which
is the approach we will discuss here more in detail, as it is easily applicable
and yet exemplifies the general process. One way to approach yield targeting
is to estimate a potentially attainable yield for a site using a model such as
ASYP (Kee et al., 1999), which has been proven to give reliable targets in
78% of 51 test cases with a variance of no more than 10% between the
achieved and predicted yields (Corley and Tinker, 2016; Kee et al.,
1994). Fully published models for estimating potential oil palm yields exist
but most require data inputs including crop physiological information that
commercial growers do not routinely collect. A simple publicly available
model called PALMSIM (Hoffmann et al., 2014) uses only solar radiation
and rainfall data to simulate the water-limited potential yield. It has
been shown to be potentially useful for benchmarking yield performance
(Hoffmann et al., 2015) and could be useful for target-setting in newly
cultivated areas without historical yield data to provide additional guidance.
Figure 7 Relationship between yield, fertilizer rate, fertilizer cost, and net return. Based
on Tinker, P.B., 2001. Organic farming e nutrient management and productivity. In:
Proceeding 471. International Fertiliser Society, York, UK, pp. 19e22.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Feeding the Palm 59
Instead of models, maximum yields from fertilizer trials (see Tarmizi

et al., 1992) conducted in similar environments can be used as targets.
Otherwise, known actual best yields achieved in plantation fields in the
same location or from a similar environment elsewhere can also be used.
Once the yield target is set, the nutrients removed with that yield can be
estimated using published values for nutrients contained in Tenera bunches
(see Section 3.3).
Young mature palms of 4e7 years with expanding canopy and root
system need nutrients for new fronds, roots, trunk growth, and inflores-
cences. More mature palms with canopy and root growth in a steady state
need nutrients only for trunk growth and removed fruit bunches if there
is full recycling of fronds, roots, and male inflorescences (Corley and Tinker,
2016). Male inflorescences account for only a small part of annual nutrient
demand (Ng and Thamboo, 1967) and can be ignored to simplify matters.
Losses through leaching, runoff, denitrification, and fixation are estimated.
After all other input sources have been added, the required nutrient rates
from the balance sheets can be converted to fertilizer rates based on the cho-
sen fertilizer types. Fertilizer quantities are then adjusted for assumed fertil-
izer use efficiencies based on available information from published sources. If
plant and/or soil analysis data are available, these can be used to adjust the
final rates. As this process is calculated on a per hectare basis, final rates are
then converted to “per palm” basis, and then the number of split applications
and their timing can be defined. Site-specific variations can be accounted for
by adjustments to the determined rates (Table 11).
Table 12 summarizes reported average values for several countries across
three continents and so provides a guide to nutrient application ranges for oil
palm around the world.
However, nutrient interactions need carefully be monitored. Forming
cations in soil solution, the soil storage capacity of Mg, for example, is
directly linked to soil CEC. Therefore, the total amount of cations (i.e.,
Table 11 Two Examples of Typical Application Rates in Mature Oil

Palms, Underlining the Wide Variations Due to Site-Specific Factors
Goh and H€ardter (2003) Rankine and Fairhurst
Nutrient (kg/palm) (1998) (kg/palm)
N 0.25e1.75 0.50e1.80
P 0.30e0.80 0.07e0.33
K 0.30e3.00 0.58e2.49
Mg 0.06e0.75 0.12e0.49
Table 12 Average Fertilizer Application Values From a Variety of Countries Around the World
60
N P K Mg Others Source
Amount Amount Amount
Country (kg/y) Type Amount Type (kg/y) Type Amount Type (kg/y) Type
Ghana 2 AS 1 kg/3 y gran 1.5 KCl 0.5 kg/3 y Kieserite Danyo (2013)
RP
Brazil, 0.75e1.5 AS 1.2 KCl Lauzeral (1980),
Vertisol Pacheco et al. (1985)
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Brazil, Latosol 0.5 Urea 1.5 kg/y TSP 1.5 KCl 0.75 kg/y Kieserite 0.075 Borax Lauzeral (1980)
Colombia 0.25 Urea 1.25 KCl 0.65 Kieserite 0.075 Borax Lauzeral (1980),
Ollagnier et al.
(1970)
Equador 1.5 Urea KCl 0.75e1 kg/y Kieserite 0.075 Borax Lauzeral (1980)
Peru 0.5 KCl Daniel and Ochs (1975)
Ivory coast 1e2 KCl Kouame et al. (2017)
Nigeria 2e2.3 KCl Imogie et al. (2012),
Ollagnier et al.
(1987)
Cameroon 1e2.5 KCl 0.5 kg/y Kieserite Kouame et al. (2017)
Congo 0.5 AS 0.75e1 TSP 0.7e1 KCl Dubos et al. (1999)
kg/y
Indonesia 2 kg/y RP 1.5e2.5 KCl (Ng, 1986) Ng (1986),
Tampubolon et al.
T.T. Tiemann et al.

(1990)
Malaysia 1.5 kg/y RP 3 KCl 0.5 kg/y Kieserite Ng (1986)
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Feeding the Palm 61
K, Ca, Mg) applied to the soil has to be considered in order to avoid

oversaturation and so nutrient loss through leaching. For example, due to
the low CEC of acidic sandy soils with high Al content, K applications
have been shown to induce Mg deficiency (Hartley, 1988b).
The same degree of variation presented in Table 12 is also reflected in the
economic optimum rates used. Table 13 provides an example of the eco-
nomic optimal fertilizer rates for two environments on Peninsular Malaysia
(Tarmizi et al., 1986). These values were based on an analysis of 23 fertilizer
trials conducted in the 1970s.
However, there are some practical considerations that can lead to a need
for further adjustment of fertilizer rates. Plantation agronomists commonly
prefer to calculate agronomic optimum rates on a per palm basis and then
extrapolate that rate to kg/ha. For purchasing, those values from several
estates are centrally processed, and total fertilizer quantity is determined
by multiplying the provided rates with the total area to be fertilized. As
most fertilizers are supplied in 50 kg bags, the total quantity is rounded up
to nearest 50 kg. In most commercial operations in Southeast Asia, fertilizers
are applied manually to individual palms in the field. For this reason, rates are
recommended on a “per palm” basis even if requirements were originally
determined on a “per ha” basis (Ng et al., 1999, Appendices 1 & 2). In
young mature palms prior to canopy closure, a “per palm” approach is
well suited, as the root system is still expanding and has not formed a contin-
uous mat over the entire field area yet (Jourdan and Rey, 1997a). For older
palms with closed canopy, recommended application rates are likely better
Table 13 Recalculated From Economic Optimum Rates (EOR) Estimated for

Peninsular Malaysia by Tarmizi et al. (1986) Based on an Analysis of 23 Fertilizer
Trials Conducted in the 1970s
Nutrient Average EOR (kg/palm) Maximum (kg/palm) Minimum (kg/palm)
Coastal environment (8 trials)
N 0.87 1.61 0.20
P 0.35 0.71 Nil
K 0.33 2.16 Nil
Mg 0.08 0.25 Nil
Inland environment (15 trials)
N 0.93 1.82 0.27
P 0.30 0.56 0.09
K 1.91 4.43 Nil
Mg 0.34 0.67 Nil
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provided “per ha”’ for several reasons. Firstly, root and canopy develop-
ment happen simultaneously (Jourdan and Rey, 1997a), and once the
canopy is closed, a mat of roots has formed throughout the planting
area. Experiments have shown best yields with overall broadcasting of
fertilizers including broadcasting outside palm circles and on heaped
pruned fronds (see Section 4.4; Chan et al., 1992, 1993a; Foster and
Dolmat, 1986; Teoh and Chew, 1984; Yeow et al., 1981). Secondly,
where mechanical spreaders are used, it makes their programming or
adjustment easier as there is not a need to adjust for variations in planting
density. Thirdly, the removal of nutrients and the requirements for annual
growth are not usually taken on a palm by palm basis. Finally, application
on a “per ha” basis can help avoid mistakes where palm stand data for a
certain area is not up-to-date, and by taking into account the stand per
hectare, it avoids repeated rounding-off errors.
4.3 Right Time

While applying the right source and rate of nutrients are both important,
plantation performance can be affected if the nutrients are applied at the
wrong time. Correct timing is one of the most effective means in reducing
nutrient losses through runoff or leaching and is therefore important both
economically and environmentally (Kee et al., 2005). Analyzing weather,
growth, and production cycles, using pattern assessments to identify
respective nutrient uptake dynamics, can provide useful information for
determining the most appropriate timing for nutrient application (IPNI,
2015). Timing of fertilizer application should be based on weather condi-
tions and plant requirements, taking into account palm age, field condi-
tions, topology, types of fertilizers, rainfall patterns, and climatic
conditions more generally. To do so, accurate and long-term rainfall
records are needed to predict precipitation probability, and quantity are
required for predicting dryer periods during which application can be
scheduled (Kee, 1995). Therefore, each estate should install a properly
maintained meteorological station with long-term daily records of rainfall,
rain days, and timing of rainfall events (Goh and H€ardter, 2003). On a
logistical level, good organization of the estate is essential in order to imple-
ment time-dependent applications duly. However, more so than source
and rate, timing is highly context-specific, and practical considerations
from published experiences are likely to be more useful than conceptual
approaches.
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Feeding the Palm 63
4.3.2 Nutrient-Related Management Considerations

A number of fertilizer response trials have been carried out to test or verify
fertilizer requirements and timing for oil palm in various soil and environ-
mental conditions (e.g., Cheong et al., 1977; Foster and Goh, 1977; Hew
et al., 1973). Nitrogen, applied as urea, was the focus of 12 trials carried
out in Malaysia. Surface-applied urea had a 15%e20% lower relative effi-
ciency than ammonium sulfate due to larger volatilization losses (Zakaria
et al., 1989). Volatilization losses can be reduced though by applying urea
1 day before moderate rainfalls (10e20 mm/day) (Chew and Pushparajah,
1996; Kee et al., 2005) washing the fertilizer into the soil. In contrast, appli-
cation on dry soils or during episodes of very light rain (<5 mm/day) was
found less efficient and so was not recommended. Chan (1982a) reported
a depression of leaf N with rainfalls below 100 mm independent of the
applied N source (ammonium sulfate, ammonium chloride, ammonium
nitrate, and urea), which were proposed to be a result from insufficient
nutrient uptake into the plant.
A trial conducted by Teoh and Chew (1984) showed no significant
improvement in fresh fruit bunch yield and vegetative measurements on
mature palms by applying ammonium nitrate more than once a year and
KCl more than once in 2 years on an inland soil. This finding is in line
with results from PORIM (1982), which showed no significant yield
increase when fertilizers were applied three times per year compared with
once a year. According to Teoh and Chew (1984), in mature oil palm, N
and K fertilizers are usually applied once or twice a year on coastal marine,
nutrient-rich clay soils, and at least twice per year on alluvial, nutrient-poor
inland soils. Both nutrients are normally applied together to avoid
imbalances.
Increasing the frequency of K application from three to six times at
9 kg/palm/year did not increase yields significantly (Chan et al., 1993b).
For Mg, increasing the frequency of application has been shown to raise
the leaf Mg level but had little effect on fresh fruit bunch and oil yields.
There seems to be a tendency to higher yields if high levels of N and K
are applied simultaneously (Chan and Rajaratnam, 1977). This response
could be related to the importance of maintaining an appropriate nutrient
balance.
Fong and Syed Sofi (1993) showed that yearly Christmas Island rock
phosphate application at a rate of 0.78 kg/palm/year resulted in higher
yields than application every 4 years. Chan (1982b) reported that rock
phosphate applied annually or at 10-month intervals resulted in significantly
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higher yields than biennial application or the control (one-time application

throughout the trial). This leads to the conclusion that annual application
seems appropriate.
4.3.3 Location-Related Management Considerations

Location characteristics also influence timing decisions. On converted
rainforest soils, for example, inherently high soil Mg levels seem to be stable
for about 8 years, and Mg supplementation is likely not necessary for a
decade or two (Chan and Rajaratnam, 1977). However, the conversion
of primary forest is prohibited now, so that those earlier recommendations
are now largely irrelevant. In areas originating from secondary forest, K is
not required for several years after planting, while later, application of K
once per year is reported as adequate to sustain the growth and yield of
oil palms (Goh, 2011).
Pushparajah et al. (1973) found the desired frequency of fertilizing to be
also highly dependent on soil texture. They concluded that on light-
textured soils with low cation exchange capacity, the total nutrient inputs,
particularly N and K fertilizers, should be split into several applications at
correspondingly lower rates to minimize leaching losses and at higher total
amounts of applied nutrients. On heavy clays, on the other hand, lower
application frequencies were found to be sufficient.
Peat soils require special attention, and rates of K at 2.5e3.0 kg/palm/
year given in two to three split applications, with added micronutrients
such as copper, zinc, and boron are needed for high yields (Gurmit, 1999;
Manjit et al., 2004; Melling et al., 2011). In peat areas with high and
frequent rainfalls or periodically high water tables, timing of fertilizer appli-
cation is crucial to keep leaching losses at bay, especially when applying B
and K fertilizers (Melling et al., 2011).
Proposed frequencies of fertilizer applications for soils of different
textures are given in Table 14, but much of the research on fertilizer timing
is inconclusive (Goh et al., 2003). Although those authors suggest significant
reduction of losses through erosion when following their approach, there
appears to be little corroborating information on this issue.

In summary, nutrient mobility and water-related soil processes are the most
important factors determining the right timing for fertilizer application.
Soluble N and K fertilizers losses can be high if there are a few strong rainfall
events after application, and these losses can be avoided by application in
Feeding the Palm
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Table 14 Proposed Frequency of Fertilizer Applications for Mature Oil Palms on Various Textured Soils in General (Cheong, 1981) and on
High Erosion Conditions (Ng and Goh, 2011) and Other Considerations
Number of Applications per Year
Sandy Loams to Sandy Clay Loam
Loamy Sands to Clay Loam Silty Clay to Clay
Nutrient General High Erosion General High Erosion General High Erosion Ideal Rainfall Conditions Interactions
N 3 3 2 2 2 1 Moderate/low Apply together with K

P 2 1 1 1 1 1 Any if no erosion
K 3 2 2 1 1 1 Dry to moderate Apply together with N
Mg 2 1 2 1 1 1 Dry to moderate Separate from K, N
65
ARTICLE IN PRESS
months with moderate to low precipitation (Behera et al., 2017). Applica-

tions during the wet monsoon months after consecutive rain days and
when soil conditions are saturated should be avoided (Kee et al., 2005). In
areas with marked seasonal climates, such as in Nigeria, application at the
beginning of the wet season is to be preferred to application at its end
because the early application will ensure that there is sufficient soil moisture
for nutrient uptake, especially P (Hartley, 1988b). To minimize N losses in
those environments, fertilizer should be applied 3 to 4 months before the
onset of the dry season but never immediately before or during high rainfall
periods (Goh and H€ardter, 2003). For areas with high or unpredictable
rainfalls, the best strategy would be to make smaller but more frequent
applications (Kee et al., 2005). Under irrigated conditions, application
recommendations are to provide four equal splits at a 3-month interval
(Behera et al., 2017) and irrigate immediately after fertilizer application.
Potassium fertilizer alone can also be applied under dry conditions. Both
N and K require annual application, whereas phosphate fertilizers need to
be given only once every 2 to 4 years, if the field has a low run-off and
erosion potential, high rates can be applied (Chan, 1982c; Fong and Syed
Sofi, 1993). For such relatively insoluble fertilizers such as rock phosphate
and ground dolomite, timing is less critical (Kee et al., 2005), but adequate
soil moisture is important to allow uptake of phosphate, given its low
solubility (Goh and H€ardter, 2003).
In order to minimize losses, management practices now aim at more
uniform nutrient supply over time without pronounced peaks. Application
of N and K fertilizers is usually scheduled for two or three applications in a
year, while P, Mg, and B fertilizers are applied once a year as needed
(Kee et al., 2005). Split applications are recommended if the total annual
requirements are more than 0.5 kg of N/palm, 0.30 kg of Mg/palm, and
0.03 kg of B/palm (Goh and H€ardter, 2003).
Where nutrients are known to be antagonistic such as K, Mg, and B, they
should not be applied in the same area at the same time. Similarly, ground
dolomite should not be broadcasted over K and N fertilizers to avoid K
displacement and N volatilization (Goh, 2011).
Development of slow-release and other enhanced-efficiency fertilizers
can be useful tools in controlling leaching losses in wet and volatilization
in dry regions, at the same time improving nutrient uptake and environ-
mental sustainability. From the many choices currently available on the
market, the selected fertilizer should supply the correct amount of nutrients
at the right time to young plants (Tan, 2011). Where there are labor
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Feeding the Palm 67
shortages or where frequent applications are needed such as on peat soils,

controlled release fertilizers can be a useful option (Melling et al., 2011).
Applied at the time of planting, an appropriate fertilizer can provide essential
nutrients for about 9e10 months.
Our knowledge of the importance of timing fertilizer application to tree
age is incomplete. The general recommendation is to apply fertilizer to
young palms in small, more frequent doses (Foster and Dolmat, 1986) to
match nutrient requirements, reduce leaching losses (Foong, 1991), and
minimize scorching of young roots. Goh (2011) noted that fertilizer should
ideally be spread right after circle weeding to minimize competition from
ground vegetation.
On the logistical side, the management of fertilizer distribution, field op-
erations, and application equipment are important factors affecting timing
decisions (IPNI, 2015). Factors such as delays in delivery, time for quality
testing and necessary adjustments, and obviously all activities related to
the application process can impact the implementation of best management
plans.
4.4 Right Place

Getting nutrients where they are needed and ideally only where they are
needed is in the economic and management interest of every cropping
enterprise and reduces environmental impacts. The importance of optimal
fertilizer placement lies in its potential to improve yield by sustaining soil
fertility while minimizing nutrient losses to other places through leaching
or volatilization. The most relevant aspects for identifying best placement
are palm characteristics, including physiology, root patterns, and palm age,
as well as physicochemical and biological properties of the location, such
as soil characteristics and understory vegetation (Goh et al., 2003; Rankine
and Fairhurst, 1998). One of the major benefits of getting placement right is
that it does generally not require additional labor or other inputs, bringing
potential benefit at no additional cost once staff has been trained.
Good placement means getting the fertilizer near to the roots, so a good
understanding of palm roots and their development is required. The main
region of the root where nutrients are taken up is the young apical part of
the fine or feeder roots. Stronger coarse and structural roots, closer to the
stem mainly serve for anchoring and as transport channels for water and
nutrients. Eight different root types have been distinguished in oil palm
(Jourdan and Rey, 1997b), which change and expand during early growth,
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at about the same rate as the canopy, occupying soil volume to enable
nutrient extraction. Given the different tasks of roots, and changing require-
ments of the tree at different life stages, root systems change their structure
over the time. At the end of the juvenile phase at about 8 months, root
biomass increases exponentially, driven by the development of primary roots
for nutrient uptake. At 2 years after germination, the biomass of primary
roots stabilizes, and secondary roots increase. Based on modeling, at the usual
planting density of about 9 m distance between palms, neighboring trees
start to compete for space from about their fourth year. At 5 years after estab-
lishment space colonization is almost completed, and at 7 years, the topsoil is
fully colonized (Jourdan and Rey, 1997a). At 11-year, competition also
occurs via the secondary roots as they develop downward (Fig. 8) (Jourdan
and Rey, 1997b). Hence, over the lifetime of a palm, the density of
near-surface roots increases dramatically, so that in 20-year-old stands, the
root density is up to four times higher than in 10-year-old stands and up
to 20 times higher than in 3-year-old ones (Jourdan and Rey, 1997a).
However, the rate of root expansion seems also largely dependent on soil
type (Goh et al., 2003). making universal pattern predictions difficult. The
distributions and density of apical fine roots is case decisive for the nutrient
absorption capacity of the palm, and even though these roots form a dense
net, only about 23% of the root surface is estimated to be absorbent which
equates to around 1480 m2 of root absorptive surface per hectare of palm
plantation (Jourdan and Rey, 1997a). On the two-dimensional horizontal
plane, this equates to probably less than 7.5% of the plantation area being
actually covered by root surface for nutrient absorption by the plant ignoring
overlapping roots. The imposition of management zones (compare Section
2.2) also impacts on root development, as does soil compaction, leading to
longer thinner roots in more compacted soils (Zuraidah et al., 2015). For
example, a higher feeder root density was found in the frond stack row
and along the edge of the palm circles, possibly due to a higher nutrient
content and more organic debris (Goh et al., 2003). In contrast, palm root
density was reported to be lower underneath the harvesting path, most likely
due to higher soil compaction from traffic (Goh et al., 2003). These factors
accentuate the importance of applying nutrients in a targeted manner in
order to maximize the absorption of nutrients. However, estimations of
root surface coverage and absorptive areas have to be eyed with caution as
the actual coverage of the absorbing area of oil palm roots has, to our
knowledge, not been measured yet nor is the volume of the feed zone
around the root known.
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Feeding the Palm 69
Figure 8 Development of primary roots (above) and primary and secondary roots (below)
in oil palm. With permission of Jourdan, C., Rey, H., 1997a. Modelling and simulation of the
architecture and development of the oil-palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) root system. II. Esti-
mation of root parameters using the RACINES postprocessor. Plant and Soil 190, 235e246.
Research on root development in situ is difficult because the root system

is not static and reacts to nutrient gradients in the soil as well as other edaphic
factors. Assessing palm root development in the field can be affected by
fertilizer placement prior to the trial so that certain areas would be more
densely interspersed with roots than others (Goh et al., 2003). Thus, soil
nutrient status and fertilizer application history are important details that
can greatly affect the efficiency of fertilizer application strategies, as well as
the results of respective trials.
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The majority of existing studies focuses on the effects of fertilizer

placement on crop yield often give inconclusive or conflicting results. In
one case, K fertilizers applied over frond stack rows resulted in higher yields
compared with other management zones, while for P fertilizers, application
over the harvesting path showed best results (Foster and Dolmat, 1986). In
another experiment, K uptake was highest in the palm circle, followed by
the interrow, frond stack, and harvesting path (Goh et al., 1996). In contrast,
other studies found no difference in yield between different placement stra-
tegies in a range of soil types (Teoh and Chew, 1984; Yeow et al., 1981).
Few studies have examined the effects of fertilizer placement on soil
fertility and nutrient losses. For example, a study in Papua New Guinea
showed that applying mineral fertilizers resulted in a reduction in soil pH
independent of management zone, yet the decline was most pronounced
in palm circles and least in frond stack rows and spaces where empty fruit
bunches had been applied (Nelson et al., 2011). These results are consistent
with changes in soil organic matter content under stacks, which buffers pH
changes and is lower in weeded palm circles. Applying mineral fertilizers in
palm circles for 15 years in central Sumatra, Indonesia, led to decreased soil
pH and reduced CEC compared with harvesting paths and frond stack rows
(Tao et al., 2016). In addition, those authors found that soil fauna feeding
activity, as an important ecosystem function, had declined in palm circles
correspondingly. BMPs can counteract these developments and increase
soil organic matter and other soil health indicators (Pauli et al., 2014).

As feeding roots develop in early years most densely wherever nutrients and
moisture are highest, fertilizers should be consistently placed in the same
position but be fairly widespread, so that new applications are readily absorbed
by a wide web of feeder roots fostered by previous applications (Foster and
Goh, 1975). This approach has to be balanced though with negative effects
large amounts of fertilizer can have on soil properties, especially on pH (see
Sections 4.1 and 4.2). As root systems start to become interpenetrating
from about the age of 5 years, exact fertilizer placement becomes less relevant
after that (Foster and Goh, 1975; Jourdan and Rey, 1997c).
A general rule of thumb is that when palms are 10 years or younger N
fertilizers should be spread within palm circles but applied more evenly
for older palms (Rankine and Fairhurst, 1998). Compound fertilizers con-
taining N should be applied evenly over the edge of weeded palm circles
(Table 15). Straight and compound P fertilizers should be spread more
Table 15 Optimal Fertilizer Placement in Oil Palm Plantations
Feeding the Palm

Nutrient Fertilizer Source Preferred Zone Reasoning References
N Urea Over the edge of palm circles Reduced competition from Goh et al., 2003; Rankine
Ammonium nitrate or adjoining frond stacks understory vegetation and and Fairhurst (1999b)
Ammonium sulfate reduced N volatilization
P Rock phosphate Over the interrow space and Rock phosphate may
Triple superphosphate the outer edge of palm mitigate the acidification
Single superphosphate circles effects of N fertilizers in
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palm circles
Over the frond stack Reduced erosion and runoff
due to the understory
vegetation
K Potassium chloride Within palm circles (palm Greater root nutrient uptake
age 0e6 years) efficiency
Around palm circles (Palm
age 7e10 years)
Outside of palm circles (palm
age > 10 years)
Mg Kieserite (magnesium Within palm circles (palm Greater root nutrient uptake
sulfate) age 0e5 years) efficiency
Dolomite (magnesium Around and outside of palm
carbonate) circles (palm
age > 5 years)
B Borate Within palm circles Greater root nutrient uptake
efficiency
N, P, K. Compound fertilizers Over the edge of palm circles Greater root nutrient uptake
Mg efficiency
71
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widely when palms reach 4 to 6 years, and K and Mg fertilizers at 7 to

10 years. As more specific data are lacking, it is recommended to apply B
within palm circles throughout the life cycle of the plantation. In circum-
stances where root growth may be retarded such as on lateritic soils, the
application area should be reduced accordingly. Depending on manage-
ment, water infiltration under palm circles may also be low due to soil
compaction from trafficking, leading to higher losses through surface flow
of soil particles and water.
Despite these guides, in many plantations, it is still common practice to
apply fertilizers only in the palm circle at any age of the tree (e.g., Danyo,
2013).
Within the target area selected, broadcast fertilizers irrespective of type
should be spread evenly rather than in heaps or narrow bands. This helps
in avoiding excessive nutrient buildup and acidification, leaching, and dam-
age to oil palm feeder roots (Rankine and Fairhurst, 1998). The incorpora-
tion of fertilizers into the soil for either young or mature palms has been
found to have no or even detrimental effect to nutrient uptake (Foster
and Goh, 1975). An exception to this observation has been reported for
Cu. Copper deficiency on sandy soils can be corrected with a basal applica-
tion of 50 g CuSO4 per palm. On peat soils though, lasting correction of Cu
deficiency is difficult, as applied CuSO4 is rendered unavailable. A proposed
method is to mix CuSO4 with clay soil into tennis ballesized copper mud
balls that are placed around palms to provide a slow-release source of avail-
able Cu (Uexk€ ull and Fairhurst, 1999).
5. KNOWLEDGE GAPS AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Knowledge Gaps and Research Opportunities
Given the relatively short time that oil palm has been intensively culti-
vated to produce high yields, it is not surprising that many open questions
and uncertainties remain. While the past 50 or so years have produced
some important nutrient management strategies, there are still significant
knowledge gaps.
5.1.1 Data on Natural Basis

We consider a point of central importance that a large share of the nutrient
data still in use was taken from planting material that has long been aban-
doned by the industry namely Dura types. Only few and often incomplete
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Feeding the Palm 73
datasets have been compiled for Tenera materials. It is not clear how large
the differences are between the two types, but they may be significant,
which impacts our capacity to develop improved management practices
(see Section 3.3). This review has identified only three studies that presented
original data on nutrient demand in Tenera palms (Table 6). Furthermore,
there are differences among planting materials of different origin, but little is
known about those differences. Similarly, past results for establishment of
cultivation on newly cleared jungle, primary or secondary forest land
need to be updated with studies in the current scenarios of development
in marginal or degraded lands. We note in Section 2.4, there is only patchy
information on even the most basic information on fruit development,
including the precise timing of critical stress-sensitive periods during fruit
development, which are currently still given wide ranges especially for the
sex determination stage. The same is true for effects of nutrient supply on
sex differentiation/sex ratio, abortion, and bunch failure, which would
require records of total inflorescence production related to total frond
production in nutrient rateeresponse trials, but there is no systematically
collected data available currently. In this context, also very little is known
about stress-induced physiological changes that lead to the aforementioned
effects, a topic that could maybe be investigated through modern approaches
like metabolomics. Similarly, studies about palm roots, including methodol-
ogies, influence of field conditions (soil, terrain, drainage), in-situ validation
of root system simulations, and on the effects of nutrient placement on soil
fertility and plant uptake, would fill existing gaps.
Much of the research on oil palm has focused in one way or another on
yield improvements, yet, estimations of general and site-specific yield poten-
tial still require investigation and clarification (Hoffmann et al., 2017).
Similar to fruit development, yield response to waterlogging, drainage,
micronutrients, or biotic stresses are still not well understood, and data
from commercial operations might offer substantial learning opportunities.
Even nutrient contributions to yield gap closure seem to offer ample
research opportunities, which could justify new nutrient rateeresponse trials
with current planting material. This includes information about nutrient ef-
fects on bunch and fruit components, as well as on oil and kernel yields,
which could be obtained through bunch analysis or the establishment of a
better method of analysis. But even the available information on nutrient
concentration in different palm parts is unsatisfactory, given differences
already noted on nutrient composition due to genetics, sampling and analyt-
ical procedures, and locations. There is a significant pool of data that could
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lend itself to a systematic review and meta-analysis of all published infor-

mation to improve our ability to use this information more effectively.
While we would generally welcome more data that provides a better
understanding of nutrient dynamics and movements in the whole palm,
especially trunk nutrient dynamics related to palm age, at different heights
along the standing trunk and under environmental influences are scarce or
completely absent. The few available such data were obtained through
destructive sampling, but the dynamics of nutrient uptake and remobiliza-
tion in living palms may not be reflected in such sampling, and new
methods may be required. Trunk values are needed to estimate nutrient
recovery efficiencies, a critical piece of information to calculate nutrient
budgets, but so far plantation managers are forced to rely on experience
and best bets.
Studies on the concentration of nutrients in bunches would be helpful
to understand the large spatial and temporal variation already noted in plant
nutrient concentrations. This would require much larger sample numbers
than has been common so far. Not having tissue concentrations also limits
the development of meaningful plant tissue critical values. This short-
coming underlies an incomplete understanding in the evaluation of
different fertilizer recommendation decision support aids and could be
the reason they often provide significantly diverging recommendations
(Sections 3.4 and 4.2). Improved nutrient recommendations also require
a better understanding of the relationship between nutrient application
timing and continuous fruit development during the productive phase of
the plantation cycle. As to placement, it has been hypothesized that nutri-
ents applied on the frond stack rows will also be taken up by ground cover
vegetation, while no plant competition occurs in weeded palm circles. Also
N fertilizers applied on the frond stack zones may have higher N volatili-
zation losses due to higher biological activity and accelerated decomposi-
tion of organic matter. The infiltration rate beneath the frond stack can
be higher because of lower soil compaction. Finally, P fertilizers such as
rock phosphate applied in the palm circle may counteract the acidification
effects of N fertilizers (Goh et al., 2003; Rankine and Fairhurst, 1998).
These hypotheses are important research gaps for further field experiments
to validate, placed in the complex tradeoffs between erosion control and
nutrient competition. The benefits and drawbacks of newer methods
such as fertigation have been little investigated. The final objective of all
these suggested efforts would be to develop guidelines to develop best
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Feeding the Palm 75
practice fertilizer regimes or at least provide a better understanding of

nutrient effects, interactions, and cycling in both soil and plant that
consider the wide range of site-specific factors that influence production
performance.
More data on nutrient demand in varied situations combined with meta-
analysis of results from nutrient rateeresponse trials could be a suitable
approach to also define the link between visual deficiency symptoms and
tissue concentrations. Ideally, this would enable remote-sensed information
to be linked to tissue nutrient values. There also seems to be a need to revise
the critical tissue levels for S and possibly relate to this N:S ratio and its effect
on bunch, oil and kernel yield, as well as kernel protein content. Despite the
widespread use of K fertilizers in oil palm, there appears only scanty evidence
for links between K tissue concentrations and disease susceptibility. Visual
symptoms of chlorine deficiency are still undefined, and there is little known
of the beneficial effects and metabolic pathways of silicon in oil palm.
Nutrient imbalances and nutrient-related diseases are only partly under-
stood, and the impact that unbalanced nutrient ratios have beyond visual
symptoms is unclear. Related to this, there is little-supporting evidence
for the effectiveness of using timing and placement to avoid nutrient antag-
onism, although multinutrient blends or compounds are advocated in some
situations (see Sections 4.3.2). This leads to questions about the comparative
effectiveness of enhanced efficiency and multinutrient sources over tradi-
tional single nutrient sources, for which little hard data are available.
5.1.2 Data on Management

While there are many research opportunities for improving the natural basis
of oil palm cultivation, looking into the impact of management factors on
production from the nursery to the immature palm and finally the mature
plantation could provide valuable insights into further options to improve
performance. This involves investigating how commercial yields are gener-
ated (Section 2.5) which includes plantation management practices and
overall efficiency of commercial harvesting. This approach requires the
development of analytical methods and procedures that allow the analysis
of data from commercial operations. Examples include Plantation Intelli-
gence (Oberth€ ur et al., 2017), the Homologous Events concept (Cock
et al., 2016), Geographically Weighted Regression, and Bayesian machine
learning (Asraf et al., 2012; Chapman et al., 2018). Currently, the ability
to measure nutrient performance in commercial operations is poorly
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developed due to the scale of operations. Appropriate nutrient use efficiency

indicators are therefore not developed in oil palm. Even the quality of the
harvested product is largely unknown, and fresh fruit bunch yield is gener-
ally used to estimate oil yield without any measurement of the actual oil
content in the bunch. This is likely to produce significant errors in terms
of process efficiency estimations and could be avoided by determining oil
recovery efficiency by measuring oil content in recovered fruit bunches
and amount of oil extracted from processed bunches. Overall, building on
the analysis, Davidson (1991) did for the period of 1951e91 and doing it
for the time that has elapsed since could help highlight potential research
directions.
On the plantation, the establishment of nil fertilizer plots could be a
powerful tool for management feedback. It would also be helpful to use
standardized soil sampling protocols and have soil testing more widely avail-
able for commercial operations to generate information for predicting effects
of management practices on soil fertility. The standardization of methodol-
ogies presents a far-reaching problem, in the absence of means for direct
comparison between different procedures. In this context, a revision of
older, technologically outdated procedures could improve data accuracy,
reliability, volume, and analytical potential.
On the operational level, the lack of knowledge about nutrient concen-
trations in fruit bunches mentioned in Section 5.1.1 leads to incomplete
nutrient accounting pre- and post-milling, and, together with other factors,
such as uneven distribution of empty fruit bunch mulch, to suboptimal recy-
cling of nutrients (Prabowo et al., 2006).
As the effectiveness of many crucial management decisions depends on
weather conditions, improved rainfall forecasting and assessment/monitoring
of field moisture conditions could significantly improve performance.
5.2 Conclusions
After a century as a cultivated crop, and over 8 decades since the first field
experiments on fertilizer use, it can be argued that there is sufficient knowl-
edge of oil palm mineral nutrition to support a productive and profitable
industry. While the rate of expansion reached its peak in the last decade
of the 20th century, field experimentation on palm nutrition in Southeast
Asia, the major producing region has been reduced. This is one reason
why accurate predictions and management advice for large areas has become
more error-prone, with new areas under cultivation that do not allow for
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Feeding the Palm 77
simple extrapolation of existing knowledge. One big, largely untapped

opportunity lies in learning from commercial experiences which is likely
to complement conventional experimentation in the future. With the cur-
rent development of the oil palm sector in mind, more work on agronomic
needs, including nutrients, of currently used commercial planting materials
as well as new materials now being bred will be needed to bridge the existing
yield gap between genetic yield potential and commercially achieved yields.
Thus, while breeders have likely reached the ceiling of genetic yield poten-
tial for oil palm, further gains in actual yields need to come from matching
agronomy (including nutrients) to genotypes and from more efficient pro-
duction systems, including improved nutrient use efficiency and closing
the yield gap.
As field trials are expensive, it should not be forgotten that there is a lot of
information not included in this review from work in Africa in French and
Latin America in Portuguese. Accessing and translating this research may
provide additional insights to oil palm nutrition. There is also a large volume
of gray literature published in Bahasa by Malaysian and Indonesian institu-
tions, though, as common within this group of publications, consistency
and standards vary. Considerable knowledge might be contained in
academic theses of Asian, African, European, and American institutions, in
a variety of languages, and in unpublished internal reports of private R&D
units of commercial enterprises in producer countries. However, many of
these are not readily accessible, but a meta-analysis of all the aforementioned
source might still hold answers to several open questions.
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ARTICLE IN PRESS

Feeding the Palm: A Review of

Advances in Agronomy, Volume 152

1. ABOUT THIS REVIEW

2. OIL PALM PRODUCTION

2.2 The Oil Palm and Its Growing Environment

2.3 Fruit Development

is required for sex differentiation, around 4e6 months prior to ﬂower

2.4 Stresses That Impact on Fruit Development

a condition in which sparse or no fruit set is followed by complete drying

2.5 Oil Palm Yield Gaps

physical inﬂuences contribute to yield gaps. In oil palm plantations, reasons

Experiments on six commercial sites in Indonesia suggested potential yield

As a second step, canopy management needs to be addressed with

2.6 Contribution of Nutrition Management to Yield Gap

possible to make general recommendations on an ideal fertilization regime

In Indonesia, the application of K in form of 2.5 kg muriate of potash per

runoff and leaching which in turn promotes better nutrient retention

3. NUTRIENTS IN AN OIL PALM SYSTEM

T.T. Tiemann et al.

temporarily sequestered but become released at some time later. The

Much of the phosphorus in soils is present in low solubility compounds

into organic forms. As a consequence, N deﬁciency is less common in

3.2 Soil Test Critical Values

plants (Ollagnier et al., 1987). Potassium supply, as indicated by leaf concen-

Table 2 Soil Suitability Parameters for Oil Palm

pH <3.5 3.5e4.0 4.0e4.2 4.2e5.5 >5.5

T.T. Tiemann et al.

3.3 Nutrient Stocks in the Tree

3.3.1 Trunk Nutrients

3.3.2 Leaf Nutrients

Figure 5 Frond number identiﬁcation for standardized sampling.

T.T. Tiemann et al.

3.3.3 Bunch Nutrients

3.4 Plant Tissue Critical Values

Table 4 K Nutrient Concentration (% of Dry Matter) in Various Components of Fresh

Stalk 7.60e8.00 6.60e7.60 5.80e7.40 7.80e8.40

Table 6 Annual Nutrient Demand of Oil Palm of Various Ages (kg/ha)

0e3 Whole palm excl. 40 6 55 7 13

3.5 Nutrient Transfers and Recycling

N 0.61e1.05 % 2e2.3 % 47e1227 ppm 2.2e2.8 % 1.6 %

T.T. Tiemann et al.

Table 8 Nutrient Contents in Oil Palm Fronds

N 588 0.75e0.98 104

3.6 Nutrient Effects, Deﬁciency Symptoms, and Beneﬁcial

Nitrogen deﬁciency is frequently observed in young palms grown in

Boron deﬁciency is the most widespread micronutrient disorder in oil

shortening, chlorosis, and later necrosis on young pinnae (Corley and

susceptibility of roots to pathogenic attack. Discontinuous interveinal

3.6.12 Molybdenum and Calcium

(Kaiser et al., 2005). Calcium plays a regulatory role in root development

3.6.14 Imbalances and Nutrient-Related Diseases

4. 4R NUTRIENT STEWARDSHIP CONCEPT

4.1 Right Source

is widely used in young plantings for ﬁxing and supplying N (Samedani

4.1.2 Considerations for Macronutrient Sources

Calcium is supplied through rock phosphate or dolomite (calcium/

4.1.3 Practical Management Considerations

the required nutrient rate (IPNI, 2015). Compound fertilizers tend to be

4.2 Right Rate

T.T. Tiemann et al.

Feeding the Palm

T.T. Tiemann et al.