Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in air.

Water vapour, the gaseous state of water, is

generally invisible to the human eye. Humidity indicates the likelihood for precipitation, dew, or fog to be
[1]

present. The amount of water vapour needed to achieve saturation increases as the temperature increases.
As the temperature of a parcel of air decreases it will eventually reach the saturation point without adding or
losing water mass. The amount of water vapour contained within a parcel of air can vary
significantly.Absolute humidityAbsolute humidity is the total mass of water vapor present in a given
volume or mass of air. It does not take temperature into consideration. Absolute humidity in the
atmosphere ranges from near zero to roughly 30 grams per cubic metre when the air is saturated at 30 °C
(86 °F).[5][6] The absolute humidity changes as air temperature or pressure changes, if the volume is not
fixed. This makes it unsuitable for chemical engineering calculations, e.g. in drying, where temperature
can vary considerably. As a result, absolute humidity in chemical engineering may refer to mass of
water vapor per unit mass of dry air, also known as the humidity ratio or mass mixing ratio (see
"specific humidity" below), which is better suited for heat and mass balance calculations. Mass of water
per unit volume as in the equation above is also defined as volumetric humidity. Because of the potential
confusion, British Standard BS 1339 [7] suggests avoiding the term "absolute humidity". Units should
always be carefully checked. Many humidity charts are given in g/kg or kg/kg, but any mass units may
be used. Relative humidityThe relative humidity or of an air-water mixture is defined as the ratio of
the partial pressure of water vapor in the mixture to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water over a flat
surface of pure water[8] at a given temperaturE,Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage; a
higher percentage means that the air-water mixture is more humid. Relative humidity is an important
metric used in weather forecasts and reports, as it is an indicator of the likelihood of precipitation, dew,
or fog. In hot summer weather, a rise in relative humidity increases the apparent temperature to humans
(and other animals) by hindering the evaporation of perspiration from the skin. For example, according
to the Heat Index, a relative humidity of 75% at air temperature of 80.0 °F (26.7 °C) would feel like
83.6 °F ±1.3 °F (28.7 °C ±0.7 °C).[11][12] Specific humiditySpecific humidity (or moisture content) is
the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the moist air parcel.[13] Specific humidity is
approximately equal to the mixing ratio, which is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapor in an
air parcel to the mass of dry air for the same parcel. As temperature decreases, the amount of water
vapor needed to reach saturation also decreases. As the temperature of a parcel of air becomes lower it
will eventually reach the point of saturation without adding or losing water mass. Adaptive comfort builds
on the principle that people experience differently and adapt, up to a certain extent, to a variety of indoor conditions,
depending on their clothing, their activity and general physical condition. Therefore, contrary to the conventional
cooling which is based on pre-calculated temperatures and humidity levels, the adaptive approach is based on a non
fixed set of conditions, taking into account thermal perception and behavior of the user, requiring him to take an active
role in controlling his indoor environment. Thermal comfort describes the human satisfactory perception of
the thermal environment. It refers to a number of conditions in which the majority of people feel
comfortable. Thermal comfort is rated amongst the most important conditions for improving comfort
and satisfaction of occupants with their indoor environment, based on a review of various studies The 1

heat exchange between the human body and its environment occurs mainly in three ways, namely
through:radiation convection evaporation.Thermal indoor environment is affected by both internal
and external sources.Common heat sources:electrical equipment (such as lighting and computers),sun
radiation,human presence. Latent heat is the amount of energy that is either absorbed or released during
a phase transition at a constant temperature. Phase of matter is the form of matter that has uniform
chemical and physical properties all over the substance that is considered. Changing this phase of matter
is known as a phase transition. Here, the new phase also should have the uniformity of properties. When
the phase of matter is changed, it either requires energy or releases energy in the form of heat. This
exchanged energy is called latent heat. The three main phases of matter are solid phase, liquid phase and
gas phase. The value of latent heat varies with the nature of matter. Given below are examples.When a
liquid is converted into its solid phase, it is known as the latent heat of fusion.When a liquid is
converted into its gaseous phase, it is known as the latent heat of vaporization.When a solid is
converted into its gaseous phase, it is known as the latent heat of sublimation. Latent heat is defined
for a system with constant temperature. Therefore, this term describes the change of phase regarding the
internal energy of the system. Latent heat is the work done in a system in order to hold the atoms or
molecules of matter in the same phase.Sensible heat is the energy required to change the temperature of
a substance with no phase change. In other words, sensible heat is the heat that can be felt. It is a type of
energy that is either absorbed or released by a system. The changes in the temperature of systems cause
changes in the sensible heat. Unlike in latent heat, there is no change in phase of matter in the system
when considering the sensible heat. It only describes the change in the temperature.For example, boiled
water feels warmer than cold water. This difference can be observed due to the sensible heat. In air
conditioners, the cooling liquid or the refrigerant changes its temperature according to the sensible heat.
Variable refrigerant flow (VRF), also known as variable refrigerant volume (VRV), is an HVAC
technology invented by Daikin Industries, Ltd. in 1982. Like ductless minisplits, VRFs use refrigerant as the
[1]

cooling and heating medium. This refrigerant is conditioned by a single outdoor condensing unit, and is
circulated within the building to multiple indoor units.
Fs are typically installed with an Air conditioner inverter which adds a DC inverter to the compressor in
order to support variable motor speed and thus variable refrigerant flow rather than simply perform on/off
operation. By operating at varying speeds, VRF units work only at the needed rate allowing for substantial
energy savings at load conditions. Heat recovery VRF technology allows individual indoor units to heat or
cool as required, while the compressor load benefits from the internal heat recovery. Energy savings of up to
55% are predicted over comparable unitary equipment. This also results in greater control of the
[1] [2]

building's interior temperature by the building's occupants. VRFs come in two system formats, two pipe and
three pipe systems. In a heat pump two pipe system all of the zones must either be all in cooling or all in
heating. Heat Recovery (HR) systems have the ability to simultaneously heat certain zones while cooling
others; this is usually done through a three pipe design, with the exception of Mitsubishi and Carrier, whose
systems are able to do this with a two pipe system using a branch circuit (BC) controller to the individual
indoor evaporator zones. In this case the heat extracted from zones requiring cooling is put to use in the
zones requiring heating. This is made possible because the heating unit is functioning as a condenser,
providing sub-cooled liquid back into the line that is being used for cooling. While the heat recovery system
has a greater initial cost, it allows for better zoned thermal control of a building and overall greater
efficiencies. In heat recovery VRF systems, some of the indoor units may be in cooling mode while others
[3]

are in heating mode, reducing energy consumption. If the coefficient of performance in cooling mode of a
system is 3, and the coefficient of performance in heating mode is 4, then heat recovery performance can
reach more than 7. While it is unlikely that this balance of cooling and heating demand will happen often
throughout the year, energy efficiency can be greatly improved when the scenario occurs\
WHAT IS ECOTECT?Ecotect is a tool designed to aid in the simulation, analysis and optimisation of high performance
buildings, and is especially useful in sustainable building design projects. Its comprehensive analysis capabilities help
analyse and simulate conceptual designs. It allows architects and engineers to test and evaluate design strategies and to
study alternatives and make decisions earlier to deliver more achievable, resource-efficient building designs. (The
ECOTECT software is relatively unique amongst performance analysis tools in that it is aimed primarily at architects and is
intended for use during the earliest, most conceptual stages of design. It integrates a relatively simple and intuitive 3D
modelling interface with a range of analysis functions. These include: overshadowing and solar reflection; sun penetration
and shading device design; solar access and photovoltaic/heat collection; hourly thermal comfort and monthly space loads;
natural and artificial lighting levels; acoustic reflections and reverberation times; project cost and environmental impact. The
most significant feature of ECOTECT is its interactive approach to performance analysis. Students are able to select different
surface materials and very quickly compare the resulting changes to internal lighting levels, reverberation times, monthly
heat loads and hourly internal temperatures at different times of the year. New windows can be added in
order to see their effect on daylighting, thermal response and overall building costs. As the complexity of the model
increases, it can also be exported to a range of application-specific tools for more detailed analysis. Formats currently
supported include: the RADIANCE radiosity-based lighting simulation package from Lawrence Berkley Laboratories;
VRML for interactive 3D visualisation; the DOE-2 and EnergyPlus thermal simulation tools from the US Department of
Energy and a range of other applications such as POV-Ray, a freeware raytracing-based rendering tool.)
HOW IS IT USEFUL?Architects, designers and engineers often find it useful to visually communicate complex design
concepts and extensive datasets to other project team members and clients in an intuitive and effective way. For
instance, proposing the use of a shading device might not be initially accepted by a client, until the potential savings in
cooling energy due to the shading device is demonstrated. This can effectively be done through the use of Ecotect Analysis.
Using simulation software, design professionals are able to continuously study and predict how decisions will impact the
performance of the building from the early phases of design through occupancy, reducing or eliminating the need for
investment in mock-ups or manual calculations. Ecotect gives architects, designers and engineers the power to use
performance-based criteria in their design projects.INTUITIVE 3D OUTPUTSEcotect Analysis produces cutting-edge
3D spatial models to help users visualise  the simulation output, allowing a smooth translation of the simulation results
into the project design
HEAT LOAD CALCULATION

.
 PSYCHOMETRY Psychrometrics is
the science of the properties of
moist air, i.e., air mixed with
water vapor. This subset of
thermodynamics is important to
the HVAC industry since air is the
primary environment for all HVAC
work.Whereas oxygen, nitrogen,
and other components of dry air
behave similarly in only a vapor
phase in the HVAC
temperature range, water will
undergo a change of state in the
same temperature range based on
pressure, or in the same pressure
range based on temperature.
In the human comfort temperature
range, the comfort of people and
the quality of the environment for
health, for structures, and for
preservation of materials are also
related to the moisture in the air.
Control of the moist-air condition
is a primary objective of the HVAC
system.
The series of articles on properties
of air discussed important
properties of air like relative
humidity, dry bulb temperature,
wet bulb temperature, dew point
temperature, sensible heat and
latent heat. We shall now see how
the air behaves when it is
subjected to changes in
temperature and humidity to suit
the various applications for which
the air conditioning is meant. The
behavior of the air can be studied very conveniently and accurately by using a psychrometric
chart.What is Psychrometric Chart?Psychrometric charts are graphic representations of the
psychrometric properties of air. By using psychrometric charts HVAC engineers can graphically analyze
different types of psychrometric processes and find solution to many practical problems without having
to carry out long and tedious mathematical calculations.The psychrometric chart looks complicated with
vast numbers of lines and curves in it, but is very easy to understand if you know the basic properties of
air. You will also understand its worth when you actually use it considering the fact that you won’t have
to use any formulae to find the properties of air in different conditions, all you will have to know is two
parameters of air and the rest are easily found on the chart.All the properties of air indicated in the
psychrometric chart are calculated at the standard atmospheric pressure. For other pressures relevant
corrections have to be applied. The psychrometric chart looks like a shoe. The various lines shown in the
chart are as follows (please refer the figs below):1) Dry Bulb (DB) Temperature Lines:
The dry bulb temperature scale is shown along the base of the shoe shaped psychrometric chart
forming the sole. The DB temperature increases from the left to the right. The vertical lines shown in the
chart are the constant DB temperature lines and all the points located along a particular vertical line
have same DB temperature2) Moisture Content:Moisture content is the water vapor present in the air
and is measured in gram per kg of dry air (gm/kg of dry air). The moisture present within the air is
indicated by the vertical scale located towards the extreme right. The horizontal lines starting from this
vertical scale are constant moisture lines.3) Wet Bulb (WB) Temperature Lines:The outermost curve
along the left side indicates the Wet Bulb (WB) temperature scale. The constant WB temperature lines
are the diagonal lines extending from WB temperature curved scale downwards towards the right hand
side of the chart. All the points located along the constant WB temperature line have the same
temperature.4) Dew Point (DP) Temperature Lines:Since the dew point temperature of the air
depends on the moisture content of the air, constant moisture lines are also constant DP temperature
lines. The scale of the DP and WB temperature is the same, however, while the constant WB
temperature lines are diagonal lines extending downwards, the constant DP temperature lines are
horizontal lines. Thus the constant DP and WB temperature lines are different. WHAT IS SICK
BUILDING SYNDROME?Sick building syndrome (SBS) is a situation in which occupants of a
building experience acute health effects that seem to be linked to time spent in a building, but no
specific Illness or cause can be identified. The complaints may be localized in a particular room or Zone,
or may be widespread throughout the building. Frequently, problems result when a building is operated
or maintained in a manner that is inconsistent with its original design or prescribed operating
procedures. Sometimes Indoor air problems are a result of poor building design or occupant
activities.SYMPTOMS OF SBS-1-Building occupants complain of symptoms associated with acute
discomfort. These symptoms include headaches; eye, nose, and throat irritation; a dry cough; dry or
itchy skin; dizziness and nausea; difficulty in concentrating; fatigue; and sensitivity to odours. 2-Sbs
reduces worker productivity and may also increase absenteeism.3-With sbs, no clinically defined disease
or specific chemical or biological contaminant can be determined as the cause of the symptoms. Most of
the complainants feel relief soon after leaving the building. CAUSES OF SBSSpecific causes of sbs
remain unknown but the following have been cited as contributing factors to sick building syndrome.
These elements may act in combination or may supplement other complaints such as inadequate
temperature, humidity, or lighting. Chemical contaminants from outdoor sources: outdoor air that
enters a building can also be a source of indoor pollution. Pollutants from motor vehicle exhausts,
Plumbing vents, and building exhausts (bathrooms and kitchens) can enter the Building through poorly
located air intake vents, windows, and other openings. Chemical contaminants from indoor sources:
most indoor air pollution comes from sources inside the building. For example, adhesives, upholstery,
carpeting, Copy machines, manufactured wood products, cleaning agents and pesticides may Emit
volatile organic compounds (VOCS) including formaldehyde. VOCS can cause chronic and acute health
effects at high concentrations.Biological contaminants: biological contaminants include pollen,
bacteria, Viruses, and molds. These contaminants can breed in stagnant water that has Accumulated in
humidifiers, drain pans, and ducts, or where water has collected on ceiling tiles, insulation, or carpet.
Biological contaminants can cause fever, Chills, cough, chest tightness, muscle aches, and allergic
reactions. SOLUTIONS TO SBSSolutions to SBS problems usually include combinations of the
following measures: 1-Increasing the ventilation rates and air distribution is often a cost-effective means
of reducing indoor pollutant levels.2-At a minimum, heating, ventilating, and air Conditioning systems
should be designed to meet ventilation standards in Local building codes.3-Make sure that the system is
operated and maintained to ensure that the design ventilation rates are attained.4-If there are strong
Pollutant sources, air may need to be vented directly to the outside. This method is especially
recommended to remove pollutants that accumulate in specific areas Such as restrooms, copy rooms,
and printing facilities.5-Removal or modification of the pollutant source is the most effective approach
to Solving a known source of an indoor air quality problem when this solution is Practicable. Ways to
do this include:Routine maintenance of HVAC systems. Replacing water-stained ceiling tiles and
carpets.Banning smoking or providing a separately ventilated room.Venting contaminant source
emissions to the outdoors.Using and storing paints, solvents, pesticides, and adhesives in closed
containers.What is Indoor Air Quality [IAQ] ?"Indoor Air Quality" (IAQ) refers to the nature of air
within an inhabited, enclosed spacewith particular relevance to suspended particulate matter, dust,
harmful biologicalcontaminants, chemical vapours and odours present in it.In many large commercial
conditioned spaces, the occupants have virtually no controlover their environment, i.e. they cannot open
windows if the room feels stuffy andunaired, turn on the exhaust fans, or leave the room, if the space is
filled with dust,tobacco smoke, chemical vapour from paints, pesticide sprays, fine carbon dust
fromcopying machines, etc. Actually because of the above pollutants, it has been observedthat indoor air
in a conditioned space can be upto 10 times more polluted than outdoor airand may pose a health risk
due to their high concentration. Therefore, IAQ assumesimportance in conditioned places where we
work (or live).Nowadays, most corporate offices are housed in elegant buildings, with a predominantuse
of glass, and have centralised air-conditioning systems. Such architecture gives theoffices a bright,
attractive look. But the indoor air circulation is often far from perfect,and could be harmful to the health
of the people working in such buildings.People all over the world have major health problems due to
poor indoor air quality.These problems are associated with symptoms that are particularly brought about
bycontamination of the indoor environment, by the growth bacteria, fungi, mold, virusesand mildew
(collectively termed micro-organisms) spread through the cirulation of air exhaled, as well as from food
material, etc. These problems prevail in hospitals,institutional buildings, hotels and canteens.Therefore,
the focus today is not only on our "Environment", but also our "Invironment".What are the different
methods of improving Air Quality ?There are various methods for air purification like use of different
filter media &purification equipment like Negative ion generator, Electrostatically charged filter
media& Activated carbon filter media which play a key role in removing strong odours. What are the
various methods of improving IAQ ?There are different methods of Room Air filtration and
purification which are discussed below,Electrostatic Filter Media: Electrostatic filters incorporate non-
woven polypropylene media in which a permanent electrostatic charge is given to the fibres which
attract andtrap the airborne contaminants. The Electrostatic filter needs to be periodically
replaced,which is a recurring cost to the user.Activated Carbon Filters: The odours and chemical
vapours present in a conditioned space, viz. the chemical pollution that affects health and productivity -
must also be removed to totally clean and purify the air. Activated carbon, known as universal adsorbent
(i.e absorption at the surface)of the medium is employed for removal of chemical, organic and human
odours. Since its basic function is not filtration, it has to be used in conjunction with electrostatic filters.
Activated carbon filters are used in Central plant airconditioning of large spaces such as Hospitals,
Mortuaries etc.Negative ION Generator: Studies have shown that the presence of Negative Ions in air
appears to bring about a feeling of well-being and a significant reduction in the number of complaints of
headache, nausea and dizziness associated with Air-conditioning environments. Negative Ionisers
release a flood of negative ions into the air and refresh the air. These are electrical devices which
basically consist of a pin or a metal wire which selectively lends a negative charge to the air stream
flowing over the pin, negatively ionizing the particles which are released into the conditioned space.
Electrostatic Precipitators: These are electrostatic devices comprising a metal wire or pin which is fed
with a high voltage charge. The particles in the stream of air passing over the pin get positively charged.
These positive ions then pass through the precipitator section which has a negative charge (or is
grounded) and therefore attracts and traps the positive ions.Thus the air leaving the precipitator section
becomes free from airborne contaminants. These are large stand-alone devices used with suitable
filtration media in air pollution control system such as in Cement plants, Spinning yarn processing plant
etc. What is the quantity of air required by a person in normal work environment ?ARI
[ American Institute For Refrigeration Standards ] "Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality"
specifies the minimum and recommended fresh air quantities necessary to obtain acceptable indoor air
quality for a variety of indoor spaces recommends an average fresh air intake of 20 CFM [Cubic Feet
per Min per person]. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) of a HOSPITALS by definition involves a variety of
factors such as thermal (temperature and relative humidity) conditions, presence of chemical components &
contaminants as well the outdoor air quality. IAQ is vital in relation to environment inside hospitals, nursing homes and
other healthcare facilities.Poor hospital IAQ may cause outbreaks of building-related illness such as headaches, fatigue,
eye, and skin irritations, and other symptoms. The pre-requisite for any hospital facility is to provide for and ensure a
good IAQ to safeguard patients, nursing staff and visitors from the hazards of occupational diseases and nosocomial or
hospital-acquired infections (HAI).According to the World Health Organization, at any given time over 1.4 million
people across the globe suffer from a nosocomial or HAI. HAIs account for 2 million cases and about 80,000 deaths a
year. Understanding the well-being of its patients and workers and safeguarding their health is a matter of utmost
importance to healthcare facilities. Nosocomial infections are a major threat to the patients' safety in any health-care
facility. However, the prevalence is higher in the Intensive Care Units (ICUs) than other areas of the hospital. This
increased prevalence of nosocomial infection not only influences the mortality and morbidity pattern of ICU but also
poses a significant financial burden to the patient and the society.Further to this a 2008 study by the International
Society of the Built Environment of indoor and outdoor air quality in hospitals in India revealed the counts of bacteria
higher in ICUs and wards namely the orthopaedic ward, neonatal ward, dialysis ward and post-operative ward beyond
the recommended levels. The mere presence of fungi in hospital air was a matter of great concern as many spores can
be released leading to an incidence of HAIs and occupational infections. Noteworthy is the finding that the high counts
were influenced by the activity of ventilation provided,SICK BUILDING SYNDROME (SBS)The issue of improving
air quality in buildings has previously been mainly related to SBS. It is a situation in which occupants of a building
experience linked to time spent in the building with no specific illness. Symptoms of SBS are acute discomfort,
headaches, dizziness, eye, nose, throat irritation, dry cough, itchy skin, nausea etc. Recently many researchers have
worked on SBS issue and its effect on office workers and noticed that SBS is not linked to the type of ventilation or air
conditioning system used but it is more likely to be a function of how well system are installed, managed and operated.
Therefore Operation & Maintenance of HVAC systems in hospitals are more critical than other buildings.Active
Ionisation technology to improve IAQActive Ionisation technology has an elevated antibacterial power and is proven
to be active on pollen, fine dust, toner, mould, smog, viruses, bacteria and tobacco smoke. These contaminants,
according to their size, can enter the body and damage certain organs. Among the most dangerous airborne substances
we find Legionella, a very topical problem that causes millions of deaths every year. With Evergen’s Active Ionisation
air cleaners, this problem is eliminated as pollen, dust mites, fungus and other contaminants are captured and
inactivated..The technology is extremely efficient and is proven at removing 98-99% of:- Airborne bacteria, such as
Micrococcus luteus;- Yeast, such as Rhodotorula rubra;- Bacillus Anthracis;- Moulds and germs present in the natural
spectrum of air.Maintaining the humidity levels-The heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems of buildings
and their components, as well as sanitary equipments, can nurture and amplify the diffusion of airborne substances.
Among these, Staphylococcus Aureus and Legionella are seen as particularly dangerous. The first cases of legionellosis
were in fact attributed to airborne substances containing bacteria from cooling towers, evaporative condensers or
humidification sections of the air handling units of AC systems. Infections are also caused by contamination of water
supply networks, sanitary appliances, oxygen therapy equipment, fountains and ultrasonic humidifiers. Hospitals are
the backbone of health care delivery system in India; this again highlights that maintaining a healthy IAQ
and demands immediate attention of hospital authorities towards taking the necessary measures to maintain
a sound and healthy atmosphere for the patients, healthcare workers and others.
Indoor air quality (IAQ)IN OFFICES is essential for a healthy office environment.
However, as modern buildings have become more efficient, they have also become more
airtight, increasing the potential for poor IAQ. Health and productivity can take a hit in a
workplace with poor indoor air quality. Here are some things to look out for.Physiological
effects of poor IAQ.Apart from reduced cognitive abilities, poor air quality at a workplace can cause
more palpable symptoms like allergic reactions, physical fatigue, headaches, and eye and throat
irritation.Financially speaking, poor IAQ can be costly to a business. Health problems like respiratory
issues, headaches, and sinus infections can lead to higher levels of absenteeism as well as
"presenteeism," or coming in to work while sick. An indoor air pollution problem exists when a limited
amount of fresh air is circulated throughout the office work environment (tight building syndrome), air
is circulated at too fast a rate within the workplace, toxic substances are present in the office
environment, or outside air circulated into the workplace is polluted.There are several variables that
contribute to indoor air pollution. Such factors include the use of chemicals like formaldehyde in carpets
and furniture; carbon monoxide given off by cigarette smoke and outside traffic; polychlorinated
biphenyls contained in electrical transformers; radiation from building insulation; ozone from copiers;
and solvents used in cleaners, glues, copiers; and the ventilation system itself.Also, there are natural
causes for indoor air pollution. For example, humans exhale carbon dioxide, which in small quantities is
not toxic, but may become hazardous if high concentrations are allowed to accumulate. Micro-
organisms or bacteria may also be present within the ventilation system. If micro-organisms do develop,
they may spread throughout the entire workplace or building by means of the ventilation system.The
main sources of poor air quality at the officeBuilding location: A building's location can often influence
the type and amount of indoor pollutants. Proximity to a highway may be a source of dust and soot
particles. Also, buildings located on previous industrial sites or an elevated water table can be subjected
to dampness and water leaks, as well as chemical pollutants. Finally, if there's renovation activity
occurring in the building or nearby, dust and other construction material by-products may circulate
through the building's ventilation system.Hazardous materials: Asbestos was a popular material for
insulation and fireproofing for many years, so it can still be found in a variety of materials, like
thermoplastic and vinyl floor tiles, and bitumen roofing materials. Asbestos doesn't pose a threat unless
disturbed, like it is during remodeling. It's the fibers that are responsible for asbestos-related diseases
such as mesothelioma and lung cancer. Once the fibers are released into the air, they are easily inhaled
and although they won’t cause damage right away, there's still no cure for asbestos-related
diseases.Although asbestos is now banned, it's still present in many public buildings around the world.
Even if you work or live in a newer building, asbestos exposure is still a possibility. According to the
WHO, an estimated 125 million people worldwide are exposed to asbestos in the workplace.Inadequate
ventilation: Indoor air quality largely depends on an effective, well-maintained ventilation system that
circulates and replaces used air with fresh air. Although standard ventilation systems aren't designed to
remove huge quantities of pollutants, they do their share in reducing air pollution in the office
environment. But when a building’s ventilation system isn’t working properly, the indoors is often under
negative pressure, which can lead to increased infiltration of pollution particles and humid air.
FRESH AIR INTAKE IN AC
Air conditioning systems today are much more energy efficient than those in the past. However, these
can only work at their best when they are installed and run correctly. When they are not, they are least
likely to perform at their best and can result in expensive repairs, premature system failure or even
worse, resulting in health complications. This is where adequate fresh air intake plays a role. Sufficient
fresh air to a heating or cooling system accomplishes two primary objectives; it pressurises a building
and increases indoor air quality by diluting polluted or stale indoor air. Understanding how an air
conditioning system works helps us to understand the vitality of access to fresh clean air for indoor air
quality. Outside air enters the system through a roof or sidewall vent inlet that collects air from a clean
outside location. The air is pulled into the system through a filter, and then a duct connected to the
return plenum. Smaller systems usually use the suction side of the air handler fan to pull in the outside
air. The air mixes with the return air and then is dispersed evenly throughout the building through the
supply duct system. When a system cannot access fresh air, individual ls in that particular building may
end up inhaling contaminated air.‘When an air conditioner does not bring in fresh air, people may end
up being more exposed to pollutants indoors than outside as the system will be circulating old air
rather than drawing new clean air from outside.’ – The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) This
simply means that if there is mould, dust, animal hair, chemical volatiles from furnishings or
individuals with certain air-borne infections, people are more prone to be exposed and get sick.
Keeping your system filters clean is also an essential tool to ensuring only clean fresh air is circulated.
As air passes through space, air conditioning system and ductwork, it picks up all kinds of dirt. The
purpose of the filters is to catch dirt such as dust and debris so that these are not inhaled. It is
important to note that no matter how clean a building may be, there is always some amount of dust
and debris in the air. Air filters catch a lot of it, with time, the caught dust may start to slow down the
air flow. This is why it is imperative to change filters frequently. Clean fresh air for indoor air quality is
essential for your health.

Fresh air intake Before the advent of airconditioning, people working inside most buildings including
hospitals, would tend to keep windows open. to allow outdoor air to keep the rooms cool in the summer
months. The liberal intake of outdoor air helped to dilute the stale air inside the rooms preventing
concentration of tobacco smoke, body and food odours and creating a fresh atmosphere indoors in
airconditioned spaces, in order to have effective cooling and cul: dowfl the energy costs, buildings are tightly
constructed,ceiling heights are reduced and windows are kept closed to keep the “indoor air in and the
outdoor air out”. The need to provide a comfortable, cool environment inside, causes the inner space lo be
completely isolated from outside. Thus an airtight space is created which needs “less” electric energy to
condition as it does not allow even a breath offresh air’ in. As a result the same air is circulated in a confined
space again and again. Carbon dioxide Humans inhale oxygen and exhale CO,. The concentration of co2 in
exhaled breath is typically around 3.8% (38,000 ppm). Once this CO2 leaves the mouth or nose, the
concentrations dissipate and mix in the surrounding air very quickly Indoor concentrations ofCO2 in
occupied spaces typically range from 500 ppm to 2000 ppm. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) which has carried out considerable research over many years on
this subject recommends that CO, concentrations in occupied buildings should not exceed 1000 ppm.
More importantly, knowing the difference between inside and outside concentrations can he[p us
determine how much outside air is being introduced to an occupied space.As people exhale CO,,
they also exhale and give off a widE range ofother “bioeffluents” which can include gases,
odours,pherons, particulate, bacteria and virus. When these bioeffluents are allowed to build up
in a space, for instance as a result of poor ventilation, occupants tend to complain of fatigue,
headaches and general discomfort.Ventilation Obviously, well-designed ventilation is the key to
the problem. Unfortunately, many times, ventilation is given only cursory attention. It is a very
crucial aspect of a building as it allows for exchange of air between the indoors and the outdoors.
It is this circulation offrcsh air which prevents indoor air pollution. ASHRAE has, after iiiany
deliberations with connected authorities in the medical field, specified the ventilation rates in
various hospital areas and this is reproduced in the Annexure.
TYPES OF AC SYSTEMS
A refrigerant is a substance or mixture, usually a fluid, used in a heat pump and refrigeration cycle. In most
cycles it undergoes phase transitions from a liquid to a gas and back again. Many working fluids have been
used for such purposes. Fluorocarbons, especially chlorofluorocarbons, became commonplace in the 20th
century, but they are being phased out because of their ozone depletion effects. Other common refrigerants
used in various applications are ammonia, sulfur dioxide, and non-halogenated hydrocarbons such as
propane. The inert nature of many haloalkanes, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons
[1]

(HCFC), particularly CFC-11 and CFC-12, made them preferred choices among refrigerants for many years
because of their non-flammability and non-toxicity. However, their stability in the atmosphere and their
corresponding global warming potential and ozone depletion potential raised concerns about their usage.
This led to their replacement with HFCs and PFCs, especially HFC-134a, which are not-ozone depleting,
and have lesser global warming potentials. However, these refrigerants still have global warming potentials
thousands of times greater than CO . Therefore, they are now being replaced in markets where leaks are
2

likely, by using a fourth generation of refrigerants, most prominently HFO-1234yf, which have global
warming potentials much closer to that of CO . In order from the highest to the lowest potential of ozone
2

depletion are: Bromochlorofluorocarbon, CFC then HCFC. New refrigerants were developed in the early
21st century that are safer for the environment, but their application has been held up due to concerns over
toxicity and flammability. Compared to halogenated refrigerants, hydrocarbons like isobutane (R-600a) and
[3]

propane (R-290) offer several advantages: low cost and widely available, zero ozone depletion potential and
very low global warming potential. They also have good energy efficiency, but are flammable and can form
an explosive mixture with air if a leak occurs. Despite the flammability, they are increasingly used in
domestic refrigerators. EU and US regulations set maximum charges of 57 or 150 grams of refrigerant,
keeping the concentration in a standard kitchen below 20% of the lower explosive limit. The LEL can be
exceeded inside the appliance, so no potential ignition sources can be present. Switches must be placed
outside the refrigerated compartment or replaced by sealed versions, and only spark-free fans can be used.
In 2010, about one-third of all household refrigerators and freezers manufactured globally used isobutane or
an isobutane/propane blend, and this was expected to increase to 75% by 2020. [4]

What is Dehumidification?The process in which the moisture or water vapor or the humidity is
removed from the air keeping its dry bulb (DB) temperature constant is called as the dehumidification
process. This process is represented by a straight vertical line on the psychrometric chart starting from
the initial value of relative humidity, extending downwards and ending at the final value of the relative
humidity. Like the pure
humidification process,
in actual practice the
pure dehumidification
process is not possible,
since the
dehumidification is
always accompanied by
cooling or heating of the
air. Dehumidification
process along with
cooling or heating is
used in number of air
conditioning
applications. Let us see
how these processes are
obtained and how they
are represented on thE
psychrometric chart.
Cooling and
Dehumidification
ProcessThe process in
which the air is cooled sensibly and at the same time the moisture is removed from it is called as
cooling and dehumidification process. Cooling and dehumidification process is obtained when the air at
the given dry bulb and dew point (DP) temperature is cooled below the dew point temperature. When
the air comes in contact with the cooling coil that is maintained at the temperature below its dew point
temperature, its DB temperature starts reducing. The process of cooling continues and at some point it
reaches the value of dew point temperature of the air. At this point the water vapor within the air starts
getting converted into the dew particles due to which the dew is formed on the surface of the cooling
and the moisture content of the air reduces thereby reducing its humidity level. Thus when the air is
cooled below its dew point temperature, there is cooling as well as dehumidification of air.The cooling
and dehumidification process is most widely used air conditioning application. It is used in all types of
window, split, packaged and central air conditioning systems for producing the comfort conditions
inside the space to be cooled. In the window and split air conditioners the evaporator coil or cooling
coil is maintained at temperature lower than the dew point temperature of the room air or the
atmospheric air by the cool refrigerant passing through it. When the room air passes over this coil its
DB temperature reduces and at the same time moisture is also removed since the air is cooled below its
DP temperature. The dew formed on the cooling coil is removed out by small tubing. In the central air
conditioning systems the cooling coil is cooled by the refrigerant or the chilled water. When the room
air passes over this coil, it gets cooled and dehumidified.In the general the cooling and
dehumidification process is obtained by passing the air over coil through which the cool refrigerant,
chilled water or cooled gas is passed. HEATING AND DEHUMIDIFICATTION-The
process in which the air is heated and at the same time moisture is removed from it is called as heating
and dehumidification process. This process is obtained by passing the air over certain chemicals like
alumina and molecular sieves. These elements have inherent properties due to which they keep on
releasing the heat and
also have the tendency to
absorb the moisture.
These are called as the
hygroscopic chemicals.
The heating and
humidification process is
commonly used for
reducing the dew point
temperature of air. There
are number of automatic
valves in the chemical
plants that are operated
by the compressed air at
high pressure. If the dew
point temperature of this
air is high, there are
chances of formation of
dew inside the valves
which can lead to their
corrosion and also faulty
their operation. Thus it is very important that the air passing to such automatic valves have very low
dew point TEMP.

What’s the difference between ductless air conditioning and ducted air conditioning?In a DUCTED
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM, there are air ducts made of sheet metal inside the walls and ceilings of your
residence. These ducts often serve both your heating and cooling systems. Warmed or cooled air travels from
the central air conditioner unit or furnace through the ducts and is delivered to each room in your residence via
vents.As the name implies, a DUCTLESS AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM (often called a ductless mini-
split) doesn’t have ducts in the walls to distribute air. Instead of cooling air with one central indoor air handler
and blowing it through ducts, the ductless air conditioning system sends refrigerant directly to multiple small
air handlers (also called blowers) that are installed throughout your residence. These air handlers remove heat
from each room individually. They look like small boxes installed on the wall or the ceiling of each
room.When to choose ducted air conditioning 1. THE SPACE HAS EXISTING DUCTS. If you already
have ductwork installed and in good condition, most experts will recommend going with a ducted system.
Installation is simply a matter of hooking up the new unit to the existing ventilation. It’s quicker and less
expensive.2. HUMIDITY IS A CONCERN. Ducted air conditioning systems are better at controlling
humidity. The air handlers in ductless air conditioning lack the mechanisms needed to remove much moisture
from the air and drain it away.3. YOU WANT BETTER AIR FLOW. Ducted air conditioning systems also
provide better air circulation. Since ductless air conditioning systems cool the air in each room individually,
there is less air movement throughout the space, sometimes leading to stagnant air and air pressure issues. 4.
AESTHETIC CONCERNS.YOU WANT TO REDUCE MAINTENANCE EXPENSES. Ducted air
conditioning systems are easier and less expensive to service since there are fewer components. They only
require occasional cleaning..When to choose ductless air conditioning 1. THERE’S NO ROOM FOR
DUCTS IN THE WALLS OR CEILINGS. Especially in a New York City apartment or brownstone, who
wants to give up those gorgeous high ceilings to make room for air conditioning ducts? If you want to keep
your high ceilings, or there’s just no room for ducts, then ductless air conditioning is the answer.2. YOU’RE
ADDING A ROOM TO AN EXISTING SPACE or adding cooling to a space like a garage or work room. In
this situation, it may be costly or difficult to add ducts to the new space and connect to your existing system. Or
your system may not have the capacity to cool the additional space, but you don’t want to replace it.Instead,
you can supplement with a small ductless air conditioning system just for the new space. Sometimes a ductless
unit is used even in new construction to provide zoned cooling for an area that’s not frequently used. 3. YOU
WANT TO DECREASE DUST. Since forced air is not traveling throughout the space via ducts where dust
can collect, there is less dust introduced to your rooms.4. YOU WANT MULTIPLE COOLING ZONES.
Since ductless air conditioning systems have separate air handlers in each room, these can be independently
controlled for different cooling needs. That means you can lower the temperature in the living room where
you’re entertaining a group of people, while increasing the temperature in the bedroom where the baby is
sleeping.Keep in mind that zoning and independent temperature control can also be accomplished with a VRF
system, which can be ducted or ductless. VRF systems are a relatively new, more sophisticated technology with
many benefits for the luxury homeowner.

AC CYCLE - There are two laws of physics that we should review before explaining the inner
workings of your air conditioning system.Combined Gas LawThe first is the relationship between
pressure and temperature, known as the combined gas law since it combines Boyle’s Law,
Charles’s Law, and Gay-Lussac’s Law:
 Boyle’s Law states that the pressure-volume product is constant.
 Charles’s Law shows that the volume is proportional to the absolute temperature.
 Gay-Lussac’s Law says that the pressure is proportional to the absolute temperature.

 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
states that heat flows from hotter to colder bodies naturally. You can only transfer heat from a colder
body to a warmer body through some kind of external work.

AC CYCLE-The Refrigeration CycleAn air conditioner works using a thermodynamic cycle called the
refrigeration cycle. It does this by changing the pressure and state of the refrigerant to absorb or
release heat.The refrigerant (aka coolant) absorbs heat from inside of your home and then pumps it
outside.Most air conditioners are air-source, split systems. What this means is that there is one unit
inside and one unit outside, which is why it is called a split system.The air-source part refers to the
place where the thermal energy is dumped, the outside air. There are other potential places where the
heat can be transferred, such as water or ground, known as water-source, or ground-source
systems.The inside unit is normally inside the house somewhere, in the attic, basement, closet or
crawl space. The outside unit is normally located on the side or back of the building.Other kinds of air
conditioning systems, such as ground-source and water-source, follow the refrigeration cycle, but some
of the specifics, such as location and parts may differ. Here are the basic parts of the refrigeration cycle
(the same process that your refrigerator used to keep food cold):Air flows over the indoor coils, which
contain extremely cold refrigerantWhen air flows over the cold coils, heat from the air gets transferred to
the refrigerant inside the coils. After the air flows over the coils, it gets cold, normally dropping around
20 degrees. Warmer, vaporized refrigerant gets compressed (pressurized) to a hot temperatureEven though the
refrigerant has absorbed heat from the indoor air, it is still fairly cool. The still cool, but warmer
vaporized gas enters the compressor (located in the outside unit) to increase its pressure and
temperature.Very hot refrigerant flows into condenser coils where it loses heat to the outdoor airSince the
refrigerant has been compressed (pressurized), it is now hotter than the outdoor air. A condenser fan
blows hot outdoor air over the even hotter outdoor condenser coils.The still warm refrigerant from the
outdoor unit needs to get cold-When the refrigerant leaves your outdoor condenser unit, its temperature
is still pretty high. The refrigerant’s temperature will need to drop significantly before it can absorb more
heat from the indoor air.

VENTILATION SYSTEMS-Natural ventilation used to be the most common method of allowing

fresh outdoor air to replace indoor air in a home. Today, it’s usually not the best ventilation strategy,
especially for homes that are properly air sealed for energy efficiency. Natural ventilation also usually
doesn’t provide adequate moisture control.Natural ventilation occurs when there is uncontrolled air
movement or infiltration through cracks and small holes in a home—the same ones you want to seal to
make your home more energy efficient. Opening windows and doors also provides natural ventilation.
Because of central heating and cooling systems, however, most people don’t open windows and doors
as often. Therefore, air infiltration has become the principal mode of natural ventilation in homes.A
home’s natural ventilation rate is unpredictable and uncontrollable, so you can’t rely on it to ventilate a
house uniformly. Natural ventilation depends on a home’s airtightness, outdoor temperatures, wind,
and other factors. Therefore, during mild weather, some homes may lack sufficient natural ventilation
for pollutant removal. On the other hand, tightly sealed homes may have insufficient natural
ventilation most of the time, while homes with high air infiltration rates may experience high energy
costs.Spot ventilation can be used to improve the effectiveness of natural ventilation. However, if both
spot and natural ventilation together don’t meet your home’s ventilation needs, then you should
consider a whole-house ventilation strategy.Spot ventilation improves the effectiveness of other
ventilation strategies—natural and whole house—by removing indoor air pollutants and/or moisture at
their source. Spot ventilation includes the use of localized exhaust fans such as those used above
kitchen ranges and in bathrooms.
Exhaust Ventilation systems are most applicable in
coldclimates. In climates with warm, humid summers,
depressurization can draw moist air into building wall
cavities, where it may condense and cause moisture
damage.Exhaust ventilation systems are relatively simple
and inexpensive to install. Typically, an exhaust
ventilation system is composed of a single fan connected
to a centrally located, single exhaust point in the house.

Supply Ventilation Systemswork by pressurizing the

building. They use a fan to force outside air into the
building while air leaks out of the building through holes
in the shell, bath- and range-fan ducts, and intentional
vents.As with exhaust ventilation systems, supply
ventilation systems are relatively simple and inexpensive
to install. A typical system has a fan and duct system that
introduces fresh air into usually one—but preferably
several—rooms that residents occupy most (for example,
bedrooms, living room, kitchen). This system may include
adjustable window or wall vents in other rooms.Supply
ventilation systems allow better control of the air that
enters the house than do exhaust ventilation systems. By
pressurizing the house, these systems discourage the entry
of pollutants from outside and prevent backdrafting of combustion gases from fireplaces and appliances. They
also allow air introduced into the house to be filtered to remove pollen and dust or to be dehumidified.
Balanced Ventilation Systems, if properly designed and installed, neither pressurize nor depressurize a house.
Rather, they introduce and exhaust approximately equal quantities of fresh outside air and polluted inside air,
respectively. A balanced ventilation system usually has two fans and two duct systems. It facilitates good
distribution of fresh air by placing supply and exhaust vents in appropriate places.A typical balanced ventilation
system is designed to supply fresh air to bedrooms and common rooms where people spend the most time. It also
exhausts air from rooms where moisture and pollutants are most often generated, such as the kitchen, bathrooms,
and the laundry room.Like both supply and exhaust systems, balanced ventilation systems do not temper or
remove moisture from the air before it enters the house.They do, however, use filters to remove dust and pollen
from outside air before introducing it into the house. Energy recovery ventilation systems usually cost more to
install than other ventilation systems. In general, simplicity is key to a cost-effective installation. To save on
installation costs, many systems share existing ductwork.Complex systems are not only more expensive to
install, but often they are also more maintenance intensive and consume more electric power. For most houses,
attempting to recover all of the energy in the exhaust air will probably not be worth the additional cost. Also,
these types of ventilation systems are still not very common. Only some HVAC contractors have enough
technical expertise and experience to install them.

VENTILATION IN BASEMENTS Ventilation of car parks is important to prevent the build-up of

toxic fumes and flammable gases from motor exhaust and also to clear smoke in the event of a
fire.There are broadly two methods of complying with the Building Regulations regarding ventilation and
these are by natural or meChanical ventilation. Whichever method is used the required results are defined as:
-Smoke clearanceTo provide sufficient openings for enclosed car parks to allow any smoke being produced
to leave the space naturally, or if this cannot be achieved then to remove smoke via a mechanical
extract system. Fume exhaust To provide sufficient openings arranged such that a through draught at low to
mid level is created to allow CO to leave the car park naturally, or if this cannot be achieved then to limit the
concentration of CO within the space via a mechanical extract system. Natural Ventilation This is the
preferred method of ventilating car parks and simply requires openings to fresh air being provided to equal a
percentage of the floor area of the car park. The areas to be provided are currently: • 5% for ventilation of
everyday vehicle pollution and smoke with at least 50% being provided between opposite faces of the
building, the openings provided must be sufficient to create a through draught. • 2.5% for smoke clearance
only with at least 50% being provided in opposite faces of the building, if only 2.5% is provided a
supplementary CO ventilation system will be required to limit the concentration of CO within the space.
1 This method obviously relies on a path to outside being freely available which is not usually the case in
underground car parks hence the need for mechanical extract systems. Mechanical Extract The rules for
mechanical extract state that for control of fumes a system which is capable of limiting the concentration of
CO within the car park to below 30 parts per million averaged over an eight hour period should be provided.
For smoke clearance 10 air changes per hour should be extracted. Floor Area x Height = Volume Air change
per hour = the number of times the volume within the car park is extracted within 1 hour The regulations for
smoke clearance state that the system should have an extract facility which is split into two parts, each part
capable of providing 50% of the required duty and extracting from both high and low level. Extract fans
should be rated at 300°C for one hour.

A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. An air
compressor is a specific type of gas compressor. Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the
pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the
compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible; while some can be
compressed, the main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids. Types of compressors

Positive displacement[edit]
A positive displacement compressor is the system which compresses the air by the displacement of a
mechanical linkage reducing the volume (since the reduction in volume due to a piston in thermodynamics is
considered as positive displacement of the piston)

Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be either stationary or portable,
can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines. [1][2][3]
Small
reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30 horsepower (hp) are commonly seen in automotive applications and
are typically for intermittent duty. An ionic liquid piston compressor, ionic compressor or ionic liquid
piston pump is a hydrogen compressor based on an ionic liquid piston instead of a metal piston as in a
piston-metal diaphragm compressor. Rotary screw compressors use two meshed rotating positive-
[5]

displacement helical screws to force the gas into a smaller space. [1][6][7]
These are usually used for continuous
operation in commercial and industrial applications and may be either stationary or portable. Rotary vane
compressors consist of a rotor with a number of blades inserted in radial slots in the rotor. The rotor is
mounted offset in a larger housing that is either circular or a more complex shape. As the rotor turns, blades
slide in and out of the slots keeping contact with the outer wall of the housing. The Rolling piston in a
[1]

rolling piston style compressor plays the part of a partition between the vane and the rotor. Rolling piston [13]

forces gas against a stationary vane. 2 of these compressors can be mounted on the same shaft to increase
capacity and reduce vibration and noise. A design without a spring is known as a swing compressor.

A scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump and scroll vacuum pump, uses two interleaved spiral-
like vanes to pump or compress fluids such as liquids and gases. The vane geometry may be involute,
archimedean spiral, or hybrid curves. [14][15][16]
They operate more smoothly, quietly, and reliably than other types
of compressors in the lower volume range. A diaphragm compressor (also known as a membrane
compressor) is a variant of the conventional reciprocating compressor. The compression of gas occurs by
the movement of a flexible membrane, instead of an intake element. The back and forth movement of the
membrane is driven by a rod and a crankshaft mechanism. Only the membrane and the compressor box
come in contact with the gas being compressed. Dynamic compressors depend upon the inertia and
momentum of a fluid. Air bubble compressor Also known as a trompe. A mixture of air and water
generated through turbulence is allowed to fall into a subterranean chamber where the air separates from
the water. The weight of falling water compresses the air in the top of the chamber. A submerged outlet from
the chamber allows water to flow to the surface at a lower height than the intake. An outlet in the roof of the
chamber supplies the compressed air to the surface. A facility on this principle was built on the Montreal
River at Ragged Shutes near Cobalt, Ontario in 1910 and supplied 5,000 horsepower to nearby mines.
Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the rim of
the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the velocity
energy to pressure energy. They are primarily used for continuous, stationary service in industries such as
oil refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants and natural gas processing plants Diagonal or mixed-flow
.

compressors are similar to centrifugal compressors, but have a radial and axial velocity component at the
exit from the rotor. The diffuser is often used to turn diagonal flow to an axial rather than radial direction.
Axial-flow compressors are dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays of fan-like airfoils to
[2

progressively compress a fluid. They are used where high flow rates or a compact design are required

T R A C T I O N E L E V A T O R S The major difference between traction and hydraulic

elevators is in the way the systems transport the cab.With traction elevators , the cab is
raised and lowered by traction steel ropes or belts on a pulley system. Compared to
hydraulic systems, traction elevators:Uses less energy ,Serve mid to high-rise
buildings ,Ride smoother .Traction elevators use a counterweight to offset the weight of the
cab and occupants. With this design, the motor doesn’t have to move as much weight,
making it much more energy effi cient than hydraulic systems. TracTion elevators are the
most common type of elevator. They can be geared or gearless and both model types are
driven by alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) electrical motors.Geared
Elevators In geared elevators, there is a gearbox attached to the motor that drives the
wheel and moves the ropes. Geared machines can reach speeds up to 500 ft./min. These
models will have a middle-of-the-road cost in terms of initial investment, maintenance
costs and energy consumption.Gearless ElevatorsIn gearless traction elevators, the
sheave is attached directly to the end of the motor. These models can reach speeds up to
2,000 ft./min. These models have a high initial cost investment and average maintenance
costs. They are, however, more energy effi cient than geared traction
elevators.H Y D R A U L I C E L E V A T O R S Unlike traction systems, hydraulic elevators
don’t use overhead hoisting machinery. Instead, these elevators lift a cab by using a fluid-
driven piston that is mounted inside of a cylinder. The necessary fluid has traditionally
been oil-based but can be replaced with vegetable oil to decrease the environmental
impact.Compared to traction elevators, hydraulic systems are:More affordable to install
Less expensive to maintain and repair Better for transporting heavy loads Intended
for low-rise applications .Hydraulic elevators are most often found in buildings that serve
up to five stories because they operate at slower speeds than other types of elevators —
typically 150 ft./min. or less. Another reason for their height limitations is that it takes a
lot of energy to raise an elevator cab several stories. To reach high floors with a hydraulic
elevator, you would need a longer cylinder and piston. There are two different types of
hydraulic elevators: Holed-The holed type of hydraulic elevator has the hydraulic cylinders
placed inside of a drilled hole and allows up to 60’ of travel.Holeless hydraulic elevators
don’t require a drilled hole, making this type of elevator ideal for existing buildings or in
areas where drilling would be too diffi cult or expensive. Hole-less elevators shouldn’t be
installed anywhere that requires more than 40’ of travel. Hydraulic
ElevatorsPros:Quickest to install,Least expensive to install and maintain,Capable of
moving increased weights (i.e. custom cabs) ,Lower pit and overhead requirements with
standard travel,No crane/roof access required,Above-ground models available with or
without machine rooms (pre-engineered only)Cons:Limited to low and mid-rise
buildings,Machine room required for in-ground applications (viewed as a PRO when
service is needed),Larger power requirements,150 ft./min. max up-speed,Self-Supported
MRL (Most Common Traction ElevatorPros:Net travel above 60’,Smaller control room
requirements,Smaller motor size,Possibly a quieter ride ,Cons:More expensive to install
and maintain,Crane is typically required (building roof cannot be installed over
hoistway),Limited on cab weights,Limited on cab capacities,Increased overhead/pit
requirements,4-6 weeks added to project schedule

What is Elevator (Lift)?An elevator can be defined as an electric lift which is used as vertical transportation of
goods as well as people among the floors in buildings using bins otherwise silos. As usual, these are activated
with the electrical motors that also to drive counterweight system cables for drive transaction such as a hoist,
otherwise, pump hydraulic fluid for raising a cylindrical piston such as a jack.These are used in many areas like
agriculture, manufacturing, etc. Elevators are classified into different types based on our requirement. Elevators
are frequently used in the latest multistory constructions, in particular wherever ramps of wheelchair would be not
practical.How Does a Lift work?The working principle of an elevator or lift is similar to the pulley system. A
pulley system is used to draw the water from the well. This pulley system can be designed with a bucket, a rope
with a wheel. A bucket is connected to a rope that passes throughout a wheel. This can make it very easy to draw
the water from the well. Similarly, present elevators use the same concept. But the main difference between these
two are; pulley systems are operated manually whereas an elevator uses sophisticated mechanisms for handling
the elevator’s load.Basically, an elevator is a metal box in different shapes which is connected to a very tough
metal rope. The tough metal rope passes through a sheave on the elevator in the engine room. Here a sheave is
like a wheel in pulley system for clutching the metal rope strongly. This system can be operated by a motor.
When the switch is turned ON, the motor can be activated when the elevator goes up and down or stops. The
elevator can be constructed with various elevator Components or elevator parts that mainly include
speed controlling system, electric motor, rails, cabin, shaft, doors (manual and automatic), drive unit,
buffers, and safety device.The different types of lifts or elevators include building lift, capsule lift, hydraulic
elevator, pneumatic elevator, passenger lift, freight elevator, traction elevator/cable driven, residential elevators,
machine room-less elevator, etc.A hydraulic elevator is power-driven by a piston that moves within a cylinder.
The piston movement can be done by pumping hydraulic oil to the cylinder. The piston lifts the lift cab easily, and
the oil can be controlled by an electrical valve.The applications of hydraulic elevators involve in five to six-floor
buildings. The operating of these elevators can be done at speeds up to 200 ft or 61 meters for each minute. All
the current hydraulic pumps are designed with a mechanical Y-delta starter otherwise solid state contractor. For
the power supply of motor as well as building, solid-state starters are superior. Because the windings stay longer
as well as there is no voltage drop across the building power supply.
In Y-delta type starter, the motor can be activated by using two contractors on a decreased speed, after that
continues with full speed. Older hydraulic elevators now started up suddenly, transmitting mains power at full-
blast right into the electric motor. This sets a lot of damage on the motor, which will make it burn out quicker than
motors on Solid-State or Y-Delta Contactor starters. The hydraulic elevators are classified into four types such
as holed, hole less & roped elevators2) Pneumatic ElevatorThe pneumatic elevator can be designed with an
external cylinder, and the cylinder is a crystal clear self-supporting cylinder. This cylinder includes modular
sections to fit effortlessly into one by one. The top of this tube is designed with steel material that ensures tight air
shutting by suction valves as well as inlets. A lift car runs within the cylinder, & the head unit on the top cylinder
surface consists of valves, controllers, and turbines for controlling the elevator movements. Pneumatic elevators
are very easy to fit, operate as well as maintain when compared with the traditional elevators. These are used in
existing homes because of their solid design. The main benefits of using these elevators include solid design &
smooth, speed and flexibility, energy efficient and very safe.3) Cable Driven or Traction ElevatorThe
traction elevator or cable driven elevators are the most popular elevators. It consists of steel cables as well as
hoisting ropes that run above a pulley which is connected to the motor. This is geared otherwise gearless-traction
type elevator. In this kind of elevator, several wire and hoisting cables are connected to the surface of an elevator
car with covering around it on sheaves at one end & the other side is connected to a counterweight that travels up
& down on its guide rails.
4Capsule lift or Elevators are used in prestigious buildings, which can be called as decoration of a building
because they improve the building’s beauty as well as carries life into it.The main features of this elevators
mainly include design, and travel comfort is best. The interior design of these lifts is attractive with a large glass
panel for viewing. The ultramodern design of these lifts offers a cosmic zone travel experience for the passengers.
These lifts are consistent and inexpensive with the least maintenance.
5) Building LiftA building lift is a vertical transportation among the floors of the building. These are frequently
used in public buildings, complexes, offices, and multistory building. These lifts are important in providing
vertical movement, mostly in high buildings, for a wheelchair as well as other non-ambulant building customers.
Some type of lifts also is applicable for emigration & firefighting purposes.
6) Passenger LiftThis type of lift has entirely included a lift car that moves vertically in a specially equipped
lift shaft. Passengers are traveled between the floors in the building at quick speed. The control systems in the lift
frequently designed to offer the most economical sharing of passengers all over the building. These lifts are very
space efficient which are used in existing buildings where space is at a best.The main advantages of using
passenger lift give a very comfort traveling among different floors, particularly space efficient, fully fixed shaft,
small construction works, and no level loadings on the building.
7) Freight ElevatorIn the world of elevators, these lifts are workhorses. These are very useful for transporting
materials, goods in warehouses, manufacturing industries, shopping malls, seaports, etc. This type of elevator is
separated into classes, to describe their load capacity as well as application. These lifts are strong in nature, and
they are specially manufactured by engineers.The features of this elevator include: the range of loading capacity
is from 2500 lbs to 10000 lbs, height of the travel up to 50fts. The benefits of these elevators include; these
elevators are designed for commercial as well as industrial applications. The flexible design to hold the
application, door designs can be changed, eco-friendly, etc.
8) Residential Elevators
Residential elevators provide stylish options to the platform as well as stair lifts. These lifts can be effortlessly
incorporated in any available home, otherwise incorporated in edifice plans for latest homes. These types of
elevators are available in different styles, and these can be installed in your home walls, otherwise included
effortlessly to improve your home’s decoration. The main benefits of residential elevators are; they can move you
securely among floors even during a power failure. Quick installation and offers you an effortless life.

Round-trip time (RTT) is the duration in milliseconds (ms) it takes for a network request to go from a starting
point to a destination and back again to the starting point. RTT is an important metric in determining the health of
a connection on a local network or the larger Internet, and is commonly utilized by network administrators to
diagnose the speed and reliability of network connections.Reducing RTT is a primary goal of a CDN.
Improvements in latency can be measured in the reduction of round-trip time and by eliminating instances where
roundtrips are required, such as by modifying the standard TLS/SSL handshake.The ping utility, available on
virtually all computers, is a method of estimating round-trip time. Here's an example of several pings to Google
with the round-trip time calculated at the bottom. Notice that one of the ping times - 17.604ms - is higher than the
rest. HANDALING CAPACITY-Five Minute Handling Capacity. The number of people that can be
transported from the lobby in a five minute period, expressed as a percentage of the population.
Elevator systems with a handling capacity of 12% can handle incoming passenger traffic up to a rate
of 12% before lobby crowding occurs.

Cooling load is the rate at which sensible and latent heat must be removed from the space to maintain a
constant space dry-bulb air temperature and humidity. Sensible heat into the space causes its air
[1][2]

temperature to rise while latent heat is associated with the rise of the moisture content in the space. The
building design, internal equipment, occupants, and outdoor weather conditions may affect the cooling load
in a building using different heat transfer mechanisms. The SI units are watts.
[1]
The cooling load is
calculated to select HVAC equipment that has the appropriate cooling capacity to remove heat from the
zone. A zone is typically defined as an area with similar heat gains, similar temperature and humidity control
requirements, or an enclosed space within a building with the purpose to monitor and control the zone's
temperature and humidity with a single sensor e.g. thermostat. Cooling load calculation methodologies take
[3]

into account heat transfer by conduction, convection, and radiation. Methodologies include heat balance, [1]

radiant time series, cooling load temperature difference, transfer function, and sol-air temperature.
[4] [5]

Methods calculate the cooling load in either steady state or dynamic conditions and some can be more
involved than others.