Geoch of Eo Clastic Sediments - Tibet - Paleoclimate and Tect Setting

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Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 2020, 57(1): 40-55
1 Geochemistry of the Eocene clastic sediments (Suonahu Formation)
2 in the North Qiangtang Basin, Tibet: Implications for paleoclimate
3 conditions, provenance and tectonic setting
4 Lijun Shen a,b,c, Jian Wang *d , Hualiang Shen b,c, Xiugen Fu b,c,
Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY on 11/15/19. For personal use only.
5 Youli Wan b,c, Chunyan Song b,c, Shengqiang Zeng b,c, Jie Dai b,c, Dong Wang b,c
6 a College of Earth Sciences, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, China
7 b Chengdu Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources, Chengdu, China
8 c Key Laboratory for Sedimentary Basin and Oil and Gas Resources, Ministry of Land and Resources, Chengdu, China
9 d School of Geoscience and Technology, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu, China
10
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11 Abstract
12 The geochemistry of clastic sedimentary units of the Suonahu Formation from the QD17 Well in
13 the northern Qiangtang basin (Tibet) was studied using various chemical analyses. SiO2/Al2O3
14 ratios value indicate that compositional maturity and recycling of the sediments are low to
15 moderate. The ΣREE contents of the clastic sediments range from 29.28 to 191.92 ppm. Element
16 abundances suggest that the studied clastic sediments in the northern Qiangtang Basin are mainly
17 sourced from felsic rocks, mixed with small amounts of intermediate rocks, and they were mostly
18 developed in the continental setting. The REE geochemistry of the clastic sediments suggests that
19 these different lithological samples are derived from a similar terrigenous source and the Eu
20 anomaly was inherited from the source rocks. The paleoclimate index (C-value) varies from 0.01
21 to 0.36, reflecting generally arid to semiarid conditions. In addition, Rb/Sr (~0.41) and Sr/Cu
Corresponding author: Wang Jian (1962-), Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu, 610081, China. E-mail: w1962jian@vip163.com
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22 (~37.02) ratios support the idea that arid conditions prevailed during deposition of the Suonahu
23 Formation. Sr/Ba ratios (0.48- 3.23) suggest a paleoenvironment with variable salinity. The
24 covariation among this factor and paleoclimate indicators suggests that variations in climatic
25 conditions exerted a primary control on salinity. The chemical index of alteration (CIA), A-CN-K
26 ternary diagram, and low Th/U ratios indicate that the parent rocks of the clastic sediments
27 experienced weak chemical weathering. Two multidimensional tectonic discrimination diagrams
28 based on major elements show the Suonahu Formation deposited in a rift-related basin. The TiO2
29 versus Zr, La/Th versus Hf, and Co/Th versus La/Sc bivariate diagrams and multi-major elements
30 discrimination diagram indicate that the detritus were primarily derived from felsic igneous rocks
31 with less intermediate igneous rocks.

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32
33 Keywords: Clastic Sediments, Geochemistry, Tectonic Setting, Paleoclimate, Suonahu Formation,
34 Northern Qiangtang Basin
35
36 1. Introduction
37 The chemical compositions of clastic sediments were useful for assessing
38 paleoenvironmental conditions, material sources, and tectonic settings (Dickinson and Valloni,
39 1980; Nesbitt et al., 1980, 1996; Dickinson et al., 1983; Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1987;
40 McLennan and Taylor, 1991; McLennan et al., 1993; Garver et al., 1996; Roser et al., 1996;
41 Fralick and Kronberg, 1997; Alexander et al., 2000; Zerfass et al., 2004; Tanaka et al., 2007;
42 Kasanzu et al., 2008; Fatima and Khan, 2012; Banerjee et al., 2016; Bassis et al., 2016; Meinhold
43 et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2017b). Many immobile and stable elements are transferred to
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44 sedimentary basins during a series of geologic processes without significant fractionation, thus
45 retaining the characteristics of the source rocks (Bhatia 1983; Floyd et al., 1990; Cullers 1995;
46 Dingle and Lavelle, 1998; Yan et al., 2002). Therefore, the immobile elements were widely used
47 to clarify the provenance and tectonic settings of clastic sediments (Dickinson and Suczek, 1979;
48 McLennan et al., 1983; Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Roser and Korsch, 1986; Wronkiewicz and
49 Condie, 1989; Worash 2002; Zhao et al., 2007; Armstrong- Altrin et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2015).
50 The North Qiangtang Basin, located in hinterland of the Tibetan Plateau, is one of the best
51 places to study the uplift of the central Tibetan Plateau because the Cenozoic strata of the Basin
52 were the most intuitive record as has been proved before (Wang et al., 2009), many research
53 papers focused on geological, structural and petrogenetic study related to the Cenozoic evolution
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54 of central Tibet (Wang et al., 2008; Xu et al., 2013; Miao et al., 2016; Li et al., 2018), with very
55 few works conducted on the Suonahu formation (Wu et al., 2018). This is mainly due to its
56 logistical remoteness and extreme climate and high altitude. QD17 well is the first drilling in the
57 north Qiangtang basin for the Suonahu formation. In this study, we present systematic analyses of
58 the geochemistry of clastic sediments in the Suonahu Formation from the QD17 Well. These
59 proxies are used to reconstruct the paleoenvironmental conditions and discuss the provenance and
60 tectonic setting of the Suonahu formation in the North Qiangtang basin.
61
62 2. Geological Setting
63 The Qiangtang Terran is located in the hinterland of the central- northern Tibetan Plateau
64 which is located in west of China (Fig. 1a). From a tectonic point of view, this area is situated at
65 the northern of Tethys- Himalayan tectonic region. The southern boundary of the Qiangtang
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66 Terran is the Bangong Lake- Nujiang River suture and the northern boundary is the HohXil-
67 Jinsha River suture (Kapp et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2008, 2009; Zhu et al., 2011, 2013; Li et al.,
68 2015). The Qiangtang terran can be divided into three different tectonic units from south to north,
69 including the South Qiangtang depression, the Central uplift, and the North Qiangtang depression
70 (Wang et al., 2008) (Fig. 1b). The northern Qiangtang basin is oriented in the NW-SE direction
71 and mainly exposes the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata. Among them, Paleozoic strata
72 are crop out on the periphery of the basin, with the Mesozoic strata widely distributed across the
73 basin, as well as the Cenozoic strata are scattered across the basin (Fu 2008; Wang et al., 2009).
74 The Lhasa- Qiangtang collision initiated in the Early Cretaceous (Kapp et al., 2005). During the
75 Eocene to Paleocene, the Neo-Tethys Ocean retreated from the east to the west, with the cessation
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76 of marine sedimentation and transition to continental sedimentation (Zhang et al., 2008; Hu et al.,
77 2016). During the Eocene to Oligocene, the North Qiangtang basin was under an arid
78 environment, during which fluvial, alluvial-fan, lacustrine facies Kangtuo and Suonahu formations
79 were deposited (Miao et al., 2013; Xu et al., 2013; Li et al., 2018). The QD17 Well (latitude: 34°
80 23′ 52.91″ N, longitude: 88° 28′ 52.44″ E, elevation: 4941.9 m) lies in Wanan Lake area, middle
81 of the North Qiangtang basin (Fig. 1b). It is dominated by Jurassic strata, the Middle Eocene
82 Kangtuo Formation, Suonahu Formation, Upper Eocene Yulinshan volcanic rocks and Quaternary
83 sediments.
84 Field observations and structural survey shows that, the Kangtuo Formation (E2k)
85 unconformably overlain the Jurassic strata. The bed dip of Suonahu formation is generally
86 subhorizontal ( ＜ 5°). The Kangtuo formation has a strong structural deformation. The
87 characteristics of structural deformation of them are different, and they belong to the different
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88 tectonic layers. The Suonahu Formation (E2s) is deposited uncomfortably over the Kangtuo
89 Formation (E2k) and Jurassic strata (J) (Fig. 2a). Yulinshan Volcanic (E2+3y) and Quaternary (Q)
90 rocks (Fig. 1c) are overlying the Suonahu Formation with unconformable contact (Fig. 2b). The
91 Suonahu Formation is characterized by lacustrine facies, consisting mainly of purple-red

92 conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and mudstone intercalated with gypsum (Fig. 2c and d), which
93 locally and gradually change into the lacustrine limestone (Zhang et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2009;
94 Xu et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2018). Paleocurrent directions suggested that the Suonahu Formation
95 was sourced predominantly from the north and northwest (Wu et al., 2018).
96 According to geological logging of the QD17 Well, the Suonahu Formation is composed of
97 gypsum, mudstone, silty mudstone, siltstone and sandstone, with a thickness of approximately 460
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98 meters. The core rocks are characteristically purple-red and gray. The Suonahu Formation can be
99 divided into three parts. The lower part (50 meters-thickness) is mainly composed of purple-red
100 mudstone, conglomerate, and silty mudstone, underlying the Jurassic Xiali Formation (J2x). The
101 Xiali Formation is composed of delta- lagoon facies intercalated with limestone and gypsum. The
102 middle part is approximately 260 meters thick and is mainly composed of purple calcareous
103 mudstone, silty mudstone, and sandstone. The upper part is approximately 150 meters thick, and is
104 covered by Quaternary (Q) alluvial deposits. It mainly consists of white, transparent gypsum
105 associated to small amounts of thin, gray-green layers of mudstone with local calcite cementation.
106 The sedimentary succession recorded by the Suonahu Formation, from bottom to top, includes
107 purple-red calcareous mudstone, siltstone to white gypsum with gray- green mudstone (Fig. 3, 4).
108 The climate that existed during deposition of the Suonahu Formation has been interpreted as dry
109 and hot, with a change in the sedimentation environment from fluvial to lacustrine (Wu et al.,
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110 2018).
111
112 3. Sampling and method
113 A total of 21 samples were collected from the QD17 well and analyzed to determine their
114 geochemistry compositions (Fig. 5). All samples are very fresh. Veins were removed before
115 geochemical analyses with all samples air dried, and crushed. They all have been powdered to less
116 than 200 mesh.
117 Major and trace elements were analyzed for each sample at the Analytical Laboratory of the
118 Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology, China. The major elements were detected by
119 X-ray ﬂuorescence spectrometry (AB-104L, AL104, AxiosmAX, Electronic balance) with
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120 analytic precision better than 2%. The powdered samples were dissolved in a mixture of HF +
121 HNO3 within a Teflon vessel on a hotplate at 80 ℃ for 48 h. Residues were then evaporated and
122 subsequently re-attacked with HClO4 at 80 ℃ until the acid was evaporated to dryness. The
123 detailed analysis procedure followed the method of Long et al. (2008). Trace (including rare earth)
124 element concentrations were detected using an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer
125 (NexION300D) with analytical precision better than 5%. The testing method and basis is GB/T
126 14506.30-2010. More detailed measurement procedures are presented in Cullen et al. (2001).
127
128 4. Results
129 4.1 Major elements
130 Major element contents of clastic sediments samples of the Suonahu Formation from the
131 QD17 Well are listed in Table 1. The SiO2 content ranges from 36.58% to 65.53% with an average
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132 of 46.33%, and Al2O3 contents vary from 1.01% to 14.42% with an average of 9.10%. The MgO
133 and CaO abundances vary between 0.27% to 6.09%, and 1.22% to 23.17%, respectively. The
134 Na2O and K2O abundances vary between 0.124% to 7.97%, and 0.247% to 3.74%, respectively.
135 MnO ranges from 0.026% to 0.129%, TiO2 ranges from 0.082% to 0.61%, P2O5 ranges from
136 0.138% to 1.92%, and loss ranges from 8.9% to 20.76%.
137 Most samples show slight enrichment in CaO and MgO, but depletion in SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3,
138 K2O, Na2O, TiO2, MnO and P2O5 with respect to upper continental crust (Taylor and McLennan,
139 1985; Fig. 6). All samples have a relatively high content of CaO (1.22% and 23.17%, avg. 12.5%),
140 indicating that a great amount of carbonate is present (Fig. 4). The slight enrichment of MgO may
141 indicate that sediment from a mafic source rock was mixed into the Suonahu Formation during
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142 deposition (Wang et al., 2017b). The good positive correlation between K2O and Al2O3 (r = 0.98,
143 n = 21) (Table 4) suggests that their distributions are dominatly controlled by clay minerals (Ross
144 and Bustin, 2009; Wang et al., 2017b). The weak correlation between SiO2 and Al2O3 (r = 0.23, n
145 = 21) (Table 4) reflects that SiO2 occurs primarily as detrital silicates and is not influenced by clay
146 minerals (Wang et al., 2017b). The K2O/Na2O ratio values of the samples are 0.38-3.38 (Table 5),
147 which is representative of leaching during weak weathering (Wang et al., 2012; Wang et al.,
148 2017a). Al2O3/(Na2O+CaO), reflecting the degree of decomposition of plagioclase, varies from
149 0.04-1.97 (Table 5), which shows that the samples contain less clay mineral, more unstable
150 minerals, and fewer stable minerals (Wang et al., 2012; Hou et al., 2016).
151 4.2 Trace element geochemistry
152 Trace element results from the QD17 Well are listed in Table 2. Large ion lithophile elements
153 such as Rb, Sr and Pb are slightly enriched in most samples, but other elements such as Sc, V, Cr,
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154 Co, Zr, Nb and Hf are slightly lower than those of UCC (Upper Continental Crust) (Fig. 7a). The
155 correlation for Al2O3 versus U (r = 0.19, n = 21) is weak, whereas Al2O3 versus Th (r = 0.96, n =
156 21) (Table 4) is strong, indicating that U is not dominant in the clay minerals, but Th is (López et
157 al., 2005). The significant positive correlations between Rb and K2O, Al2O3 (r = 0.99 and 0.98, n
158 = 21) (Table 4) indicate that the Rb is dominantly hosted in phyllosilicates (Hu et al., 2015). The
159 significant positive linear relationship between Zr and Hf (r = 1.0, n = 21) indicates that the
160 geochemical properties of these elements are similar (Bhatia and Crook, 1986; Hu et al., 2015). In
161 addition, Cu, Sr, Ba and Pb are not correlated with K2O and Al2O3, reflecting that these elements
162 are not controlled by clay minerals. The correlations of Sc, V, Cr, Co versus Al2O3 (r = 0.97, 0.84,
163 0.86, 0.55; n = 21) and K2O (r = 0.98, 0.90, 0.91, 0.61; n = 21) (Table 4) indicate that the above
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164 elements may be hosted in clay minerals (López et al., 2005).
165 4.3 Rare earth element (REE) geochemistry
166 The results of the REE analyses are provided in Table 3 and are displayed as chondrite-
167 normalized patterns in Fig. 7b. The ΣREE contents vary between 29.28 ppm and 191.92 ppm
168 (average 120 ppm). The ΣREE contents of the samples are strongly correlated with terrigenous
169 elements, including K2O, Al2O3, TiO2, and P2O5 (r = 0.84, 0.91, 0.87, 0.75; n = 21), but are
170 negatively correlated with CaO (r = -0.89, n = 21) (Table 4), suggesting a terrigenous source of
171 REEs (Eskenazy, 1987). In addition, REEs are dominantly hosted in clay minerals and Ti- and
172 P-bearing accessory minerals, rather than carbonates (Armstrong- Altrin et al., 2012; Moradi et
173 al., 2016). All samples were normalized to chondrite to show significant enrichment in light rare
174 earth elements (LREEs) compared to heavy rare earth elements (HREEs), and they exhibit
175 obviously negative Eu anomalies (0.57- 0.69, average 0.61; Fig. 7b). The Ce/Ce* range from
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176 0.87-0.93, indicating a negative anomaly. The REE patterns and the size of the Ce and Eu
177 anomalies in sediments with the same origin are usually similar (Moradi et al., 2016). The
178 LREE/HREE ratio varies from 5.60-9.54 with a median of 7.93, indicating enrichment of LREEs
179 relative to HREEs. Overall, based on the chondrite-normalized distribution pattern of the REEs,
180 the different lithological samples are derived from a similar terrigenous source and the Eu
181 anomaly was inherited from the source rocks (Eskenazy, 1987; Fu et al., 2011; Moradi et al.,
182 2016).
183
184 5. Discussion
185 5.1 Paleoclimate

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186 The distribution, composition and relative concentrations of some trace elements in clastic
187 sediments may indicate the paleoclimate and environment (Worash, 2002). Zhao et al. (2007) and
188 Cao et al. (2012) applied the C-value as an indicator of paleoclimate. C-value is defined as
189 follows: C-value = ∑ (Fe + Mn + Cr + Ni + V + Co) / ∑ (Ca + Mg + Sr + Ba + K + Na), where
190 elemental concentrations are presented as ppm. This value may be used to deduce the changes in
191 paleoclimate from warm and humid to hot and arid based on the generally accepted hypotheses
192 suggesting that Fe, Co, Cr, Ni, V, and Mn are enriched under humid conditions whereas Na, K,
193 Ca, Mg, Sr, and Ba are concentrated under arid conditions (Zhao et al., 2007; Cao et al., 2012).
194 As shown in Fig. 8, the C-values of the Suonahu Formation clastic sediments range from 0.01
195 to 0.36, suggesting slightly fluctuating conditions. All of the samples were deposited under arid to
196 semiarid conditions.
197 Several studies have shown that paleoclimatic conditions impact the Rb/Sr and Sr/Cu ratio of
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198 sediments (Jin and Zhang, 2002; Bai et al., 2015). Under warmer conditions the ratio of Rb/Sr
199 decreases, while the Sr/Cu ratio increases (Lerman et al., 1995; Cao et al., 2015). Substantially
200 low ratios of Rb/Sr (0.03~1.35, avg. 0.41) and high Sr/Cu (0.82~249, avg. 37.02) in the studied
201 samples (Table 2) suggest the domination of arid conditions during the deposition of Suonahu
202 Formation deposited. The fairly high values of Sr/Cu in SQD17-3 (75.59), SQD17-303 (95.67),
203 and SQD17-366 (248.92) samples hint at extreme arid conditions. The variations of Sr/Cu and
204 Rb/Sr are consistent with those of C-value (Fig. 9). These results are supported by the conclusions
205 of several authors (e.g., Wang et al., 2008, Xu et al., 2013 and Miao et al., 2016), who interpreted
206 the North Qiangtang basin as an arid paleoenvironment during the Eocene to Oligocene.
207 5.2 Paleosalinity

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208 Strontium (Sr) and barium (Ba) show different geochemical behavior so that they can provide
209 insights into variation in paleosalinity. The Sr/Ba ratio is supposed to increase with increasing the
210 salinity of ambient water (Meng et al., 2012; Cao et al., 2015; Moradi et al., 2016). In general, the
211 Sr/Ba ratios greater than 1.0 commonly indicate saline water. Sr/Ba of the studied samples
212 averages 1.3 and ranges from 0.48 to 3.23, suggesting a paleoenvironment with variable salinity
213 (Zhao et al., 2007). The relationships between the Sr/Ba ratios and the above-mentioned
214 paleoclimate indicators (C-value, Sr/Cu, Rb/Sr) indicate that paleoclimatic variations controlled
215 the fluctuations in paleosalinity (arid climate→ greater evaporation rate→ higher salinity) (Fig. 9).
216 5.3 Weathering history and compositional maturity
217 Chemical weathering strongly influences the mineralogy and chemical compositions of
218 sediments by removing labile cations such as Ca2+, Na+, and K+ relative to residual constituents
219 (Al3+ and Ti4+) through the conversion of feldspar to clay minerals (Nesbitt and Young, 1982).
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220 Weathering intensity of the source area can be quantified through indices such as the chemical
221 index of alteration (CIA = molar[Al2O3/ (Al2O3 + CaO* + Na2O + K2O)] * 100; Nesbitt and
222 Young, 1982), plagioclase index of alteration (PIA = molar [(Al2O3 − K2O)/ (Al2O3 + CaO* +
223 Na2O − K2O)] * 100; Fedo et al., 1995), and chemical index of weathering (CIW = molar[Al2O3/
224 (Al2O3 + CaO* + Na2O)] * 100; Cullers, 2000). The above indices have been widely applied in
225 various studies (Lee, 2009; Sun et al., 2012; Garzanti et al., 2014; Armstrong-Altrin, 2015; Wang
226 et al., 2017b). In those equations, CaO* is the amount of CaO incorporated in the silicate fraction
227 of the rock. We used the method of McLennan et al. (1993) to obtain CaO*. Based on this
228 method, if the CaO value, after correcting for apatite (molar CaO (corrected) = molar CaO − (10/3
229 molar P2O5)), is greater than Na2O, then the concentration of CaO* is set to be equal to that of
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230 Na2O. Only two mudstone samples (SQD17-24, SQD17-114) showed CaO contents lower than
231 Na2O. In general, unweathered igneous rocks have CIA values close to 50, whereas intensively
232 weathered clay materials such as kaolinite, gibbsite, and chlorite have values close to 100 (Nesbitt
233 and Young, 1982). The CIA, PIA, and CIW values of the samples vary from 29.9 to 66.2 with a
234 median of 55.5; 25.77 to 75.13 with a median of 58.28; and 39.52 to 71.23 with a median of 58.19
235 (Table 5), respectively. The relatively low CIA, PIA, and CIW values reflect a low degree of
236 weathering of the sediment source.
237 The Al2O3–(CaO* + Na2O)–K2O (A–CN–K) ternary plot (Fig. 10) is extensively used to
238 identify the weathering intensity (Fedo et al., 1995). Generally, a source area with intense
239 weathering may increase the CIA values (80–100), whereas weak weathering may cause the
240 deposits to have relatively low values (50–70) and plot near the feldspar sector (Nesbitt and
241 Young, 1982; Wang et al., 2017a). On the A–CN–K ternary plot, the samples studied here are
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242 mostly clustered between granodiorite and granite sources, and the CIA values are mostly plotted
243 in positions between 50 and 70 (except samples SQD17-24 and SQD17-114). These data reveal
244 that the source area was characterized by weak weathering intensity.
245 The SiO2/Al2O3 ratio is an important parameter for evaluating the sediments compositional
246 maturity, wherein high values (> 10) correspond to high composition maturity (Taylor and
247 McLennan, 1985; Wang et al., 2012; Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2013; Armstrong-Altrin et al.,
248 2015b). Generally, the SiO2/Al2O3 ratio for basic rocks is close to 3 and the ratio for acid rocks is
249 approximately 5 (Roser et al., 1996). Therefore, the ratio in clastic rocks is greater than 5,
250 indicating a moderate to high compositional maturity (Table 5). In the study, the SiO2/Al2O3 ratios
251 vary between 2.9 and 7.9 with an average of 4.6 in the mudstone samples, reflecting a low to
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252 moderate compositional maturity. The SiO2/Al2O3 of sandstone samples is 21.2-43.9 (n=4), which
253 indicates that the sandstones are more compositionally mature than mudstones (Wang et al., 2012;
254 Taylor and McLennan, 1985). In addition, another parameter, the index of chemical variability
255 (ICV= [Fe2O3 + K2O + Na2O+CaO*+MgO+ MnO + TiO2]/ Al2O3) proposed by Cox et al. (1995)
256 has also been successfully used to estimate compositional maturity (Armstrong- Altrin et al.,
257 2015a). The ICV values of typical rock-forming minerals such as feldspars, amphiboles, and
258 pyroxenes are greater than 1, whereas alteration products such as kaolinites, illites, and muscovites
259 have values less than 1 (Cullers, 2000; Armstrong- Altrin et al., 2015b). Van De Kamp and Leake
260 (1995) proposed that first-cycle sediments have high ICV values that correspond to low
261 composition maturity, and recycled deposits have low ICV values that correspond to high
262 maturity. The ICV values of the samples studied here vary from 1.26 and 3.79 with a median of
263 1.97 (Table 5), indicating a low to moderate compositional maturity.

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264 Th/U ratios generally increase with as the degree of weathering increases due to oxidation
265 processes and the loss of uranium. A low ratio may indicate weak weathering when Th/U is lower
266 than 3 (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; McLennan et al., 1995; Moradi et al., 2016). In this study,
267 Th/U ratios show an average of approximately 1.06 (Table 2), supporting the abovementioned
268 interpretations.
269 5.4 Provenance
270 Major element contents of clastic sediments can provide strong information for sediment
271 provenance due to their pervasive geochemical properties during weathering, transportation, and
272 diagenesis (Cullers, 1995; Armstrong- Altrin et al., 2013; Armstrong- Altrin et al., 2015 a, b;
273 Madhavaraju, 2015). For example, a discrimination diagram using major elements, developed by
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274 Roser and Korsch (1988), is commonly used to analyze provenance in previous studies
275 (Armstrong- Altrin et al., 2015a, b). This diagram can help to identify four provenance types
276 (mafic igneous, intermediate igneous, felsic igneous, and quartzose sedimentary). In the present
277 study, four samples plotted in the quartzose sedimentary provenance field, ten samples plotted in
278 the felsic igneous provenance field and the other seven sandstone samples plotted in the
279 intermediate igneous provenance field (Fig. 11).
280 In addition, TiO2/Zr ratios generally increase from felsic igneous source rocks to mafic
281 source rocks according to Hayashi et al. (1997). Generally, low TiO2/Zr values (<55) reflect felsic
282 igneous rocks, moderate TiO2/ Zr values (55-200) reveal intermediate rocks, and high TiO2/Zr
283 values (>200) reflect mafic rocks (Hayashi et al., 1997; Moradi et al., 2016). The TiO2/Zr values
284 in our samples vary from 14 and 59 with an average of 44 (Table 5). The bivariate diagram of
285 TiO2 versus Zr indicates that the samples were derived from felsic igneous rocks, with minor
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286 derivation from intermediate rocks (Fig. 12). This result is consistent with the above multi-major
287 element discriminant function.
288 Due to the low solubility of Al-, Ti-, and Zr-oxides and hydroxides in low temperature
289 aqueous solutions, these elements can essentially be treated as immobile elements (Stumm and
290 Morgan, 1981). Generally, the ratios of these elements in sedimentary rocks are very close to
291 those of parent rocks. Al2O3/TiO2 ratio greater than 21 suggests derivation from felsic parent
292 rocks. This ratio in intermediate igneous rocks is between 8 and 21, and in mafic rocks it is less
293 than 8 (Hayashi et al., 1997). A binary plot of TiO2 versus Al2O3 (Fig. 13) for the studied samples
294 (n=21) suggests a dominance of felsic igneous rocks (n=10) and intermediate igneous rocks
295 (n=11) in the source area (Moradi et al., 2016).

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296 Moreover, some specific trace elements (La, Co, Cr, and Hf) in clastic sediments can also be
297 applied to interpret provenance due to their immobility, for which they are not influenced by
298 diagenesis and metamorphism (Bhatia and Crook, 1986; Armstrong- Altrin et al., 2013). The
299 La/Th versus Hf plot has been extensively applied to constrain the provenance of sediments (Floyd
300 and Leveridge, 1987; Tao et al., 2014; Moradi et al., 2016). Most samples studied here plotted in
301 the felsic source/acidic arc source field (Fig. 14). It is usually agreed that La and Th are more
302 enriched in felsic rocks compared to mafic rocks, and Co, Sc, and Cr are more abundant in mafic
303 rocks compared to felsic rocks (Armstrong- Altrin et al., 2013). Thus, Cr/Th, Co/Th, Sc/Th, and
304 La/Sc ratio values exhibit obvious differences in felsic and mafic rocks, which can offer additional
305 evidence for the provenance of clastic sediments (Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1989; Armstrong-
306 Altrin et al., 2013). On the Co/Th-La/Sc discrimination plot (Fig. 15) modified after Gu et al.
307 (2002), most samples are close to the felsic source field. These results agree well with the above
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308 interpretations.
309 McLennan et al. (1993) suggested that variations in mineral composition, degree of sorting
310 and heavy mineral content are reflected in the Zr/Sc and Th/Sc ratios of sediments. These ratios in
311 the studied samples range from 7.9 to 29.4 and 0.9 to 1.8, respectively. A cross plot of Zr/Sc
312 versus Th/Sc suggests that the studied samples were derived principally from felsic rocks and that
313 the samples experienced some degree of sediment recycling (Fig. 16). This result is in agreement
314 with recent research by Wu et al. (2018), who suggested that the detrital zircons of Suonahu
315 formation mainly originated from the intermediate- felsic rocks in Central Qiangtang Uplift.
316 5.5 Tectonic setting
317 It is widely considered that the abundances of some major oxides (e.g., SiO2, CaO, MgO, and
Can. J. Earth Sci.
318 K2O) in detrital rocks are controlled by different types of tectonic environments (Moosavirad et
319 al., 2011; Armstrong- Altrin et al., 2012; Tao et al., 2014; Hu et al., 2015). Identification diagrams
320 based on major elements were proposed by Bhatia (1983) and Roser and Korsch (1988), which
321 have been widely applied to discriminate the tectonic settings of sedimentary basins. However,
322 these traditional identification diagrams have been used with caution in recent years due to their
323 low success rates for identifying tectonic settings (Armstrong- Altrin and Verma, 2005; Verma
324 and Armstrong- Altrin, 2016; Moradi et al., 2016). Recently, two multi- major elements
325 discriminant plots based on Cenozoic deposits were proposed by Verma and Armstrong- Altrin
326 (2013) to identify tectonic setting. All major oxides must be adjusted to 100% after excluding the
327 LOI and must be regarded as (X)adj, where X represents major oxides. The diagrams can be
328 divided into a low-silica type (35-63%) and a high-silica type (63- 95%) according to the
329 differences in (SiO2)adj values. Three different tectonic settings can be classified on these diagrams
Page 16 of 45
330 including island arc, rift, and collisional settings. These diagrams have been successfully applied
331 to discriminate tectonic settings of clastic sediments in recent studies (Armstrong- Altrin, 2015;
332 Armstrong- Altrin et al., 2015b; Tawfik et al., 2015). In the present study, the (SiO2)adj contents of
333 the samples vary from 48.6% to 72.38% . These can be classified as low-silica clastic sediments (n
334 = 14) and high-silica clastic sediments (n = 7). On the low-silica multidimensional diagram, five
335 samples and nine samples plot the rift field and arc field (Fig. 17a). In addition, all seven samples
336 fall into the arc field on the high-silica multidimensional diagram (Fig. 17b). As discussed above,
337 clastic sediments of the Suonahu Formation exhibit complicated tectonic settings that include rift
338 and arc settings. Although the major- element- based discrimination diagrams of the Suonahu
339 Formation show both rift and arc tectonic setting, the arc-like features probably were inherited
Can. J. Earth Sci.
340 from source materials as proposed by researches on detrital zircon (Li et al., 2018; Wu et al.,
341 2018). We therefore suggest the Suonahu Formation deposited in a rift-related basin, consistent
342 with previous studies based on igneous rocks (Chung et al., 2005).
343 Some trace elements (e.g., Sc, Th, and Zr) and REEs (e.g., La) are immobile and undergo
344 only slight fractionation during the transportation and deposition of clastic sediments (Moradi et
345 al., 2016; Wang et al., 2017a, b). Most of the studied samples fall within or adjacent to the
346 continental arc and continental margin domain in diagrams of La-Th-Sc, Th-Sc-Zr/10 and
347 Th-Co-Zr/10 (Fig. 18) (Bhatia and Crook, 1986).
348
349 6. Conclusions
350 1. The source areas for the clastic sediments of the Suonahu Formation were weakly
351 weathered according to the CIA (29.9- 66.2, average 55.5), PIA (25.77-75.13, average 58.28), and
Page 17 of 45
352 CIW (39.52- 71.23, average 58.10) values and the A-CN-K ternary diagram. In addition, the
353 clastic sediments of the Suonahu Formation experienced a low to moderate sorting and recycling
354 based on the SiO2/Al2O3, ICV (1.26-3.79, average 1.97) values and the low ratios of Th/U
355 (average 1.06).

356 2. The sediments were primarily derived from felsic igneous rocks with minor input from
357 intermediate rocks according to the TiO2 versus Zr, La/Th versus Hf, and Co/Th versus La/Sc
358 bivariate diagrams and multi-major elements discrimination diagram of the clastic sediments of
359 the Suonahu Formation.
360 3. The strong correlation of ΣREE (29.28-191.91 ppm with average of 120 ppm) and
361 terrigenous elements (Al and Ti) suggests that the REEs in the clastic sediments of the Suonahu
Can. J. Earth Sci.
362 Formation are mainly associated with the detrital clay fraction. The samples from the Suonahu
363 Formation have similar UCC-like chondrite- normalized REE patterns, indicating upper
364 continental crustal contribution.
365 4. Paleoenvironmental indicators such as the C-value, Sr/Cu, Rb/Sr, and Sr/Ba suggest that
366 the clastic sediments of the Suonahu Formation accumulated in arid to semiarid conditions in a
367 lacustrine environment of variable salinity and that paleoclimatic variations controlled the
368 fluctuations in paleosalinity (arid climate → greater evaporation rate → higher salinity).
369 5. The major- element- based discrimination diagrams show the Suonahu Formation
370 deposited in a rift-related basin.

Page 18 of 45
372 Acknowledgments
373 We would like to express our appreciation to all members of the project team from the Chengdu
374 Center of the China Geological Survey, for their support and assistance in the field. This study
375 was jointly funded by the Oil and Gas Strategic Survey in the Jinxinghu-longeni area of the
376 Qiangtang Basin (DD20160159), the Oil and Gas geology Survey in Qiangnan-cuoqin area, Tibet,
377 the program of China Scholarship Council (No. 201808510175) and the National Natural Science
378 Foundation of China, Grant/Award number: 41702119. Insightful suggestions and comments from
379 two anonymous reviewers, and Handling editor Dr. Ali Polat are highly acknowledged.
380
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Table 1 The amount of major oxides (%) of the Suonahu Formation clastic sediments from the QD17 Well, North Qiangtang basin
Samples lithology Depth(m) SiO2 Al2O3 TFe2O3 MgO CaO Na2O K2O MnO TiO2 P2O5 FeO S loss total
SQD17-3 mudstone 10 37.03 7.97 2.2 3.86 14.94 1.3 1.73 0.057 0.327 0.075 0.97 6.09 15.76 100.47
SQD17-24 mudstone 30 65.53 13.03 1.64 0.693 1.22 5.38 2.49 0.075 0.4 0.069 0.94 0.208 8.9 99.95
SQD17-44 calcareous mudstone 50 42.97 12.26 4.81 4.24 11.06 2.39 3.34 0.088 0.552 0.137 1.42 0.186 17.56 99.87
SQD17-114 mudstone 119 36.58 11.45 4.28 5.51 5.86 7.97 3.02 0.048 0.441 0.104 1.95 1.46 20.76 99.67
SQD17-173-1 silty mudstone 177.29 39.14 7.49 2.19 3.26 17.28 1.59 1.91 0.082 0.393 0.08 1.29 2.85 18.33 98.87
SQD17-199 calcareous silty mudstone 202.1 50.85 6.42 1.48 1.84 16.47 1.27 1.57 0.073 0.364 0.069 1.03 1.63 15.02 99.50
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SQD17-279 calcareous mud siltstone 279.9 45.68 6.86 2.47 4.36 16.23 0.897 1.67 0.105 0.397 0.114 1.29 0.156 20.11 99.28
SQD17-303 sandstone 300 48.75 1.94 0.621 0.53 18.87 0.377 0.486 0.034 0.222 0.03 0.51 4.96 15.43 99.69
SQD17-345 sandstone 340 50.74 2.3 1.12 0.869 17.44 0.351 0.559 0.043 0.165 0.028 0.63 4.72 14.14 99.56
SQD17-366 sandstone 360.5 53.29 2.51 0.725 0.45 17.97 0.404 0.621 0.059 0.185 0.038 0.61 3.56 14.66 99.81
SQD17-374 sandstone 368 44.37 1.01 0.197 0.272 23.17 0.124 0.247 0.026 0.082 0.021 0.15 4.79 18.26 99.75
SQD17-408 mudstone 399 48.86 8.31 4.55 4.82 11.1 1.08 1.82 0.07 0.489 0.11 3.09 0.124 17.72 99.24
SQD17-427 silty mudstone 415 50.45 7.23 3.15 2.72 14.97 1.21 1.47 0.079 0.428 0.089 1.72 0.759 16.04 99.73
Mean 46.33 9.09 3.29 3.19 12.50 1.785 2.202 0.070 0.425 0.091 1.41 1.607 16.50 99.50
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Table 2 Trace elements abundances (ppm) of the Suonahu Formation clastic sediments from the QD17 Well, North Qiangtang basin
Samples Sc V Cr Co Ni Cu Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Ba Hf Pb Th U Th/U Sr/Ba Sr/Cu Rb/Sr C value
SQD17-3 6.35 45.1 33 7.05 20 14.3 82.7 1081 20.1 92.6 8.41 336 2.93 21.7 8.48 2.35 0.93 3.22 75.6 0.1 0.11
SQD17-24 9.97 17.9 14.5 0.79 6.62 42.1 121 462 43.7 293 15.5 553 8.67 23.3 14.6 3.67 1.02 0.84 11 0.3 0.16
SQD17-44 13.2 89.5 71.4 15 40.2 49.8 149 195 24.5 114 13.1 277 3.47 14 12.2 2.56 1.23 0.7 3.92 0.8 0.26
SQD17-114 11.5 85.8 61.6 11.1 31.4 42 147 176 20.9 98.3 10.9 194 3.03 20.5 10.8 2.14 1.30 0.91 4.19 0.8 0.22
SQD17-154 13.8 93.3 71.3 12.7 37.3 41 185 137 24.2 114 12.5 205 3.57 10.9 13.3 2.12 1.61 0.67 3.34 1.4 0.31
SQD17-173-1 7.32 51.3 38.5 19.3 24.4 113 84.7 498 15.3 68 7.24 206 2.07 347 7.66 6.92 0.28 2.42 4.41 0.2 0.11
SQD17-186 12.9 84.4 69.5 13.4 37.4 29.4 150 247 21.6 107 12.3 241 3.24 16.8 11.9 2.36 1.30 1.02 8.4 0.6 0.30
SQD17-199 5.81 44.7 30.7 5.96 18.4 73.6 65.9 245 14.1 61.5 6.75 287 1.89 426 6.66 2.59 0.66 0.85 3.33 0.3 0.08
SQD17-237 12.2 82.5 65.2 12.3 33 5.83 152 293 19.9 96.6 10.7 234 2.95 11.1 11 2.04 1.39 1.25 50.3 0.5 0.33
Can. J. Earth Sci.
SQD17-259 10.8 79.9 62.1 15.8 34 18.9 120 162 22.9 105 11.7 207 3.08 18.9 10.8 2.31 1.20 0.78 8.57 0.7 0.29
SQD17-279 7.19 50.1 39.3 12.7 20.9 10.6 77.4 432 18.5 78.9 8.52 259 2.23 16.9 8.27 1.56 1.36 1.67 40.8 0.2 0.13
SQD17-303 2.05 22.1 14.1 2.5 7.45 5.54 20.3 530 7.78 44.1 5.03 257 1.41 5.11 3.2 0.75 1.10 2.06 95.7 0 0.04
SQD17-324 13.5 94.9 81.4 12 42.7 11 153 295 21.1 117 13.6 274 3.71 19.2 12.4 2.17 1.47 1.08 26.8 0.5 0.34
SQD17-345 2.67 23.7 13.2 5.75 12.1 7.22 25.4 222 9.92 36.5 3.9 272 1.1 7.44 3.35 0.79 1.09 0.82 30.7 0.1 0.07
SQD17-366 2.31 19.4 12.4 2.78 6.49 3.23 28.1 804 11.1 36.8 3.93 249 1.04 16.6 4.13 3.55 0.30 3.23 249 0 0.04
SQD17-374 1.31 13.9 9.52 2.09 7.56 12.3 420 6.48 18.6 1.81 361 0.57 6.95 1.86 0.72 0.67 1.16 0 0.01
SQD17-380 13.1 93.1 68.8 19.6 34.3 36.1 149 192 24.7 112 12.1 253 3.39 25.4 11.9 4.43 0.69 0.76 5.32 0.8 0.25
SQD17-387 15.5 107 78.4 12.6 40.4 9.01 168 421 27.8 132 14.9 309 4.03 19.8 14.2 2.32 1.57 1.36 46.7 0.4 0.36
SQD17-408 7.95 57 46.2 8.75 24 7.6 83.5 311 24.8 124 11.1 330 3.64 10.9 10.2 2.06 1.27 0.94 40.9 0.3 0.27
SQD17-419 7.5 52.4 43 8.38 20.6 5.41 74.2 166 23.5 120 11.2 346 3.72 7.39 10.2 1.98 1.32 0.48 30.7 0.4 0.25
SQD17-427 6.41 51.3 36.5 14.7 28.1 443 64.3 365 17.1 82.4 8.82 285 2.59 35.6 8.05 4.86 0.43 1.28 0.82 0.2 0.18
The C value =Σ (Fe + Mn + Cr + Ni + V + Co)/Σ (Ca + Mg + Sr + Ba + K + Na)
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Table 3 Rare elements abundances (ppm) of the Suonahu Formation clastic sediments from the QD17 Well, North Qiangtang basin
Samples La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu ∑REE LREE/HREE Eu/Eu* Ce/Ce*
SQD17-3 22.3 43.3 5.09 19.7 3.74 0.699 3.42 0.64 3.55 0.706 2.07 0.369 2.42 0.352 108.36 7.01 0.587 0.92
SQD17-24 37.4 73.6 8.86 34.4 7.13 1.45 6.65 1.29 7.63 1.61 4.7 0.864 5.5 0.834 191.92 5.60 0.63 0.92
SQD17-44 32.8 62.2 7.19 27.5 5.22 0.986 4.63 0.815 4.42 0.855 2.45 0.425 2.74 0.394 152.63 8.12 0.60 0.92
SQD17-114 29.1 55 6.38 24.4 4.37 0.8 3.82 0.663 3.62 0.715 2.09 0.373 2.3 0.349 133.98 8.62 0.59 0.91
SQD17-154 33.8 64.6 7.39 27.9 5.2 0.946 4.47 0.787 4.21 0.825 2.42 0.44 2.74 0.397 156.13 8.58 0.59 0.92
SQD17-173-1 21.6 40.9 4.81 18.7 3.57 0.669 3.04 0.534 2.81 0.53 1.49 0.263 1.73 0.245 100.89 8.48 0.61 0.91
SQD17-186 30 56.9 6.66 24.7 4.73 0.868 4.01 0.717 3.87 0.774 2.21 0.392 2.44 0.346 138.62 8.40 0.59 0.91
SQD17-199 19 36.3 4.25 16.5 3.16 0.601 2.71 0.493 2.56 0.467 1.38 0.242 1.49 0.212 89.365 8.35 0.61 0.92
SQD17-237 27.3 52.7 6.02 22.6 4.14 0.755 3.65 0.642 3.61 0.687 2.05 0.371 2.33 0.336 127.19 8.30 0.58 0.93
Can. J. Earth Sci.
SQD17-259 28.9 55.3 6.51 25.4 4.86 0.909 4.28 0.751 4.03 0.807 2.25 0.388 2.53 0.362 137.28 7.92 0.60 0.92
SQD17-279 22.3 42.8 5.02 19.8 3.99 0.759 3.46 0.615 3.33 0.645 1.76 0.305 1.94 0.286 107.01 7.67 0.61 0.92
SQD17-303 10.8 20 2.36 9.08 1.76 0.357 1.51 0.266 1.42 0.277 0.793 0.127 0.819 0.129 49.698 8.30 0.65 0.90
SQD17-324 33.4 61.2 6.99 26.3 4.66 0.855 3.96 0.692 3.78 0.74 2.2 0.375 2.4 0.357 147.91 9.20 0.59 0.90
SQD17-345 10.7 19.7 2.35 9.42 1.93 0.414 1.82 0.323 1.7 0.341 0.912 0.165 1 0.145 50.92 6.95 0.67 0.89
SQD17-366 13.6 25 3.02 11.5 2.36 0.44 2.16 0.398 2.05 0.388 1.07 0.169 1.05 0.15 63.355 7.52 0.59 0.88
SQD17-374 6.21 11.2 1.35 5.26 1.16 0.255 1.08 0.198 1.1 0.203 0.541 0.093 0.547 0.081 29.278 6.62 0.69 0.87
SQD17-380 35.3 65.1 7.38 27.9 5.18 0.927 4.44 0.785 4.33 0.85 2.49 0.443 2.81 0.422 158.36 8.56 0.58 0.91
SQD17-387 38.8 72 8.43 32.1 5.76 1.08 4.99 0.921 5.05 0.965 2.84 0.497 3.08 0.462 176.98 8.41 0.60 0.90
SQD17-408 28.1 53.5 6.34 25.4 5.35 0.965 4.74 0.852 4.51 0.878 2.44 0.414 2.51 0.373 136.37 7.16 0.57 0.91
SQD17-419 29.4 56.3 6.77 26.5 5.68 1.03 4.95 0.884 4.59 0.893 2.49 0.426 2.58 0.37 142.86 7.31 0.58 0.91
SQD17-427 23 44 5.34 20.7 4.02 0.763 3.45 0.615 3.33 0.65 1.76 0.296 1.83 0.275 110.03 8.01 0.61 0.90
LREE: total content of light rare earth elements (LREE = La + Ce + Pr + Nd + Sm + Eu); HREE: total content of heavy rare earth elements (HREE = Gd + Tb + Dy
+ Ho + Er + Tm + Yb +Lu); ∑REE: total content of rare earth elements (∑REE = LREE + HREE); Eu/Eu⁎ = Eun/(Smn × Gdn)1/2. Eun. Smn and Gdn represent the
chondrite-normalized value; Ce/Ce⁎ = Cen/(Lan × Prn)1/2. Cen. Lan. Prn represent the chondrite-normalized value. Data source: chondrite (Taylor and McLennan,
1985)
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Table 4 Pearson correlation coefficients of major elements, trace element and total REE (∑REE) of the Suonahu Formation from the QD17 Well
SiO2 Al2O3 CaO K2O TiO2 P2O5 ∑REE Sc V Cr Co Cu Rb Sr Zr Ba Hf Pb Th U
SiO2 1.00
Al2O3 -0.23 1.00
CaO -0.15 -0.84 1.00
K2O -0.36 0.98 -0.77 1.00
TiO2 -0.21 0.90 -0.72 0.89 1.00
P2O5 -0.32 0.84 -0.66 0.86 0.90 1.00
∑REE 0.03 0.91 -0.89 0.84 0.87 0.75 1.00
Sc -0.32 0.97 -0.76 0.98 0.92 0.84 0.89 1.00
V -0.56 0.84 -0.53 0.90 0.88 0.83 0.69 0.92 1.00
Can. J. Earth Sci.
Cr -0.53 0.86 -0.55 0.91 0.91 0.85 0.71 0.93 0.99 1.00
Co -0.58 0.55 -0.21 0.61 0.70 0.68 0.45 0.64 0.76 0.74 1.00
Cu 0.08 -0.04 0.08 -0.08 0.05 0.02 0.00 -0.06 -0.03 -0.05 0.30 1.00
Rb -0.36 0.98 -0.78 0.99 0.87 0.82 0.86 0.99 0.90 0.90 0.60 -0.09 1.00
Sr -0.02 -0.38 0.38 -0.42 -0.49 -0.44 -0.33 -0.45 -0.48 -0.48 -0.40 -0.04 -0.41 1.00
Zr 0.41 0.67 -0.84 0.53 0.52 0.39 0.84 0.56 0.22 0.26 0.01 -0.02 0.56 -0.13 1.00
Ba 0.68 -0.05 -0.20 -0.21 -0.19 -0.29 0.20 -0.16 -0.46 -0.43 -0.58 -0.04 -0.18 0.25 0.62 1.00
Hf 0.39 0.69 -0.85 0.54 0.54 0.40 0.85 0.58 0.24 0.28 0.02 -0.01 0.58 -0.13 1.00 0.61 1.00
Pb -0.04 -0.14 0.26 -0.12 -0.08 -0.14 -0.16 -0.15 -0.12 -0.14 0.13 0.20 -0.14 0.00 -0.18 -0.13 -0.18 1.00
Th -0.06 0.96 -0.89 0.90 0.90 0.80 0.99 0.94 0.75 0.78 0.48 -0.02 0.92 -0.35 0.80 0.12 0.81 -0.17 1.00
U -0.04 0.19 -0.08 0.15 0.21 0.09 0.27 0.17 0.09 0.08 0.50 0.55 0.16 0.13 0.21 -0.05 0.21 0.48 0.23 1.00
Table 5 Some associated parameters of the Suonahu Formation clastic sediments from the QD17 Well, North Qiangtang basin
samples K2O/Na2O SiO2/Al2O3 Al2O3/TiO2 TiO2/Zr Al2O3/SiO2 CIA CIW PIA ICV
SQD17-3 1.33 4.65 24.37 35.31 0.22 56.43 58.75 55.68 2.18
SQD17-24 0.46 5.03 32.58 13.65 0.20 48.91 48.63 39.52 1.27
SQD17-44 1.40 3.50 22.21 48.42 0.29 51.63 52.34 58.74 2.08
SQD17-114 0.38 3.19 25.96 44.86 0.31 29.92 25.77 57.82 3.77
SQD17-154 1.26 3.01 26.38 47.72 0.33 50.86 51.21 56.85 1.90
SQD17-173-1 1.20 5.23 19.06 57.79 0.19 50.63 50.87 53.08 2.25
SQD17-186 1.69 3.10 24.18 52.80 0.32 56.64 59.63 60.39 1.93
SQD17-199 1.24 7.92 17.64 59.19 0.13 52.19 53.02 48.20 1.79
SQD17-237 1.74 2.94 27.57 53.21 0.34 56.10 58.98 60.10 2.02
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SQD17-259 2.09 4.02 19.53 56.19 0.25 59.87 64.67 61.91 2.24
SQD17-279 1.86 6.66 17.28 50.32 0.15 59.02 63.10 59.45 2.53
SQD17-303 1.29 25.13 8.74 50.34 0.04 52.32 53.25 55.79 1.82
SQD17-324 3.14 3.13 22.93 52.14 0.32 66.13 74.61 62.25 1.26
SQD17-345 1.59 22.06 13.94 45.21 0.05 56.63 59.45 66.48 2.00
SQD17-366 1.54 21.23 13.57 50.27 0.05 55.62 58.01 53.60 1.42
SQD17-374 1.99 43.93 12.32 44.09 0.02 59.90 64.52 44.17 1.53
SQD17-380 2.64 3.41 21.97 41.06 0.29 63.55 70.51 59.27 1.60
SQD17-387 3.38 3.10 24.03 53.57 0.32 66.17 75.13 60.80 1.26
SQD17-408 1.69 5.88 16.99 39.44 0.17 60.05 64.06 71.23 2.36
SQD17-419 1.18 6.92 15.63 43.25 0.14 56.59 58.71 68.75 2.26
SQD17-427 1.21 6.98 16.89 51.94 0.14 56.46 58.60 67.90 1.96
The chemical index of alteration (CIA = molar[Al2O3/ (Al2O3 + CaO* + Na2O + K2O)] * 100), plagioclase index of alteration (PIA = molar [(Al2O3 − K2O)/ (Al2O3 +
CaO* + Na2O − K2O)] * 100), chemical index of weathering (CIW = molar[Al2O3/ (Al2O3 + CaO* + Na2O)] * 100), and the index of chemical variability (ICV=
[Fe2O3 + K2O + Na2O+CaO*+MgO+ MnO + TiO2]/ Al2O3)
Page 37 of 45
Can. J. Earth Sci.
Fig. 1 (a) Location of the Qiangtang basin. (b) Tectonic framework of the Qiangtang Basin to exhibit the position
of study area. (c) The brief geologic map of the Wanan lake area to exhibit the specific position of QD17 Well
(modified by Wang et al., 2008).
Page 38 of 45
a b
c d
Fig. 2 Representative photographs of the Suonahu formation in the North Qiangtang Basin.
Can. J. Earth Sci.
(a) Unconformity between Suonahu formation and Kangtuo formation. Person for scale.
(b) Unconformity between Suonahu formation and Yulinshan volcanic rock. Car for scale.
(c) Thin platy gypsum with fibrous gypsum of the Suonahu formation.
(d) Purple-red sandstones, mudstones, and silty mudstones of the Suonahu formation. Pencil for scale.
a b
c d
Page 39 of 45
e f
Fig. 3 Core characteristics of the Suonahu Formation from QD17 Well. (a) Gray green mudstone intercalated
with gypsum at 16.20 meters. (b) Clear gypsum intercalated with little gray mud at 86.95 meters. (c) Clear
gypsum intercalated with thin layers of mudstone at 120.59 meters. (d) Purple-red mudstone with gypsum
vein at 243.76 meters. (e) Purple-red sandstone at 412.40 meters. (f) Conglomerate at 417.73 meters.
a b
Can. J. Earth Sci.
c d
Fig. 4 Photomicrograph (under cross-polarized light) of selected thin sections from QD17 Well. (a)
Gypsum and anhydrite in gypsum at 95 meters. (b) Gypsum and anhydrite in calcareous mudstone at 155
meters.
(c) Gypsum in calcareous mudstone at 190 meters.
(d) Quartz and micritic cement in calcareous gravel-bearing moderate coarse sandstone at 365 meters.
Can. J. Earth Sci.
Fig. 5 Lithologic log of the QD17 Well of the Suonahu Formation

and sampling locations, North Qiangtang basin
Page 41 of 45
Fig. 6 Upper continental crust normalized major element compositions for the samples
(Taylor and McLennan, 1985)
Can. J. Earth Sci.
Fig. 7 a Upper continental crust normalized major element compositions for the samples. b Chondrite normalized
REE patterns for the samples. Date for UCC and chondrite are from Taylor and McLennan (1985).
Fig. 8 The C-value (Σ (Fe + Mn + Cr + Ni + V + Co)/Σ (Ca

+ Mg + Sr + Ba + K + Na)), reflecting paleoclimate. The
distinguishing criteria are after Zhao et al. (2007).
Fig. 9 Comparisons of C value,

Sr/Cu, Rb/Sr and Sr/Ba.
Can. J. Earth Sci.
Fig. 10 A (Al2O3) – CN (CaO* + Na2O) − K(K2O) ternary

plot (all in molar proportions; Nesbitt and Young, 1984).
The solid line stands for the weathering tendency of Suonahu
Formation clastic sediments. Three dashed lines stand for the
perfect weathering trend of tonalite, granodiorite, and granite.
1Taylor and McLennan (1985); 2Best (2003); 3Condie (1991).
Fig. 11 Provenance discriminant function diagram

F1 = (−1.773 * TiO2%) + (0.607 * Al2O3%) + (0.76 *
Fe2O3%) + (−1.5 * MgO%) + (0.616 * CaO%) + (0.509 *
Na2O%) + (−1.22 * K2O%) + (−9.09);
F2 = (0.445 * TiO2%) + (0.07 * Al2O3%) + (−0.25 *
Fe2O3%) + (−1.142 * MgO %) + (0.438 * CaO%) + (0.432
* Na2O%) + (1.426 * K2O%) + (−6.861).
(Roser and Korsch, 1988)
Page 43 of 45
Fig. 12 TiO2 versus Zr diagram (Hayashi et al., 1997)

Can. J. Earth Sci.
Fig. 13 TiO2 versus Al2O3 diagram

(Hayashi et al., 1997)
Fig. 14 La/Th versus Hf bivariate plot

(Floyd and Leveridge, 1987)
Fig. 15 Co/Th versus La/Sc bivariate plot

Fig. 16 Th/Sc versus Zr/Sc bivariate plot
(Average compositions of volcanic rocks
(McLennan et al., 1993)
from Condie, 1993. Gu et al., 2002)
Can. J. Earth Sci.
Fig. 17 Major element tectonic discrimination plots.

a) low-silica samples: DF1 = (0.608 × ln(TiO2/SiO2)) + (−1.854 × ln(Al2O3/SiO2)) + (0.299 × ln(TFe2O3/SiO2)) +
(−0.550 × ln(MnO/ SiO2)) + (0.120 × ln(MgO/SiO2)) + (0.194×ln(CaO/SiO2) + (−1.510 × ln(Na2O/SiO2) + (1.941
× ln(K2O/SiO2)) + (0.003 × ln(P2O5/SiO2))−0.294, DF2 = (−0.554 × ln(TiO2/SiO2)) + (−0.995 × ln(Al2O3/SiO2))
+ (1.765 × ln(TFe2O3/SiO2)) + (−1.391 × ln(MnO/SiO2)) + (−1.034 × ln(MgO/ SiO2)) + (0.225 × ln(CaO/SiO2) +
(0.713 × ln(Na2O/SiO2) + (0.330 × ln(K2O/SiO2)) + (0.637 × ln(P2O5/SiO2)) − 3.631;
b) high-silica samples: DF1 = (−0.263 × ln(TiO2/SiO2)) + (0.604 × ln(Al2O3/SiO2)) + (−1.725 × ln(TFe2O3/ SiO2))
+ (0.660 × ln(MnO/SiO2)) + (2.191 × ln(MgO/ SiO2)) + (0.144 × ln(CaO/SiO2) + (−1.304 × ln(Na2O/SiO2) +
(0.054 × ln(K2O/SiO2)) + (−0.330 × ln(P2O5/SiO2)) + 1.588, DF2 = (−1.196 × ln(TiO2/SiO2)) + (1.064 ×
ln(Al2O3/SiO2)) + (0.303 × ln(TFe2O3/SiO2)) + (0.436 × ln(MnO/SiO2)) + (0.838 × ln(MgO/SiO2)) + (−0.407 ×
ln(CaO/SiO2)) + (1.021 × ln(Na2O/SiO2)) + (−1.706 × ln(K2O/SiO2)) + (−0.126 × ln(P2O5/SiO2)) − 1.068.
Page 45 of 45
Fig. 18 Trace element tectonic discrimination plots. (a) La-Th-Sc; (b) Th-Co-Zr/10; (c) Th-Sc-Zr/10;
Key: A oceanic island arc; B continental island arc; C active continental margin;
and D passive continental margin (Bhatia and Crook, 1986)
Can. J. Earth Sci.

Geoch of Eo Clastic Sediments - Tibet - Paleoclimate and Tect Setting

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Page 1 of 45

Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 2020, 57(1): 40-55

1 Geochemistry of the Eocene clastic sediments (Suonahu Formation)

2 in the North Qiangtang Basin, Tibet: Implications for paleoclimate

3 conditions, provenance and tectonic setting

6 a College of Earth Sciences, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, China

7 b Chengdu Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources, Chengdu, China

9 d School of Geoscience and Technology, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu, China

27 experienced weak chemical weathering. Two multidimensional tectonic discrimination diagrams

31 with less intermediate igneous rocks.

33 Keywords: Clastic Sediments, Geochemistry, Tectonic Setting, Paleoclimate, Suonahu Formation,

34 Northern Qiangtang Basin

37 The chemical compositions of clastic sediments were useful for assessing

60 tectonic setting of the Suonahu formation in the North Qiangtang basin.

91 Suonahu Formation is characterized by lacustrine facies, consisting mainly of purple-red

112 3. Sampling and method

116 than 200 mesh.

129 4.1 Major elements

136 0.138% to 1.92%, and loss ranges from 8.9% to 20.76%.

151 4.2 Trace element geochemistry

164 elements may be hosted in clay minerals (López et al., 2005).

165 4.3 Rare earth element (REE) geochemistry

185 5.1 Paleoclimate

189 follows: C-value = ∑ (Fe + Mn + Cr + Ni + V + Co) / ∑ (Ca + Mg + Sr + Ba + K + Na), where

196 semiarid conditions.

207 5.2 Paleosalinity

216 5.3 Weathering history and compositional maturity

236 weathering of the sediment source.

263 1.97 (Table 5), indicating a low to moderate compositional maturity.

269 5.4 Provenance

279 intermediate igneous provenance field (Fig. 11).

287 element discriminant function.

295 (n=11) in the source area (Moradi et al., 2016).

316 5.5 Tectonic setting

347 Th-Co-Zr/10 (Fig. 18) (Bhatia and Crook, 1986).

355 (average 1.06).

359 the Suonahu Formation.

364 continental crustal contribution.

370 deposited in a rift-related basin.

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