IMPACT OF BUILT FORM AND VEGETATION

ON MITIGATING THE URBAN HEAT ISLAND

EFFECT IN THE URBAN RESIDENTIAL

NEIGHBOURHOODS OF MADURAI, TAMILNADU

A SEMINAR REPORT

Submitted by

SUKANYA S

RA1912201010011

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

of

MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE

SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

KATTANKULATHUR

CHENGALPATTU DISTRICT – 603 203.

SRM SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE & INTERIOR DESIGN

MAY 2020
 SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project “THE IMPACT OF BUILT FORM AND

VEGETATION ON MITIGATING THE URBAN HEAT ISLAND EFFECT

IN THE URBAN RESIDENTIAL NEUGHBOURHOODS OF MADURAI,

TAMILNADU” is the bonafide work of (SUKANYA S – RA1912201010011)

who carried out the thesis work under my supervision.

Prof. Prof.

___________________ ___________________
Faculty member Faculty member

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

1. ______________

2. ______________ Dr. P. Satheesh Kumar

DEAN, School of Architecture &

3. ______________
Interior Design

i
 DECLARATION

I declare this thesis titled “THE IMPACT OF BUILT FORM AND

VEGETATION ON MITIGATING THE URBAN HEAT ISLAND

EFFECT IN THE URBAN RESIDENTIAL

NEUGHBOURHOODS” at “MADURAI, TAMILNADU” is the

bonafide work by me, under the guidance of (PROF. Ar. C. T.

LAKSHMANAN AND PROF. Ar. K. A. NARAYANA) School of

Architecture and Interior Design, SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE &

TECHNOLOGY, Kattankulathur, during the session of

December 2019 – May 2020.

I declare further that the work reported therein does not form a part

of any other thesis based on which a Degree or Award was conferred on

an earlier occasion.

PLACE :
(STUDENT SIGNATURE)
DATE :
SUKANYA S
(RA1912201010011)

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

“Develop an attitude of gratitude, and give thanks for everything that

happens to you, knowing that every step forward is a step towards achieving

something bigger and better than your current situation.”

--Brian Tracy--

I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. P. Satheesh Kumar, Dean,

School of Architecture and Interior Design & Prof.

_______________________________ (Internal Panel Members) for their suggestions,

encouragements, comments and constructive criticism given which has made this

project a success.

I am thankful to (PROF. Ar. C. T. LAKSHMANAN AND PROF. Ar. K.

A. NARAYANA) for the patience they extended towards me; offering their

guidance and immense support during this entire semester and helping me

complete this project.

I thank all the faculty members of the Department of Architecture for the

encouragement and inspiration to execute the project.

I also thank my family for all their support through these years. Lastly, I

thank all my fellow batch mates, who stood beside and aided me in making this

project a success.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE ................................................................................................................... i
DECLARATION...................................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................................... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................. vi
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................1
1. Abstract: ............................................................................................................................... 1
2. Introduction: ........................................................................................................................ 1
3. Need for the project:............................................................................................................ 1
CHAPTER 2
Ph.D. THESIS SUMMARY .....................................................................................................................3
1. ABSTRACT: ........................................................................................................................ 3
2. INTRODUCTION: .............................................................................................................. 3
3. AIM AND OBJECTIVE: .................................................................................................... 4
4. HYPOTHESIS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS: ........................................................... 4
5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: ...................................................................................... 5
6. SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH CONTENT .............................................................. 6
7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ........................................................................................ 6
7.1. COMPARISON OF FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND SIMULATION ................... 6
7.2. EFFECT OF ASPECT RATIO ON MICROCLIMATE PARAMETERS ............... 8
7.3. EFFECT ON POTENTIAL AIR TEMPERATURE – TPOT.................................... 8
7.4. EFFECT OF MODIFYING ALBEDO VALUES OF GROUND AND THE ROOF
SURFACES ON MICROCLIMATE PARAMETERS..................................................... 10
7.5. EFFECT OF GPR ON MICROCLIMATE PARAMETERS .................................. 11
7.6. ENERGY SAVINGS DUE TO MODIFIED ALBEDO VALUES ........................... 13
8. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 14
9. DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH .................................................................. 14
CHAPTER 3
JOURNAL 1 ............................................................................................................................................16
1. ABSTRACT: ...................................................................................................................... 16
2. INTRODUCTION: ............................................................................................................ 16
3. GREEN SPACE FACTOR CONCEPT........................................................................... 17
4. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 19

iv
 5. AREA OF STUDY ............................................................................................................. 19
6. MODEL AND ITS VALIDATION .................................................................................. 20
7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ...................................................................................... 21
7.1. AVERAGE AIR TEMPERATURE ......................................................................... 22
8. APPLICATION OF GREEN SPACE FACTORS ......................................................... 23
9. OBSERVATIONS FROM THE STUDY ........................................................................ 25
10. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 25
CHAPTER 4
JOURNAL -2 ...........................................................................................................................................27
1. ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... 27
2. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 27
3. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 27
4. DATA RETREIVAL ......................................................................................................... 28
4.1 Retrieval of LULC: ........................................................................................................ 28
5. Retrieval of NDVI:............................................................................................................. 30
6. RETRIEVAL OF LST: ..................................................................................................... 31
7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ...................................................................................... 32
8. CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................ 36
CHAPTER 5
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................37

v
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Basic input configuration data used in the ENVI-met V4 Simulations to summer and winter ........................ 7

Table 2 Green Plot Ratio conditions and ENVI-met parametric results for High and Low Density Built Spaces ..... 11

Table 3 Green metrics and Policies used around the world (15) ............................................................................... 18

Table 4 Green Plot Ratio conditions and ENVI-met Parametric results for study area 1 .......................................... 24

Table 5 Green Plot Ratio conditions and ENVI-met Parametric results for study area 2 .......................................... 24

Table 6 Urban growth statistics from TM (1990), ETM+ (2001) and TM (2009) images from Madurai LPA .......... 30

Table 7 Estimation of land surface emissivity from NDVI .......................................................................................... 31

Table 8 Estimation of atmospheric transmittance ..................................................................................................... 31

Table 9 Estimation of mean atmospheric temperature ............................................................................................... 31

Table 10 Green plot Ratio conditions and ENVI-met parametric results for low density built spaces ...................... 32

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Research Methodology ......................................................................................... 5

Figure 2 Relationship between ENVI-metV4 simulation temperature and onsite

measurement temperature on 200th March 2014 for the identified a. urban canyons with

traditional wall to wall construction and b. urban canyon with detached buildings .........7

Figure 3 Relationships between ENVI-metV4 simulation temperature and onsite

measurement on 21st December 2014 for the identified a. Urban Canyons with

traditional wall to wall construction and b. Urban Canyons with detached buildings

Relationships between ENVI-m ........................................................................................... 7

Figure 4 Simulated effects of Tpot for the various aspect ratios expressed ads °C at 1.4m

at the centre of the street canyon for the NS orientations ...................................................9

Figure 5 Average cooling load decreases (%) with a 26°C indoor temperature for the

scenarios with trees and for the aspect ratio 1 at 1.4m at the centre of the street canyon

for EW orientation. ............................................................................................................10

Figure 6 Green plot Ratio conditions and ENVI-met parametric results for Low Density

Spaces ................................................................................................................................ 12

Figure 7 Green plot Ratio conditions and ENVI-met parametric results for High Density

Spaces ................................................................................................................................ 12

Figure 8 Average cooling load decreases (%) with a 26°C indoor temperature for the

scenarios with various albedo with and without trees for the aspect ratio 1 at 1.4m at the

centre of the street canyon for EW orientation. ................................................................ 13

Figure 9 Green Space Factor for Study area 1 & 2 .......................................................... 20

vii
Figure 10 Land use Patterns ............................................................................................. 20

Figure 11 Satellite images and photos of Study Area 1-Railway colony, 2- Periyar .......21

Figure 12 The relationship between ENVI-met simulation temperature and onsite

measurement temperature (1PM on 20th March 2014) ..................................................... 22

Figure 13 Air temperature for different scenarios for Study Area 1.................................22

Figure 14 Air temperature for different scenarios for Study Area 2.................................23

Figure 15 Distribution of LULC of TM (1990), ETM+ (2001) and TM (2009) images for

Madurai (see online version for colours) ..........................................................................29

Figure 16 Distribution of NDVI of TM (1990), ETM+ (2001) and TM (2009) images for

Madurai (see online version for colours) ..........................................................................30

Figure 17 Distribution of LST pattern of TM (1990), ETM+ (2001) and TM (2009)

images for Madurai (see online version for colours ......................................................... 31

Figure 18 Green plot Ratio conditions and ENVI-met parametric results for low and high

density built spaces (see online version for colours) ....................................................... 33

Figure 19 LULC vs. LST for Madurai (see online version for colours) ........................... 34

Figure 20 (A) Mean LAND surface temperature across different land cover classes of

TM (1990), ETM+ (2001) and TM (2009) images for Madurai (B) Mean land surface

temperature across built up areas and vegetation of TM(1990), ETM+(2001) and TM

(2009) images for Madurai ............................................................................................... 35

viii
INTRODUCTION

ix
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1. Abstract:
Due to urbanization, the city’s population has been rapidly increasing. The trends of
urbanization, that have been the most vital factor for the growth and progress of cities.
The current dominant model of progress – material progress – regards economic growth
as paramount because it creates wealth necessary to improve quality of life: increasing
personal freedoms & opportunities, meeting community needs & national goals. The
current pattern of growth also in turns reciprocates several bi-products which has an
impact on the public realm of cities and social life of people.
The move toward denser urban forms, needs to be paired with changes in the form
and function of our city-regions to provide environmental and economic sustainability.
Kevin Lynch (1981) recognized the inherent role of change and its role in the
development of communities over time. The influence that urbanization, growth rate,
increase in density, etc. have an impact directly or indirectly on the social life of people,
which has in turn, decreased the social inclusiveness / the public life of people affecting
the overall social structure in a city. Another factor is increase in density of use i.e. people
place a greater demand on the features of public realm, which is constantly increasing.

2. Introduction:
Due to urbanization, the city’s population has been rapidly increasing. The trends of
urbanization, that have been the most vital factor for the growth and progress of cities.
The current dominant model of progress – material progress – regards economic growth
as paramount because it creates wealth necessary to improve quality of life: increasing
personal freedoms & opportunities, meeting community needs & national goals. The
current pattern of growth also in turns reciprocates several bi-products which has an
impact on the public realm of cities and social life of people.
The move toward denser urban forms, needs to be paired with changes in the form
and function of our city-regions to provide environmental and economic sustainability.
Kevin Lynch (1981) recognized the inherent role of change and its role in the
development of communities over time. The influence that urbanization, growth rate,
increase in density, etc. have an impact directly or indirectly on the social life of people,
which has in turn, decreased the social inclusiveness / the public life of people affecting
the overall social structure in a city. Another factor is increase in density of use i.e. people
place a greater demand on the features of public realm, which is constantly increasing.

3. Need for the project:

Due to urbanization, the city’s population has been rapidly increasing. The trends of
urbanization, that have been the most vital factor for the growth and progress of cities.
The current dominant model of progress – material progress – regards economic growth
as paramount because it creates wealth necessary to improve quality of life: increasing
personal freedoms & opportunities, meeting community needs & national goals. The
current pattern of growth also in turns reciprocates several bi-products which has an
impact on the public realm of cities and social life of people.
1
Ph.D. THESIS SUMMARY

2
 CHAPTER 2

Ph.D. THESIS SUMMARY

1. ABSTRACT:

Urban Heat Island (UHI) refers to the condition in which the city is warmer than its rural
surroundings.UHI intensity is defined as the temperature difference between urban and
suburban settings. This effect occurs due to the increasing rate of development and construction
as a result of urbanization. The three major causative factor of UHI includes urban geometry,
impervious surfaces of high thermal inertia which replaced the pervious surfaces of low thermal
inertia (urban surfaces) and anthropogenic heat released by human activities. This research aims
to investigate the outdoor thermal performance of urban residential neighborhoods and quantify
the causative factors of UHI such as urban geometry and the urban surfaces, for the specific
context, Madurai, Tamil Nadu. The research proceeds to work with the hypothesis that the
impact of parameters, like street geometry, orientation, albedo values and vegetation on the
UHI effect can be quantified and may be used for identification of suitable design strategies.

2. INTRODUCTION:

Due to the increasing demands and desires of human societies, settlements were evolved;
transformed into villages; developed as towns or cities; according to the geographical, social,
economic, and cultural transformations that had taken place throughout the evolution. With the
onset of the Industrial Revolution and urbanization, cities expanded dramatically, much faster
and with much more significant changes than in their earlier evolutionary periods. Cities have
developed on an ever larger scale, as well known for their concrete jungle appearance and
present a rather bleak living environment with towers of brick and concrete lining the horizon
with a general lack of vegetation. UHI intensity is, the highest air temperature recorded in the
urban canopy to its rural surroundings. According to Lin et al., (2010), UHI intensity is defined
as the temperature difference between urban and suburban settings. This shows that, man has
clearly altered his microclimate, to a more comfortable one, protecting himself from extreme
climatic conditions and it happens to be one of the major factors affecting the formation of raised
temperatures in cities. Eventually, these changes had resulted in the development of an urban
climate that deviates from that of its surroundings (Landsberg 1981; Oke 1987) which is known
as UHI effect. Voogt & Oke (2003) have investigated urban climate within different urban
climate scales and concluded that urban effects are scale dependent and depend from where they
are measured. Satellite measured LST has been utilized in various climate modelling studies. It
is used to determine the effective radiating temperature of earth’s surface which controls surface
heat and water exchange in the atmosphere. In earlier thermal remote sensing researches, much
emphasis has been placed on using LULC, NDVI (Normalized Differential Vegetation Index)
and LST as the major indicator of urban climates. Gallo et al. (1993) assessed the influence of
urbanization on observed temperature differences and NDVI patterns between urban and rural
areas. Although these research findings have studied about the effects of greening for various
purposes, the effectiveness of greening in improving the microclimate and the contribution of the
3
parameters of greenery such as plant species, canopy width, albedo values and its location have
not been fully established in these studies.

3. AIM AND OBJECTIVE:

The aim of this research is to investigate the effects of urban geometry and urban surfaces at
the residential neighbourhood in Madurai. The hypothesis is that street geometry and urban
surfaces can improve the microclimate of Madurai and it attempts to identify and establish
parameters which are sensitive to microclimate improvisation. Various parameters are identified
and the effect on the Temperature and in turn on the microclimate is quantified.

To theoretically understand UHI effect and the mitigation strategies adopted in the tropical
conditions through extensive literature reviews.

 To assess the UHI trends in Madurai by analyzing the historical weather data obtained
from the meteorological weather stations and by identifying hot spots and cool spots
using remote sensing and satellite image processing techniques.
 To investigate the microclimate in the study area, as delineated after the study of LST,
LULC and NDVI in Madurai. Three dimensional microclimate model ENVI-met has
been applied for the delineated area so as to simulate the existing condition and to
compare it with the field measurements for Madurai.
 To determine the cooling potential of following factors such as urban geometry and
urban surfaces of various selected scenarios in order to identify the optimal conditions
and to assess and establish the quantities of these factors.
 To achieve the suitable green plot ratio for the delineated study area.
 To make an approximate quantification of the energy savings to establish the potential
of these parameters to reduce urban heat island intensity.
 To serve as a data for devising design strategies for the mitigation of UHI for Madurai.

4. HYPOTHESIS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS:

The research proceeds to work with the hypothesis that improvement of the microclimate
of a tropical city like Madurai can be done by modifying the street geometry and vegetation, and
the parameter’s impact on mitigating UHI can be quantified. The research hypothesis being
analysed in this study is whether modifying the urban elements such as aspect ratio with the
appropriate urban canyons, surface materials of the urban canyons especially the ground surfaces
of the urban streets and the roof surfaces of the buildings, orientation of the urban streets, and
percentage of green spaces, plant parameters such as plant canopy, height, LAI structure of
certain plant species into the design of urban forms can become an effective passive technique
and therefore can contribute towards reducing urban heat island effects and create comfortable
microclimatic conditions in the urban residential neighbourhoods of Madurai.

This study revolves around the Specific questions addressed in this study include:

1. Does Madurai experience an UHI effect?

4
 2. Can microclimate modifications be done by altering the parameters of urban form such
as orientation, aspect ratio and albedo values of surface materials? If so, can they be
quantified?
3. Does the physical form and position of the vegetation affect the microclimate? If so, can
they be quantified?
4. Can this quantification of data be translated as cooling load reductions?
5. How to arrive at effective greening strategies to mitigate the Urban Heat Island effect in
this context?
6. How much does the modified outdoor environment differ in terms of ambient air
temperature and UTCI after combined modification has been made?

5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

The research method was to identify factors contributing the causative parameters such
as urban geometry and urban surfaces in Madurai. Factors such as aspect ratio, urban canyons,
orientation of the urban streets which contribute to the urban geometry, are considered as
variables in the study. Factors such as surface materials of the urban canyons especially the
ground surfaces of the urban streets and the roof surfaces of the buildings, percentage of green
spaces, plant parameters such as plant canopy, height, and structure of certain plant species and
the Leaf area Intensity are variables which contribute to the urban surfaces, are considered in the
study. Factors such as wind speed, relative humidity, soil conditions in the urban canyon;
including full simulation of all plant physical parameters are considered in the software based on
the data derived from the field measurements.

Figure 1 Research Methodology

5
6. SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH CONTENT

The LST derived from the LANDSAT images ranged between 27°C and 39.5°C in
1990, between 32°C and 46°C in 2001 and between 42°C and 51°C in 2009. Further, Madurai
has witnessed a reduction of open spaces from 7252 hectares to 3626 hectares from 1990 to
2009. This has resulted in the increase of LST of 8.04°C in an average.

The intensity of the UHI recorded during the vehicle traverse was found to be in the
range of 2.26°C. Thus the existence of UHI is found to be very evident in Madurai based on the
remote sensing and satellite image processing techniques, and mobile survey. Though this
chapter pointed out the existence of UHI based on the empirical data, it required an in depth
understanding of the integrated effects of various urban parameters contributing to the rise in
UHI are addressed in the subsequent chapters with numerical modelling methods.

7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Majorly focuses on these parameters.

 Comparison of field measurements and simulation.

 Effect of aspect ratio on microclimate parameters.
 Effect of vegetation on microclimate parameters.
 Effect of GPR on microclimate parameters.
 Effect of vegetation and albedo values on energy savings.
7.1. COMPARISON OF FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND SIMULATION

Data such as hourly temperature, humidity, solar radiation, wind data and soil temperature at
various layers for 20th March 2014 and for 21st December 2014 are given in Table 5.1 were
obtained by on site observations and from meteorological stations. The relationship of both
results was found to correlate with an R-squared value equal to 0.876 and 0.969 at 1 pm on 20th
March 2014 as shown in Figure 5.1 and an R-squared value equal to 0.882 and 0.915 at 1 pm on
21st December 2014.

The verification process further rationalizes the use of ENVI-metV4 to study the
microclimate issues in Madurai. The software used were thus validated and calibrated. As the
results were realistic, the simulation software has been used for the rest of the analysis. The
verification process further rationalizes the use of ENVI-metV4 to study the microclimate issues
in Madurai. The software used were thus validated and calibrated.

6
 Figure 2 Relationship between ENVI-metV4 simulation temperature and
onsite measurement temperature on 200th March 2014 for the identified a.
urban canyons with traditional wall to wall construction and b. urban
canyon with detached buildings

As the results were realistic, the simulation software has been used for the rest of the
analysis.

Figure 3 Relationships between ENVI-metV4 simulation temperature and onsite

measurement on 21st December 2014 for the identified a. Urban Canyons with traditional
wall to wall construction and b. Urban Canyons with detached buildings Relationships
between ENVI-m

Table 1 Basic input configuration data used in the ENVI-met V4 Simulations to

summer and winter
7
7.2. EFFECT OF ASPECT RATIO ON MICROCLIMATE PARAMETERS

The following discussions are focused on analysing the outdoor microclimatic parameters in
the simulated scenarios of various aspect ratios with and without the presence of vegetation for
NS and EW orientations. Parameters such as Tpot, PET and UTCI were extracted at 1300 IST
from the ENVI-metV4 simulations for summer solstice (June 21, 2014). The simulation was
carried out for both linear wall to wall construction and detached urban canyon scenarios. For
the purpose of comparison, simulation was made for (i) different building heights with the same
street width and (ii) same building height with the different street widths, of aspect ratios
1(6m/6m and 8m/8m), 1.5(9m/6m and 12m/8m), 2(12m/6 m and 16m/8m) and 2.5(15m/6m and
20m/8m) along the EW and NS orientations.

7.3. EFFECT ON POTENTIAL AIR TEMPERATURE – TPOT

The results were extracted at 1.4m height at 1300IST from ENVI-met V4 simulations
and are given in Figure 4 and 5.

In the first scenario, the street widths were kept constant with different building heights.

For the scenario of urban canyon with detached building the following results were
observed;
i. In the NS orientation, the increase of Tpot from 33.71°C and 34.01°C for the aspect
ratio 2.5(15m/6m and 20m/8m) to 35.36°C; and 34.26°C for the aspect ratio 1(6m/6m
and 8m/8m) with a difference of 1.65°C and 1.01°C respectively;
ii. In the EW orientation, the increase of Tpot from 35.62°C and 36.03°C for the aspect
ratio 2.5(15m/6m and 20m/8m) to 36.52°C; and 36.81°C for the aspect ratio 1(6m/6m
and 8m/8m) with a difference of 0.9°C and 0.78°C respectively.
For the scenario of urban canyon with linear wall to wall construction the following results
were observed;

i. In the NS orientation, the increase of Tpot from 33.92°C and 34.33°C for the aspect
ratio 2.5(15m/6m and 20m/8m) to 35.87°C; and 35.02°C for the aspect ratio 1(6m/6m
and 8m/8m) with a difference of 1.95°C and 0.69°C respectively;
ii. In the EW orientation, the increase of Tpot from 36.48°C and 36.4°C for the aspect
ratio 2.5(15m/6m and 20m/8m) to 36.86°C; and 37.12°C for the aspect ratio 1(6m/6m
and 8m/8m) with a difference of 0.38°C and 0.72°C respectively.

From the achieved results the following observations were made,

i. As the Aspect ratio increases the reduction of Tpot is evident. The street geometry
with aspect ratio 1 (the minimum ratio considered in the context) was identified as
having the maximum Tpot, in both orientations of the street. This reveals that lower
Tpot are experienced in the deepest canyons as the buildings are mutually shaded due
to the smaller street widths in both EW and NS orientations of the street (Refer
Figure 4 to 9).
ii. It also indicates that the temperature recorded is more along the EW orientation than
the NS orientation of the street. This is because the streets are exposed to the sun’s
radiation throughout the day.

8
 iii. The urban canyon with linear wall to wall construction recorded higher Tpot
compared to urban canyon with individual detached building in both EW and NS
orientations of the street. This implies the importance of air movement with respect to
the microclimate modification of Madurai.
iv. In NS orientation of the street, linear wall to wall construction the dependency on to
the higher value of aspect ratio for the decrease of Tpot is noted considerably when
compared to the detached buildings. For example, in Figure 5.4, Graph a and b, the
difference between the Tpot for an aspect ratio of 1 and 2.5 is considerably more in
the linear wall to wall construction when compared to detached buildings. This is
because, the Wall to wall constructions adjoining a street that runs north to south,
with a higher aspect ratio, blocks the radiation from the east and west totally and thus
result in lower Tpot.
v. In detached buildings the dependency on to the higher value of aspect ratio for the
decrease of Tpot is noted considerably when compared to the linear wall to wall in
EW orientation of the street. For example, in Figure 5.5, Graph a and b, the
difference between the Tpot for an aspect ratio of 1 and 2.5 is considerably more in
the detached buildings when compared to linear wall to wall construction. This is
because, when the street is under the effect of solar radiation throughout the day in
the East West orientation, detached buildings ensure the dissipation of heat through
air movement.

Figure 4 Simulated effects of Tpot for the various aspect ratios expressed ads °C at 1.4m at
the centre of the street canyon for the NS orientations

9
 7.4. EFFECT OF MODIFYING ALBEDO VALUES OF GROUND AND THE ROOF
SURFACES ON MICROCLIMATE PARAMETERS

For the scenarios with trees planted along south, major cooling load reductions for a
maximum of 25% were observed for the urban canyons with traditional and linear wall to wall
construction and a maximum of 90% were observed for the urban canyons with detached
buildings as trees could shade roofs and walls with its wide canopy. It also reveals that the
streets planted with trees on both sides showed better results than the streets planted with trees
along north and south. When the trees with dense canopy with LAI values from 4 to 6 planted on
both the directions, a cooling load reduction for a maximum of 60% were observed for the urban
canyons with traditional and linear wall to wall construction and a maximum of 90% were
observed for the urban canyons with detached buildings. When the trees planted along north a
cooling load reduction for a maximum of 58% were observed for the urban canyons with
traditional and linear wall to wall construction and a maximum of 67% were observed for the
urban canyons with detached buildings. When the trees planted along south a cooling load
reduction for a maximum of 40% were observed for the urban canyons with traditional and
linear wall to wall construction and a maximum of 47% were observed for the urban canyons
with detached buildings.

The following discussions are focused on analysing the outdoor microclimatic parameters in
the simulated scenarios of various aspect ratios with and without the presence of vegetation for
NS and EW orientations. Parameters such as Tpot and PET were extracted at 1.4m height at
1300 IST from the ENVImet4 simulations for summer solstice (June 21, 2014). The simulation
was carried out for both linear wall to wall construction and detached urban canyon scenarios.
The simulation was carried out for both linear wall to wall construction and detached urban
canyon scenarios.

Figure 5 Average cooling load decreases (%) with a 26°C indoor temperature for the
scenarios with trees and for the aspect ratio 1 at 1.4m at the centre of the street canyon for
EW orientation.

10
 7.5. EFFECT OF GPR ON MICROCLIMATE PARAMETERS

The potential of green plot ratio GPR Tan & Angelia (2010) in modifying the microclimate,
which will help to assess the percentage of green space needed in urban development in order to
bring down the temperature in cities, is also examined. Urban neighbourhoods are selected with
low density (study area 1) and high density (study area 2) as shown in Figure 4.21 and 4.22.
These are compared with hypothetical conditions of trees and turfs scenarios and their
microclimatic performances and are studied using micro scale model ENVI-metV4. Table 5.2
shows the selected scenarios adopted for the study and GPR calculations such as (i) with existing
base case with nil vegetation, (ii) with turfs with a GPR of 0.3 and 0.6, (iii) with trees with a
GPR of 0.3 and 0.6 and (iv) with existing base case with a GPR of 0.45 for high density built
spaces and (i) nil vegetation, (ii) with turfs with a GPR of 0.3 and 0.6, (iii) with trees with a GPR
of 0.3 and 0.6 and (iv) with existing base case with a GPR of 0.45 for low
density built spaces.
As per the study conducted, the calculations, assumptions and the results are given in
Figure 6 and 7. The results reveal that green spaces are essential to reduce heat islands and trees
are more efficient compared to turfs. As the turfs are directly exposed to solar radiation, hence
they do not provide any shade for the built environment in both high density and low density
built spaces and thus, they are less efficient. The simulation also suggests that to bring the air
temperature down by an average of 1.5°C in Low Density built spaces, a GPR not less than 0.45
is needed. While in high density built spaces, a GPR of almost 0.6 is needed to bring down the
temperature by an average of 1°C with typical LAI values of different species in terms of trees
and turfs in terms of identifying the temperature change with respect to native species. When
compared to turfs, trees score well in bringing down the temperature and this effect is
pronounced more, when the GPR is higher.

Table 2 Green Plot Ratio conditions and ENVI-met parametric results for High and Low
Density Built Spaces

11
 Figure 6 Green plot Ratio conditions and ENVI-met parametric results for Low Density
Spaces

Figure 7 Green plot Ratio conditions and ENVI-met parametric results for High Density
Spaces

12
 7.6. ENERGY SAVINGS DUE TO MODIFIED ALBEDO VALUES

From the results shown in Figure 8, following observations are made for the scenarios
without trees,
i. Materials like Asphalt with the reflectance value of 0.05 for the ground surfaces have
raised the cooling load by 6% for the scenario with detached buildings and 18% for the
scenario with traditional wall to wall construction. Materials like pavers with brick
colour with the reflectance value of 0.3 for the ground surfaces have reduced the cooling
load by 21%for the scenario with detached buildings and 16% for the scenario with
traditional wall to wall construction.
ii. Materials like tile with the reflectance value of 0.42 and terracotta with the reflectance
value of 0.48 for the roof surfaces have reduced the cooling load by 7% for the scenario
with detached buildings and raised the cooling load by 1% for the scenario with
traditional wall to wall construction and materials like reflective surface with the
reflectance value of 0.7 for the roofs have reduced the cooling load by 8% for the
scenario with detached buildings and 2% for the scenario with traditional wall to wall
construction.
For the scenarios with trees,
i. Materials like Asphalt for the ground surfaces have reduced the cooling load by 82% for
the scenario with detached buildings and 72% for the scenario with traditional wall to
wall construction. Materials like pavers with brick colour of the ground surfaces have
reduced the cooling load by 82% for the scenario with detached buildings and 92% for
the scenario with traditional wall to wall construction.
ii. Materials like tile and terracotta for the roof surfaces have reduced the cooling load by
91-95% for the scenario with detached buildings and raised the cooling load by 83-84%
for the scenario with traditional wall to wall construction and materials like reflective
surface for the roofs have reduced the cooling load by 97% for the scenario with
detached buildings and 85% for the scenario with traditional wall to wall construction.

Figure 8 Average cooling load decreases (%) with a 26°C indoor temperature
for the scenarios with various albedo with and without trees for the aspect
ratio 1 at 1.4m at the centre of the street canyon for EW orientation.

13
8. CONCLUSION

Based on the research findings and conclusions, the potential recommendations for
improving the UHI mitigation strategies and achieving the ideal comfortable climatic conditions
are as follows:
Deeper canyons with aspect ratios of 2(12m/6m and 16m/8m) and 2.5(15m/6m and
20m/8m), in both linear wall to wall construction and detached building scenarios, have the
potential to reduce air temperature due to the shade provided by the buildings. Urban canyons
with detached buildings are more preferred as sufficient air movement in these urban canyons
reduces the potential air temperatures in Madurai. Streets with NS orientation provide better
microclimatic conditions than the streets with EW orientation. Native species such as
Azadirachta indica, Pongamia pinnata and Saraca Indica which comes under dense tree canopy
which is having a LAI value of 4, with the tree height ranging from 8 – 10m and canopy widths
ranging from 7 – 8m could be preferred, as a reduction of maximum potential air temperature
9.79°C is achieved compared to the base case with nil vegetation. Vegetation, (any species)
planted along the Northern side aids in a prominent reduction of air temperature. Detached
buildings with vegetation experienced a higher temperature reduction compared to urban
canyons with linear wall to wall construction. Green Plot Ratio of 0.6 is seen to bring down the
air temperature in the urban street canyons. In high density built up areas this may be achieved
by using higher LAI value of 4 (eg., Azadirachta indica, Pongamia pinnata and Saraca Indica)
and also with roof gardening and vertical greening. These parameters that have been quantified
could help the Urban Designers, Planners, and Architects, Landscape architects,
environmentalists and decision makers during the design /planning of urban living environments.

9. DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The study focuses only on the effects of urban forms in terms of the urban canyon, street
geometry or the aspect ratios which were limited to 1(6m/6m and 8m/8m), 1.5(9m/6m and
12m/8m), 2(12m/6m and 16m/8m) and 2.5(15m/6m and 20m/8m) and the street orientation of
EW and NS which are predominant in the study area. Variable street geometries, other street
orientations such as NE-SW and SE-NW and their impact on the thermal comfort and the
microclimate are not considered in this research and hence it can be included in the further
studies. Though the study considered the existing materials used in the building and the streets,
further work is required to identify the suitable materials used for construction by varying the
albedo values. Further studies can include the anthropogenic heat generated from the buildings
and their contribution to the UHI.As only a very few native plant species were considered in this
research, further studies have to be carried out for investigating the cooling benefits of other tree
species, their strategic positioning and grouping towards the buildings in order to create a
comfortable microclimate in Madurai. The impact of shading by vegetation on the building
energy savings at the micro and the macro level can be included in the further research. Further
research scope of interdisciplinary research in the field of geographical information systems and
remote sensing, urban climate, urban planning, material science and environmental science could
come together for a holistic approach in tackling the urban problems.

14
 JOURNAL -1
GREEN SPACE FACTOR IN MODIFYING THE
MICROCLIMATES IN A NEIGHBOURHOOD:
THEORY AND GUIDELINES

15
 CHAPTER 3

JOURNAL 1
1. ABSTRACT:
Cities and rural environments differ substantially in their land surface temperature,
which leads to urban heat island effect (UHI). Cities have a dynamic relationship with the
microclimate. Landscaping is one of the most effective passive design strategy compared to
other passive design strategies in mitigating the UHI effect. The degree of 'greenery' or
'greenness' (Green space factor) is usually defined and measured as the percentage of total
urban area that is devoted to open green spaces. The higher the percentage of green cover, the
greener that particular city becomes. National forest policy, India states that a 20% to 33% of
green cover is considered to be fairly good. The green spaces help to alter the temperature,
reduce the urban heat island effect and improve the air quality. By placing vegetation within the
built space of the urban fabric, the effect of UHI effect can be reduced where people live, work
and spend most of their lives. Selection of right plant in the right place can be based on many
aspects such as its thermal performance. It further depends on various plant typologies and their
characteristics which will have significant role in urban heat balances by reducing the land
surface temperature and reduce energy consumptions in the dense built up areas. It also helps to
improve the microclimate performance in the built environment and also create a visually
appealing environment compared to other passive techniques. This paper describes the
importance of relationship between green space factor and microclimate and implementation of
these guidelines in a neighbourhood with various case examples from research papers, literature
and theories. The study has been carried out with on-site observation and ENVI-met simulation
methods.

2. INTRODUCTION:

Climate, buildings, and green spaces have been explored worldwide by many
researchers due to their interesting interrelationships and significant impacts to the
environment. In recent years, urban heat island effects(UHI), induced by urban form,
anthropogenic heat from buildings and Air conditioning systems have been studied extensively
in cities around the world (1). Since the mid twentieth century, the global surface temperature
has increased by 0.7±0.18°C during the 100 years ended in 2005. Thus the increased
temperature is connected with increase in UHI through expansion of built up areas and
populated area. The heat island during daytime increases rapidly and takes 3-5 hours to reach
the maximum after sunset. These increased temperatures have implications on electricity,
energy consumption and use of resources which inturn affect the environment. The most
sustainable solution to these energy and environment problems is following more natural
passive cooling techniques. Urban green spaces can directly or indirectly affect local and
regional air quality by modifying the urban climates. Plant processes such as photosynthesis,
Evapotranspiration helps to reduce the Mean radiant temperature and anthropogenic heat
generated from the buildings which leads to urban heat island effect. This in turn reduces the
cooling load of the buildings. Many researchers agreed that plants have an effect on the urban
temperature and the cooling loads of building. Furthermore, the effects of plants density, plants

16
species, plants distribution and large space of greenery give a large impact, where greenery
reduce the surface temperature and urban heat effect. Green interventions in terms of trees,
shrubs, ground covers, green roofs, bioswales or rain gardens, green walls, permeable pavement
may be adopted to achieve comfort and reduce UHI in urban areas. These green interventions
are to be quantified to achieve the specific green space factors. The main objective of this study
is to find the effect of the green space factors in modifying the microclimate.

3. GREEN SPACE FACTOR CONCEPT

In the literature reviewed, the primary metric used to measure the percentage of green
spaces under the land cover based on the plant types such as lawns, turfs, shrubs and trees are
their biological parameters such as LAI – Leaf area intensity, LAD – Leaf area density. There
are several benefits associated by incorporating plants in the neighbourhood. There are
remarkable efforts being made at different scales for the different types of green space factors
which are developed across the world. Table 1 shows the examples of such initiatives across the
world; California’s attempt to reduce C02 emissions by 25% by 2020 (5); Vancouver’s Eco-
Density initiative (7); Portland’s effort to reduce stormwater runoff (1); from an urban
landscaping viewpoint, Biotope Area Factor (3), Seattle’s Green Factor (10) Green Plot Ratio
(15), and Malmo Green Space Factor (9), which discusses the usefulness of various Green
Factor. These green rating systems are designed to examine the relationship between the Green
factors or the landscape elements and their performance in the built environment. These studies
deal the metric of green spaces at the scales from one dimension to three dimensions but there is
no evidence whether these metrics are climatically sound. This study analyses the performance
of these green space factors.

17
Table 3 Green metrics and Policies used around the world (15)
18
4. METHODOLOGY

Methods to study the green space factor in modifying the microclimate include both
numerical modelling and empirical analysis, such as using on site measurements using
instruments and weather data obtained from nearest weather stations. With empirical data, the
study can be more specific, but have limitations on time and space. Thus, to have a theoretical
understanding of performance of different vegetation scenarios and their effects on the
microclimate, numerical modelling with on-site observations is required. The simulation has
been carried out with the help of ENVI-met models and simulated along with initial onsite
observation which was conducted on 20.03.2014 for the climate monitoring and the plant
distribution was accounted.

In this paper, different scenario such as (i) with existing base case, (ii) nil vegetation, (iii) with
turfs and (iv) with trees was selected to assess the air temperature. For the selected sites, the
green plot ratio (15) has been applied and evaluated for its performance on the microclimate.

5. AREA OF STUDY

Madurai is the oldest inhabited city in the Indian peninsula and is referred as
Kadambavanam (forest filled with kadamba trees) at the banks of river vaigai. Madurai city has
an area of 52 km², within an urban area now extending over as much as130 km², and it is
located from 9°56′N to 9.93°N Latitude and from 78°07′E to 78.12°E Longitude. It has an
average elevation of 101 meters above mean sea level. The climate is hot and humid, with rains
during October to December. Summer temperatures range between 40 and 26.3 degrees Celsius.
Winter temperatures range between 29.6 and 18 degrees Celsius. The average rainfall is about
85 cm and the average humidity is 65%.

The impact of green spaces on the urban heat island is more comprehensive if supported
by the appropriate green space factors. The urbanization in Madurai has rapidly increased and
has also increased land surface temperature of Madurai since 1990 to 2001. To substantiate this,
study has been done with Land use patterns for 1991 and 2001 (Figure 1&2) and land surface
temperature maps (Figure3&4) were prepared by using 1990 TM image and 2001 ETM+
image.

Land surface temperature type indicates; “red and orange” with average temperature of
43.9°C and 41.9°C respectively for urbanized area a with a greater density of buildings and
paved surfaces that absorb and retain heat from the sun, “yellow” with average temperature of
38.9°C for urbanized area a with a medium density of buildings and paved surfaces that absorb
and retain heat from the sun, “green” with average temperature of 36.9°C for urban green areas,
and “blue” with average temperature of 30.9°C for water bodies. This map shows that
urbanization has spread rapidly from year 2001 especially in the central business district of
Madurai. This rapid urbanization has contributed to the increase of urban temperature in
Madurai. This map also shows how extremely green spaces are replaced by the grey spaces
without considering the impact of huge loss of green space to the urban environment.
Therefore, this study has examined the potential of green space factor in modifying the
microclimate.

19
 Figure 9 Green Space Factor for Study area 1 & 2
Urban neighbourhoods was selected with dense (Study area 1 – Railway colony) and
sparse vegetation (Study area 2 - Periyar) as shown in Figure 5 and compared with hypothetical
conditions with mentioned scenarios and has been studied for their microclimatic performance
is studied using micro scale model ENVI-met4 due to its advanced approach on plant
atmosphere interactions in cities.
The numerical model simulates the complex urban structures with resolution between
0.5m and 10m according to the position of sun, urban geometry, vegetation, and soil by solving
thermodynamic and plant physiological equations.

Figure 10 Land use Patterns

6. MODEL AND ITS VALIDATION

ENVI-met Version 3.1 (Bruse 2013) has been employed to simulate the potential impact
of urban form and vegetation on the urban microclimate for March 20, 2014, during mid-
summer day when peak temperature is experienced. ENVI-met is a three dimensional
computational fluid dynamics and energy balance model that simulates plant air interactions in
urban environments with a typical horizontal resolution of 0.5m to 10m in space and 10 seconds
20
in time for built environment from microclimate scale to local climate scale at any location.
Although ENVI-met mainly uses a 3D prognostic model, it also uses 1D models to transfer all
data input for wind speed, wind direction, air temperature, relative humidity, specific humidity
and turbulence quantities (Bruse 2004).

Figure 11 Satellite images and photos of Study Area 1-Railway colony, 2- Periyar
In order to conduct the simulation, basic data about the location, cloud cover conditions,
initial temperature, wind speed at 10m above ground level, specific humidity at 2500m and
relative humidity at 2m are required. In addition, the initial temperature, soil temperature (at
0m-0.2m, 0.2m-0.5m, 0.5m-2m), heat transmission in walls and roofs of buildings can also be
defined in the mentioned model. The model gives a large number of output data that include air
temperature, surface temperature, wall temperature, long wave radiation, shortwave radiation,
latent and sensible heat fluxes, PMV, PPD, and MRT as the indicators of outdoor thermal
comfort.

In order to achieve realistic results, a simulation of an existing urban area in Madurai

was carried out and the results were compared with on-site measurement temperature (1300LST
on 20th March 2014) as shown in Figure 12. ENVI-met was carried out for a 24-hour period
starting at 0600LST with model output for every 60 minutes, using the configuration
parameters. The relationship of both results was found to be correlated with an R-squared value
equal to 0.876 (Figure 10). The verification process further rationalizes the use of ENVI-met to
study the microclimatic issues in Madurai with hot and humid climatic conditions.

7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

ENVI-met simulation was conducted for both the selected areas and the results reveal
that the green spaces play a major role in modifying the microclimate.

21
 Figure 12 The relationship between ENVI-met simulation temperature and onsite
measurement temperature (1PM on 20th March 2014)

7.1. AVERAGE AIR TEMPERATURE

Figure 13 shows the average air temperature for different scenarios such as,

i. with existing base case,

ii. nil vegetation,
iii. with turfs and
iv. with trees.

Figure 13 Air temperature for different scenarios for Study Area 1

22
Figure 14 shows the average air temperature for different scenarios such as,
i. with existing base case,
ii. nil vegetation,
iii. with less number of trees and
iv. with increased number of trees.

Figure 14 Air temperature for different scenarios for Study Area 2

Since providing turf or lawns is not possible in this case as it has dense urban pattern
with wall to wall construction.

8. APPLICATION OF GREEN SPACE FACTORS

Green plot ratio (GnPR) by Ong (2003) was known as an effective green assessment
method to determine the ratio of green space distribution. According to Ong (2003), the GnPR
has been defined as the average leaf area index (LAI) of the greenery on the site and also can be
equivalently defined as the ratio of the total single-side leaf area of the planted landscape to the
plot or site area. GnPR can be defined as the area-weighted average LAI of a site, which account
for unequal amount of area occupied by different plants in a landscape. Leaf area index can be
defined as one-sided area of leaf tissue per unit ground surface area where the green plot ratio is
the only green assessment method that relies on LAI. For the selected sites, the green plot ratio
(15) has been applied and stimulated along with initial onsite observation which was conducted
on 20.03.2014 for the climate monitoring and the plant distribution was accounted. This on site
observation was only focused on the study areas, Madurai and during the observation the
temperature found to be 31°C with clear sky conditions.
In this study the green plot ratio has been considered for all the scenarios.
The green plot ratio has been carried out as following;

 existing base case, scenario

 with no vegetation of 0 green area factor, scenario

23
 with lawn of green factor 0.304 and scenario
 only trees of green area factor 0.304 had impact on the reduction of temperatures.
The calculations, assumptions, and results were given in Table 4 and 5.

Table 5 Green Plot Ratio conditions and ENVI-met Parametric results for study area 1

Table 4 Green Plot Ratio conditions and ENVI-met Parametric results for study area 2

24
9. OBSERVATIONS FROM THE STUDY

 First, greening is beneficial in cooling the urban environment and creating better
urban microclimatic conditions for human activities at the ground level.
 Second, tree planting is more beneficial than turfs or lawns (where trees provide shade
for the lawns, to other vegetation and buildings) as evident from the study.
 It also suggests that the green factor of above 0.45 is essential to reduce a maximum
of 2°C in the built environment.
 Whereas in the study area 2 the temperature is reduced a maximum of only 1°C.

10. CONCLUSION

Design strategies for open spaces and landscape in a site development not only
require to accommodate their density in the site development standards, but also it plays an
important role in modifying the microclimate and create thermal comfort since it controls the
access of sun, light and wind. The microclimatic effect of the Green area factors was done
with ENVI-met Numerical model. This has been done considering only the lawns and the
trees. The results show that trees perform better than the turfs or lawns. This lead to further
investigate and develop green space factors for the thermal comfort conditions outdoors,
based on the empirical data and numerical modelling.

This Green space factor when included and applied in Madurai will help the Urban
Designers, Planners and Landscape architects to decide on the percentage of green space to
be included in the city which can create comfortable environment even in the urban
neighbourhoods which is now available in the large urban open spaces such as parks alone.
This further helps to reduce the UHI in the city which in reduce the energy consumption in
the buildings.

25
 JOURNAL-2
STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF EFFICIENT GREEN
COVER TYPES FOR MITIGATING THE AIR
TEMPERATURE AND URBAN HEAT ISLAND
EFFECT

26
 CHAPTER 4

JOURNAL -2
1. ABSTRACT

Urbanisation has a dynamic relationship with land surface temperature (LST), which
leads to urban heat island (UHI) effect. Madurai, a temple city in Tamil Nadu, India has
experienced rapid urbanisation that has been resulting in an UHI since 1990. This present
study examines changes in LST as an indicator of UHI by analysing the changes in land use
land cover (LULC) and normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI). The analysis of
these parameters indicates that higher LST is experienced in built up areas whereas lower
LST is experienced in areas where green cover is more. This study further investigates the
efficiency of various green cover types (trees and turfs) and optimum green plot ratio to
mitigate air temperature by using ENVI-met simulation software for the particular context.
The findings of this study and further explorations on green spaces can be applied
theoretically for improving urban planning and for mitigating the UHI effects.

2. INTRODUCTION

Rapid urbanisation has transformed natural environments into towns or cities, by

replacing nature with built structures. This causes a significant rise in the urban temperature
compared to the rural surroundings and is known as urban heat island (UHI) effect which is
proportional to the land surface temperature (LST).LST is an important factor in the study of
urban thermal environment and its behaviour in cities. Various studies have analysed the
impact of urban elements that contribute to the intensity of the LST and UHI in many cities.
With the development of remote sensing and GIS technology, which collects multi-
resolution, multi-spectral and multi-temporal data it is easy to determine spatial distribution
of surface temperature, LULC, NDVI, LST, etc. The objective of this study is to investigate
the relationship among LULC, NDVI and LST and to discuss the need for effective greening,
for reducing LST and to dampen the surface urban heat island (SUHI).

Specific questions addressed in this study include:

I. How has LULC, NDVI and LST changed for the period 1990–2009?
II. How has the change in LULC promoted the UHI effect and altered LST for the period
1990–2009?
III. How to arrive at effective greening strategies to mitigate the Urban Heat Island effect
for this context?

3. METHODOLOGY

The satellite images of LANDSAT TM (Thematic Mapper) (1991), and LANDSAT

ETM+ (Enhanced Thematic Mapper) (2001) and LANDSAT TM (2009) images of Madurai
LPA boundary (Path 143 and Row, 53) were downloaded from GLCF website (source:
http://glcf.umiacs.umd.edu). They were effectively used to analyze SUHI by identifying the

27
LST and spatial distribution characteristics of LULC in Madurai at an interval of 11 years
and 8 years. Table 1 presents the characteristics of the satellite images used in this study. The
data acquired are preprocessed by the National Centre for Earth Resources Observation
(EROS) and the US Geological survey (USGS), which include radiometric and geometric
corrections to level 1 G product and rectified to a common UTM projection and geographic
coordinate system.

The image consists of seven bands for ETM and six bands for TM covering visible, near
infrared and thermal infrared wavelengths in the range of 0.45 μm–12.5 μm. ETM+ data have
30 m resolution for all the bands and 60 m for the thermal band, while TM data have 30 m
and 120 m spatial resolution for the visible, near infrared and thermal infrared bands,
respectively.

The following methodology of study is adopted with the retrieved data:

i. Classification of imagery and retrieval of LULC, NDVI and LST.

ii. Identification of changes in LULC, NDVI and LST over twenty years and analysis of
the impact of change in LULC and NDVI over the LST for the period 1991 to 2009.

iii. Experimentation and parametric simulation (ENVI-met) to compare the efficiency of

trees and turfs and also to identify the optimum green plot ratio for the mitigation of
SUHI in Madurai.

4. DATA RETREIVAL

4.1 Retrieval of LULC:

LULC pattern of 1990, 2001 and 2009 were mapped by supervised classification with
maximum likelihood algorithm using ENVI 4.4. This per-pixel classifier has been widely
used, since it assigns a pixel to a given class based on a more thorough statistical evaluation
compared to other supervised classification algorithms (Lillesand et al., 2004).

The source data for mapping LULC include a land use map collected from the
Madurai Local Planning Authority (MLPA) and satellite images. Nine land cover classes of
MLPA boundary were classified in TM (1991), ETM+ (2001) and TM (2009) images by
using bands 1–5 and 7. The classes include: high density built up spaces, medium density
built up spaces, low density built up spaces, dense vegetation, and sparse vegetation, the
barren land, rocky exposure and Airport.

Figure 13 shows the LULC image of TM (1990), ETM+ (2001) and TM (2009), and
Table 6 shows the growth statistics of MLPA based on the retrieval of three LANDSAT
imageries. LULC classification is carried out for MLPA boundary to understand the urban
growth statistics in the city, as the urban development often intensifies the UHI effects. To
measure the probability of error for the classified maps, accuracy assessment using error
matrix is carried out. Since all the images correspond to past years, it is difficult to carry out

28
accuracy assessment with the independent data, because the ground truth data sampled at
present could be inaccurate.

Hence, stratified random sampling has been adopted for assessment and it has
revealed the following acceptable accuracy levels with the overall classification accuracy of
80% and 79.90% and kappa statistics of 0.75% and 0.729% for the year 2001 and 2009
respectively. LULC maps are further analysed to understand the impact of change in LULC
on UHI.

Figure 15 Distribution of LULC of TM (1990), ETM+ (2001) and TM (2009) images

for Madurai (see online version for colours)

29
 Table 6 Urban growth statistics from TM (1990), ETM+ (2001) and TM (2009) images
from Madurai LPA
5. Retrieval of NDVI:
Remote sensing studies monitor vegetation cover and the changes depend on their
properties of chlorophyll and electromagnetic spectrum using satellite images. The NDVI is
considered as the most important index in vegetation studies and in this study, the vegetation
is classified using NDVI method by employing equation (1) in ENVI 4.4. The value of this
index ranges from –1 to 1. The common range of green vegetation is from 0.2 to 0.8. The
value of NDVI is close to +1, when the vegetation cover is dense, due to the absorption of
radiation in the red channel is more and the reflectance is low. The value of NDVI is close to
–1 when the vegetation cover is degraded because the absorption of radiation in the red
channel is low and the reflectance is high. Figure 5 shows the NDVI image of TM (1990),
ETM+ (2001) and TM (2009). NDVI is carried out for MLPA boundary to understand the
changes in vegetation from 1990 to 2009.

Figure 16 Distribution of NDVI of TM (1990), ETM+ (2001) and TM (2009) images for
Madurai (see online version for colours)

30
6. RETRIEVAL OF LST:

Land surface temperatures are derived from the thermal band images of TM 1990,
ETM+ 2001 and TM 2009. In this study, emissivity is estimated from NDVI by using
equation (1), the relationship between emissivity and NDVI is expressed in equation (7), and
corresponding land emissivity values, adopted from Zhang et al. (2006) are established in
Table 7. Atmospheric transmittance (τi) could be estimated from water vapour content (w) as
demonstrated in Table 8 (Qin et al., 2001) by using equations.

Table 7 Estimation of land surface emissivity from NDVI

Table 8 Estimation of atmospheric transmittance

Table 9 Estimation of mean atmospheric temperature

Figure 17 Distribution of LST pattern of TM (1990), ETM+ (2001) and TM (2009)

images for Madurai (see online version for colours

31
 LST calculation is carried out in the MLPA boundary to understand the change in
UHI effects from 1990 to 2009. Red - high density buildings, Yellow- medium density
buildings, Green- dense and sparse vegetation Blue- water bodies.

7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The establishment of relationship between land covers and land surface temperature
makes it possible for the understanding of SUHI over the MLPA boundary. The distinctive
land surface temperature patterns are associated with the thermal characteristics of land cover
classes. The thermal characteristics of each land cover types are obtained by overlaying the
land cover map over the land surface temperature map. Based on the results shown in Figures
11 to 13, the following observations are made:

 The experimentation and parametric simulation given in Figure 18 and Table 10

suggest that the existing GPR of 0.45 is moderately good for Low density built up
spaces. In low density built up spaces, a GPR of 0.6 achieved using trees can bring
down the air temperature by 1.76°C. A GPR of 0.6 and above is needed for High
density built up spaces to bring down the air temperature by 1.24°C. When compared
to turfs, trees score well in bringing down the temperature because of their shading
capability and this effect is more pronounced, when the GPR is higher.

Table 10 Green plot Ratio conditions and ENVI-met parametric results for low density
built spaces

32
Figure 18 Green plot Ratio conditions and ENVI-met parametric results for low and
high density built spaces (see online version for colours)

33
 It is observed from Figure 18 that urban or built up land exhibits highest surface
temperature, due to huge concrete masses and they range between 34°C to 37 °C in
1990, 41.5°C to 44°C in 2001 and 45°C to 49.5°C in 2009. The clusters of hotspots in
the center of the city in 2009 are higher than that of 1990 and this indicates the impact
of urbanization and the presence of high density residential and commercial areas. As
the density of residential and commercial areas increases the temperature is also seen
to be increasing.
 Significant encroachments of green pockets have resulted in the reduction of green
spaces in and around the city and it has paved the way for the rise of temperature in
the city. The 2009 thermal image indicates the increase of red spots along the river
which shows the increase of settlements and encroachments along the bank of the
river as shown in Figure 19. Residential areas with less vegetation corresponding to
low density urban built up possess slightly lesser temperatures (shown as yellow
spots) than medium and high density built up (shown as orange and red spots) as in
Figure 19. The residential areas with dense vegetation (trees) exhibit lowest
temperature in the core city (shown as green spots). Areas with no vegetation show a
marked increase in surface temperature because of the reduction in the surface
moisture which is available for evapotranspiration and their ranges are 39.5°C in
1990, 46°C in 2001 and 51°C in 2009 as given in Figure 20.

Figure 20 LULC vs. LST for Madurai (see online version for colours)

 Figure 19 depicts the proportionate increase in temperature with the increase in built-
up and the decrease in vegetation which has caused the UHI effect. Lowest surface
temperature is observed in vegetation and they range between 28°C to 32 °C in 1990,
34°C to 40.5 °C in 2001 and 38°C to 42°C in 2009.

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Figure 19 (A) Mean LAND surface temperature across different land cover classes of TM
(1990), ETM+ (2001) and TM (2009) images for Madurai (B) Mean land surface
temperature across built up areas and vegetation of TM(1990), ETM+(2001) and TM
(2009) images for Madurai

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8. CONCLUSIONS

The study has investigated the relationship between the LULC and LST in Madurai
LPA. From the climatic data obtained from the statistical department, an increase in the
average air temperature is observed and from the satellite images of Madurai, an average gain
in LST of 8.04°C is observed. It is evident that the increase in LST causes an SUHI effect
and this happens due to the change in land use and land cover characteristics. The increasing
urbanisation, which is replacing the natural soil and green cover of the area, is a significant
factor in the increase of SUHI. The combination of increased densely built up areas and
reduced green spaces results in increased urban temperatures. The study shows that high
density built up spaces in Madurai need a green plot ratio of 0.6 to bring down the air
temperature by around 1.2°C. The parametric study also proves that trees have higher
potential to reduce temperature compared to turfs. However, in high built up spaces,
providing trees might not be feasible. In such conditions, there is a scope to increase turf area
by greening practices on roofs. Since it is not practically possible to incorporate green roofs
at a larger scale, further studies have been carried out to study the integrated effects of urban
form, greening and the Albedo enhancement in modifying the microclimate.

Studies based on satellite image processing can aid urban planners in providing
recommendations for designing the efficient buildings and landscaping of urban
developments that are useful for minimising the heat accumulation and retention by urban
surfaces. Though studies based on satellite image aid to study the impact of SUHI, further
studies are essential to study the effects of urban form, greening, using on site measurements
involving the data such as temperature, humidity, wind, various plant species, their forms,
etc., in modifying the microclimate.

These can help in assessing the nature of SUHI at a micro level, and it can be a source
for urban planning strategies.

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 CHAPTER 5

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