TABLE OF CONTENT ‘TABLE OF CONTENT INTRODUCTION TO TRACTORS. CLASSIFICATION AND SELECTION OF TRACTORS. ‘TRACTOR COMPONENT ‘TRACTOR ENGINE PERFORMANCE ENGINE PERFORMANCE. MECHANICS OF TRACTOR CH. ‘TRACTION AND TRACTOR THEORY. ‘TRACTION THEORY ‘TRACTOR SAFETY ‘TRACTOR TESTING ‘TRACTOR MAINTENANCE. SEVERAL USES OF FARM POWER TRACTORS, POWER TILLER. DESCRIPTION OF ENGINE POWERED BY ALCOHOL AND VEGETABLE OIL (BIO- FUEL). EXAMPLE OF THE ENGINE USING VEGETABLE OIL REFERENCE:INTRODUCTION TO TRACTORS A tractor is an engineering vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high wactive effort (or torque) at slow speeds, for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery used in agriculture or construction. Most commonly, the term is used to describe a farm vehicle that provides the power and traction to mechanize agricultural tasks, especially (and originally) tillage, but nowadays a great variety of tasks, Agricultural implements Omay be towed behind or mounted fon the tractor, and the tractor may also provide a source of power if the implement is mechanised. ‘The word Tractor is derived prior to 1900, the Machine were known as traction motor (pulling. machine). After the year 1900 both the words are joined by taking “Tract’ from Traction and “Tor” fom motor calling it a Tractor. In our Country tractors were started manufacturing in real sense after independence and at present we are self-sufficient in meeting demand of country's requirement for tractors. Our country is basically an agricultural country where 75% of our population is dinecily or indixectly connected with agriculture, This cannot be produced with our conventional bullock pulled agricultural implements. Tractor is one of the basic agricultural machines used for speeding up agriculture production, In the UK, the Republic of Ireland, Australia, India, Spain, Argentina, Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia ‘and Germany, the word "tractor" usually means "farm tractor", and the use of the word "tractor to mean other types of vehicles is familiar to the vehicle trace, but unfamiliar to much of the general public. In Canada and the USA, the word may also refer to the road tractor portion of a tractor trailer tuck, but also usually refers to the piece of farm equipment ‘Tractors can be generally classified by number of axles or wheels, with main categories of two- wheel tractors (single-axle tractors) and four-wheel tractors (two-axle tractors); more axles are possible but uncommon. Among four-wheel tractors (two-axle tractors), mast are two-wheel drive (usually at the rear); but many are two-wheel drive with front wheel assist, four-wheel drive (often with articulated steering), or tack tractors (with steel or rubber tracks).‘The classic farm tractor is a simple open vehicle, with two very large driving wheels on an axle below and slightly behind a single seat (the seat and steering wheel consequently are in the center), and the engine in front of the driver, with two steerable wheels below the engine compartment. This basic design has remained unchanged for a number of years, but enclosed cabs are fitted on almost all modem models, for reasons of operator safety and comfort. In some localities with heavy or wet soils, notably in the Central Valley of California, the "Caterpillar or "crawler" type of tracked tractor became popular in the 1930s, due to superior traction and flotation. These were usually maneuverer through the use of tuning brake pedals and separate track clutches operated by levers rather than a steering wheel CLASSIFICATION AND SELECTION OF TRACTORS. Classification of tractors. ‘There are three classes of tractors: (i) Whee! tractor ‘Tractors, having three or four pneumatic wheels are called wheel tractors. Four wheel tractors are most popular in performing different farm activities such as tillage, weeding and harvesting. They are fast running speed and are not performing construction activities. Furthermore can be subdivided into either two wheel tractors or four wheel tractors this division is based on the power transmitted by the engine to the wheels Example of companies producing wheel tractors ate Massey Ferguson and John deer (i) Crawler tractor: ‘This is also called track tractor. This type of tractor are chain type, in such tractors there is endless chain or track in place of pneumatic wheels, this kind of tractors are specifically designated to perform in areas where pneumatic tyres cannot pass such as mountainous and. jugeles areas and normally these machines have high horse power and one of the most usefulness of this tractor is in construction activities. Example of these tractors are excavators, Gil) Powertiller: Power tiller is a walking type tractor. This tractor usually fitted with two wheels only. The ‘operator, walking behind the tractor performs the direction of travel or in other type of power tiller the driver may contol this device while siting.On the basis of purpose, wheeled tractor is classified into three groups. i} General purpose tractor It is used for major farm operations such as ploughing, harrowing, sowing, harvesting and transporting work. Such tractors are characterized by having Low ground clearance, increased engine power, good adhesion and wide tyres to lower the pressure that will help to avoid compaction of the soil during operation. ii), Row crop tractor: It is used for furrowing crop cultivation. Such tractor is provided with replaceable driving wheels of different tread widths. It has high ground clearance to save damage of crops. Wide wheel track can be adjusted to suit inter row distance. iii) Special purpose tractor Its used for definite jobs like cotton field, marshy land, hill sides, garden, industrial, earth: moving tractors ete. Special designs are there for special pu pose tractor iv) Orehard tractors: ‘These are special type of tractors, are mainly used in orchards. These tractors have big height so that while sitting on the tractor the driver can easily pluck the fruit or the trees can easily be trimmed. There is no part of this machine outside the surface and allows easy passage in between the trees. Such tractors have # Less weight # Less width and © No projected parts Selection of tractors. > Land holding: Under a single cropping patter, itis normally recommended to consider 1 hp for every 2 hectares of land. In other words, one tractor of 20-25 hp is suitable for 40 hectares farm. Cropping pattem: Generally 1.5 hectare/hp has been recommended where adequate invigation facilities are available and more than and crop is taken. So a 30-35 hp tractor is suitable for 40 hectares farm, Soil condition: A tractor with less wheel base. higher ground clearance and low overall weight may work successfully in higher soil but it will not be able to give sufficient depth in black cotton soil© Climatic condition: For very hot zone and deseit atea, air cooled engines ate preferred over water-cooled engines. Similarly for higher altitude, air cooled engines are preferred because water is liable tobe frozen at higher altitude “ Repairing facilities: It should be ensured that the tractor to be purchased has a dealer at nearby place with all the technical skills for repair and maintenance of machine “ Ruming cost: Tractors with ess specific fuel consumption should be preferred over others so that running cost may be Less. Initial cost and resale value: While keeping the resale value in mind, the initial cost should not be very high, otherwise higher amount of interest will have to be paid. 1 report: Test report of tractors released from farm machinery testing stations should be consulted for guidance. TRACTOR COMPONENTS Due to the development of technology makes tractors to be digitals (the tractor which uses electronics systems to operates) or analogy (tractors which uses manuals components for operations). ‘Tractor components refers to basics components that makes tractor to operate ‘The following are main components of Tractors: (i) L@cengine (i) Clutch (iii) Transmission gears (iv) Differential unit (Final drive (wi) Rear wheels (sii) Front wheels (ili) Steering mechanism (ix) Hydraulic control and hiteh system () Brakes (xi) Power take-off unit (xii) Tractor pulley and (xiii) Control panel Note: Every tractor is fitted with an I. C. engine, the engine may be carburettor type or diesel type but nowadays almost all the tractors are diesel tractors. 4(i) Internal combustion engine(I.C.engines) LC engines refers: to engines that creates energy by burning fuel inside itself. ‘The engine of wactor is the main chief component that drives the tractors to work in all activities in farms, LC engines are classified according to the following: © Ignition system ‘+ Number of strokes ‘© Intemal combustion ‘+ Fuel systems. Vatee Ciinder Head Pita \ Spark Plog / Water Jacket ston Ring a Win Pin Fan: r i Valve Stem Bashi | TO a Valve Spi - = Firwhel 2 vn fj Ot Fite | Timing Gear It Comsat Cam Shaft Fan Pulley! Crank © Trough “Git Lev Surtig Crash Crank Shak Bearing! Oil Lev” Oil Dain Magee Figure 121—The Fordson. Engine. Gi) Clute Clutch is a device, used to connect and disconnect the tractor engine from the transmission gears and drive wheels, Clutch transmits power by means of friction between driving members and driven members‘Types of clutch Clutches Chad Reese Pe Quah Das Catch Sprig Prvted, | | Clutches are mainly of three types these are © Friction clutch Friction clutch is most popular in four wheel tractors, Friction cluteh may be subdivided into three classes: (a) Single plate or single dise clutches (b) Multiple plate clutches or multiple dise clutch (©) Cone clutch. ‘+ Dog clutch, Mostly used in power tiller. ‘+ Fluid coupling, is also used in some tractors these days. (iii) Transmission gears Gears are used to reduce the engine speed as the rear wheels of the tractor require power to low speed and high torque. Speed varies according to the field requirements and so a number of gear ratios are provided to suit the varying conditions. Gears are usually made of alloy steel. As the ‘tractor has to transmit heavy torque all the time, best quality lubricants, free from sediments, grit alkali, moisture, is used for lubrication purpose. SAE 90 oil is generally recommended for gear box.Common gears used on tractor ate of two (2) types, these are: a. Selective sliding type ’b, Constant mesh type iv) Differential unit, Differential unit isa special arran gement of gears to permit one of the rear wheels of the tractor to rotate slower or faster than the other. While tuming the tractor on a curved path, the inner wheel has to travel lesser distance than the outer wheel. The inner wheel requires lesser power ‘than the outer wheel, this condition is fulfilled by differential unit, which permits one of the rear wheels of the tractor to move faster than the other at the tuming point. ‘The output shaft coming from the gear box is provided with a bevel pinion at the end of the shaft. ‘The Bevel pinion is in mesh with a large bevel wheel known as crown wheel ‘The main functions of crown wheel assembly are ‘To transmit power through right angle drive to suit the tractor wheels, ‘To reduce the speed of rotation. ‘The differential unit consists af: (a) Differential casing: (b) Differential pinions: (©) Crown wheel: (d) Half shaft and (©) Bevel gearDiagram showing differential unit (v) Final drive Final drive is a gear reduction unit in the power trains between the differential and the drive wheels. Final drive transmits the power finally to the rear axle and the wheels. ‘The tractor rear wheels are not directly attached to the half shafts but the drive is taken through a pair of spur ‘gears. Each half shaft terminates in a small gear which meshes with a large gear called bull gear ‘The bull gear is mounted on the shaft, carrying the tractor rear wheel. ‘The device for final speed reduction, suitable for tractor rear wheels in known as final drive mechanism(vi) Steering mechanism (system) Steering wheel Drag i ball joints Droyg link arm Drag tink Forward HMircction Axle beam Spring seat SS i rod arm. Track rod end joint Track rod ‘This system govems the angular movement of front wheels of a tractor, it minimizes the efforts of the operator in turning the front wheel with the application of leverages. ‘The different components of this system are: (i) steering wheel; (i) steering shaft; (iijsteering gear; (iv) pitman arm: (¥) drag link; (vi) steering arm: (vii) tie rod and (vii) king pinvii) Hydraulic control and hitch system Hydraulic system ‘This is the mechanism in a wactor to raise, hold, lower the mounted or semi mounted equipment by hydraulic means, All actors are equipped with hydraulic control system for operating three point hitch or the tractor. ‘Components of the hydraulic system are; Reservoir, Pump, Relief valve, Control valve, Cylinder, Filter or strainer viii) Hitch system‘This is the mechanism where the tractor implements or equipments can be towed or pulled through the tractive power of the engine via drawbar or power take off system, the hitching system consists of drawbar and three point hitches or quick hitches. ix) Brakes ‘Typical Drum Brake Front Brakes: Rear Brakes Typical Automotive Braking System Brake is used to stop or slow down the motion of a tractor. It is mounted on the driving axle and operated by two independent pedals. Each pedal can be operated independently to assist the tuming of actor during the field work or locked together by means of a lock. Principle of Operation. Brake works on the principle of friction, When a moving element is brought into contact with @ stationary element, the motion of the moving element is affected. ‘This is the due to frictional force which acts in opposite direction of the motion and converts the kinetic energy into heat energy. Classification of Brake. Brakes can be classified as: (i) Mechanical brake and -Intemal expand ing shoe type - Extemal contracting shoe type Dise type. (Gi) Hydraulic brake.x) Power Take off Shaft (P.T.0 Shaft) Power take off shaft usually known a P-T.O shaft. In now-a-days a standard fiting on all tractors and is used for running rotator, fertilizer spreader, duster, sprinkler and many more machines which are stationary such as: threshers, water pump, portable flour mill ate. ‘These shafls either run on 540 or 1000 spm old standard (1938) specified speed of 340 rpm and number of P.O shaft splines was 6 in number. While the new’ standard has specified 21 splendid P.T.O shaft running at 1000 rpm with new generation high performance machine it was necessary for more speed. But we have lots of old tractors having $4Orpm P-T.0 shaft while the equipment now available is for 1000xpm,xi) Rear wheels and Front wheel Rear wheels ‘The rear wheels of the tractor are large in size compared to the front wheels , the rear wheels they receive power from the engine and trapped to the differential units which make the rear wheels to work independently so the rear wheels are the one ‘which provide the traction power that moves the tractor back and forth, and when comering the outer wheel rotate faster than the imer wheel. Front wheels. The front wheel of the tractor ate small in size compared to the rear wheels. Diagram showing both rear and from wheel of John Deere TractorTRACTOR ENGINE PERFORMANCE Is the machine that convert energy from heat energy to mechanical energy. ‘Also can be defined as powerful motor-driven vehicle with large heavy treads, used for pulling farm machinery to work, it uses energy from liquid fuel/steam to produce movement. ‘Types of tractor engines ‘Tractor engines are classified according to the type of fuel used to power the engine and so we have: () Steam powered tractor engine ‘This is a machine that bum goal to release the heat energy. It's a bit like grant kettle sitting on top of a enal fire. The heat from the fire boils the water in the kettle and turns it into steam but instead of blowing off uselessly into ar, like the steam from the Kettle, the steam is captured and used to power machine. The steam create high amount of pressure, this pressure is then sent into cylinders Which ate used to move the wheel and mechanical farm implementi) Gasoline powered tractor engine ‘Tractors using gasoline engines were developed not long after their steam counterparts Gasoline engine fuel and air is injected into small metal eylinders. A piston compresses the mixture making it explosive and a small electric spark from a sparking plug sets to it that makes the mixture explode, generating power that pushes the piston down the cylinder and turns the wheels. The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is broken down into small droplets and that is distributed evenly. ‘The heat of the compressed air vaporized fuel from the surface of the droplets. The vapor is then ignited by the heat from compressed air in the combustion chamber, the droplets continue to vaporize from their surface and bum getting smaller until all the fuel in droplet has been burt. Combustion ‘occurs. a substantially constant pressure during the initial part of the power stroke. The start of vaporization causes adelay before ignition and the characteristics diesel knocking sound a8 the vapor reaches ignition temperature and causes as abrupt increases in pressure above the piston. When combustion is complete the combustion gas (iii) Diesel powered tractor engine ‘These are generally powered by large diesel engine which are particularly good at providing high pulling power at very low speed. Itis the type of intemal combustion engine (LCE) Intemal combustion engine is simply one where fuel is burned inside in the main part of the engine (cylinders) where power is produced, That's why internal combustion engines ‘are more energy than the same volume of fuel. Diesel tractors are able to operate on bio-diesel fuel meaning that they can grow their ‘own plant fuel and use it directly in these machines. Diesel machines are usually simpler than the gasoline and use air heated under compression in cylinders to Ignite fuel without use of spark plugs. ENGINE PERFORMANCE ‘The engine performance is measured by power output, economy, durability and emission, They can as well be summarized as input and output which are © Output; wansmitted in rotational form and hence measured in terms of torque as rotational effort (Nm) and speed as rotational motion (radisec).the torque will be represented by the way the torque load is applied the engine varies with the speed, 15# Inputs is in the form of fuel metered into the air by the carburetor during its passage to cylinder (diesel) and air drawn into the engine acting as pump. Engine Power and Torque Curves 280 Torque (NM) 120 1000 2000 3009 4000 5000 ©6000 Speed (RPM) ‘The maximum output of the engine is effectively determined by the maximum input, the limiting factor being the quantity of air (charge) drawn into the cylinder om each stroke, This in tura will depend on: (i) The size of the cylinders (ii) ‘The restriction offered by the air passages, valves, ete (ii) ‘The time available for the air to be drawn in. For a given engine at high speed, the time available for the air to enter the cylinders is so short that the air charge is reduced and at low speed. the time available forthe air to enter the cylinders is longer but heating of the air in the cylinder reduces the charge. Hence, fora given engine, there isan optimum speed at which most air is drawn in; at both higher and lower speeds, less air enters Because the output (torque) from the engine depends on input (ait), the maximum output (torque) coincides approximately with maximum air charge More fuel will give slightly greater output torque, but most of the extra fuel will be wasted and will appear as black, un-burnt carbon in the exhaust gas 16‘The types of engine which are commonly used in our country ate the fuel type engines which are also part of the combustion engine. The combustion engines are categorized into two mainly types external combustion engines and the intemal combustion engine; whereby the fuel type engine are in the extemal combustion engine cate gory. Combustion engines also vary based on the type of fuel they burn. ‘Gasoline is a liquid fuel derived from petroleum (crude oil). Grades of gasoline differ based (on octane rating (premium or “leaded” vs, regular or "unleaded”), Higher octane gasoline can ‘withstand more compression before combustion, and is needed in some engines designed for higher compression to prevent knocking {uncontrolled combustion in the cylinder), Gasoline engines are also called spark ignition engines, meaning the fuel is bumed bby generating a spark from a spar plug in the cylinder Diesel is a liquid fuel made of long hydrocarbons derived from erude oil. Diesel has 2 high energy density and thus has better fuel economy (over 33% more efficient) than gasoline, but bums more diny. Ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) is a standard for diesel with low sulfur content; most grades of diesel fuel used today are ULSD. Diesel engines are compression ignition engines, meaning the fuel is burned by using compressed (high pressure) air to raise the temperature beyond the self-ignition (auto-ignition point of the fuel, Because they do not use an ignition source (spark), diesel engines often require warming up under very cold conditions before use. Diesel engines also provide more torque than gasoline engines.TRACTOR ENGINE WITH LABELLED PARTS, SECTION VIEW OF AN ENGINEMECHANICS OF TRACTOR CHASSIS Chassis is the base frame of a farm wactor on which all the components and assemblies like Engine, Transmission, Tires, Front Axle, Steering Systems and Electrical Systems are attached. ‘So, the overall structure which binds all these components together in a tractor is called tractor chassis. It is built very strong to bear the heavy lad and shocks received while working on the farms, Functions of Tractor Chassis Frame ‘The various functions of tractor chassis are listed below: * The load of assemblies like engine, transmission, steering etc is aptly supported by chassis, frame design, + The rear and front wheels are connected to each other using tractor chassis. + The load of implements is also carried easily by this frame. + The working on an uneven field normally causes more load production. This extra load is managed by the frame efficiently. + The load incurred when tractor is working on the field along with an implement is also managed by this frame. + The load produced by sudden application of brakes or acceleration is also managed. + The comering forces are nicely negotiated by these frames. ‘Types of Tractor Chassis Frames ‘These frames are divided into 2 types of categories These divisions are listed below: () Chassis less Tractor (Gi) Tractor having Chassis Frame Chassis less Tractor As the name implies, these tractors do not need any type of chassis frame. The normal of a tractor chassis frame is done by the Engine block itself. These machines are tough in nature to fulfill the requirements, ‘The front part of the engine block is fastened or attached to the front eross member while the engine block at rear side is attached to the transmission box. The front axle in front side is fixed, The different brands of tractors use these types of frames. Massey Ferguson Tractors use perkin engine. Here, sump is made extra heavy duty and acts as a connecting link between front cross 19member and transmission links, It has been observed that tractors which use Automotive Engines have heavy duty sump which works as connecting link. ‘Tractor with Chassis Frame ‘The extra load is carried by the tractor chassis mechanics in this ease. The engines in these vehicles are light in weight and cannot take extra load to act as chassis alternative. In this ease, it is necessary to provide a chassis on which engine is mounted. ‘The chassis frame is connected to front cross member at front side and the rear side is attached to the transmission box. ‘The long members of these frames consist of follow ng cross sections. 1) Tubular Section 2) Channel Section 3) Box Section ‘Tubular Section: ‘This type of section is mosily used in tractors where brackets are welded to the front and rear of tubular frame for the purpose of comecting, Channel Section: his is mosily used sections.as it has more strength for a specific load, Here, 2 long members are fixed to the front end while the rear sides are attached to the clutch housing. This clutch housing. is an important part of transmission box. ‘The major components are listed below: + Gear Box interface + Fixing the Bolts + Clutch Housing + Engine Mounting * Chassis Long Members + Front Cross Member ‘The Maintenance of Tractor Chassis, ‘Tractor Chassis is made very strong to withstand the extra loads. So, these frames generally do not require much care during their life span apart from keeping the bolts tightened. In some ‘cases, tractor might be used in extreme conditions and thus may cause some defects. These defects ane specified below: 201. Looe Rivets 2. Cracks TRACTION AND TRACTOR THEORY Meaning of traction, ‘Traction is the force used to generate motion between a body and a tangential surface, through the use of dry friction through the use of shear force of the surface. Also can be defined as the force developed by the traction de vice medium (soil) and transferred to the vehicle. ‘The power developed in engine, it goes to wheel of tracks which move the tractor with or without an attached load During the movement of wheels, some slip occurs which causes reduction in speed. The slippage also occur with increasing load, ‘Traction ean be increased by (i Using rubber tires with grooves ii) Placing tires chains Gi) Using ribbed treads on tracks links (iv) Potting lugs cleats or grousers on the whee! rim. ‘Terms used in tractions * Traction device Itis a device for propelling a vehicle using the traction forces from the supporting surface. * Coefficient of traction It is the ratio of the total force output of the traction device in the direction of the travel to the dynamic weight om the traction device. T tive Efficiency Itis the ratio of output power usually expressed in percentage. Also tractive efficiency is affected by several factors such as (i) Tyreinflation pressure (ii) Soil condition (iii) Wheel size (iv) Speed of travel (v) Slope of the land (vi) Height of the hitch (vii) Shape and size of lugs.+ Rolling resistance Itis the force required in the direction of travel to overcome the resistance of motion. * Coefficient of rolling resistance Itis the ratio between rolling resistance and dynamic weight, # Wheel slip or track slip Its the relative movement of the wheel or track in the direction of travel fora given distance under load and at no load condition. Itean be calculated by the formula Wheel slip = Ny —NyN Wheel slip percentage = (IN1~ No/Ni) x 100% Where: - Ni ~ Number of revolutions of diving wheel or sprockets for a given distance under load, No. Number of revolutions of the driving wheels or sprockets for the same distance at no load, + Rim pull. Is a term which is used to designate the tractive force between the rubber tyres of the driving wheels and the surface on which they travel. The coefficient of traction is high enough to eliminate tyre slippage. The maximum rim pull is a function of the power of the engine and the ‘gear ratios between the en gine and the diving wheels, TRACTION THEORY Pneumatic tyres are used for common tractors when such a tractor moves over soil, it has to overcome the rolling resistance R as shown, Where F =Fotce of waction in the direction of travel P =Pull used for useful work R rolling resistance In order to calculate pull P and rolling resistance Bekker has su ggested the Following equation F=AC+Ptand} F =[ACHW tang] Where, A=Area which will shear off P =Soil pressure