Physical

Education
and Sport
CAPE
Study Notes

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Module 2- Sociological Aspect of Sport

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3. Group/Team Dynamic

Although team dynamics are very similar to group dynamics, and the terms are often
used interchangeably, there is an essential difference.
Groups are a social community, consisting of two or more people who have something in
common.
A team is a special instance of a group in which the commonality is a shared goal. This
fact, itself, creates a dynamic between team members because they are dependent on each other
for success. For example, a sports team wins or loses as a whole.
The word “team” is sometimes used, incorrectly, to refer to a group. For example, many
sales “teams” are groups - because the sales people are incentivised individually. A sales person
wins commission based on his/her own sales, and is not affected by the performance of other
sales people.

Crowd Behaviour/Fandom
• Fandom is a subculture composed of fans characterized by a feeling of empathy and
camaraderie with others who share a common interest.
• A fandom can grow around any area of human interest or activity. The subject of fan
interest can be narrowly defined, focused on something like an individual celebrity, or
more widely defined, encompassing entire hobbies, genres or fashions
• Fandom as a whole is a subculture that celebrates a mutual bond formed between
people over a book series, TV show, movie, sports etc.
• Crowd behavior is a term sociologists use to refer to a miscellaneous set of behaviors in
which large numbers of people engage. More specifically, crowd behavior refers to
relatively spontaneous and relatively unstructured behavior by large numbers of
individuals acting with or being influenced by other individuals.
• Crowd behavior is the behavior that is conducted by individuals who gather in a crowd,
while a crowd is defined as a gathering of people who share a purpose.

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Deviances: over-conformity, doping, cheating

• Deviance refers to behavior that goes against widely accepted traditions, norms, values,
ideology, rules, and laws of society, and that draws mild to severe sanctions. Deviance in
sport has existed across time and space and throughout the world, and whether or not
someone commits a deviant act depends upon the time and place and who does the
judging. Determining what deviance is, in other words, is a social process. The behavior
itself is not enough; there must also be a reaction to it.
• Deviance in sport includes a wide assortment of behavior. Many types of people are
involved, and the perpetrators of deviance in sport cut across gender, race, and class lines.
An abbreviated list of transgressors includes owners of professional teams, athletes,
coaches, sport agents, fans, professional gamblers, pharmacists, educational institutions,
corporations that promote sport, cities, states, and international organizations that govern
sport.
• Thus, when regarding a normally accepted range of action, over-conformity would refer
to deviance that is based on accepting and conforming to norms without question where
the actions, traits and ideas of athletes and coaches involves such an extreme conformity
that they perform “supranormal” actions and potentially endanger themselves and others.
• Deviant over-conformity is often seen through the dedication of bodybuilders and
the commitment to the norms of training and competition.
• In competitive sports, doping is the use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs
by athletic competitors.
• The use of drugs to enhance performance is considered unethical, and therefore
prohibited, by most international sports organizations, including the International
Olympic Committee. Furthermore, athletes (or athletic programs) taking explicit
measures to evade detection exacerbates the ethical violation with overt deception and
cheating.
• Anti-doping authorities state that using performance-enhancing drugs goes against the
"spirit of sport".
• The claim that doping is cheating is often rebutted with the argument that doping is only
cheating when one accepts that the use of doping is unjustified in itself.

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Impact of Mass Median on Sport

Benefits/ Disadvantages of Television for Sport

• Broadcasts instantaneous sporting action to a large audience.

• Cheap to film compared with dramas etc.
• Hence features heavily on TV schedules particularly at weekends.
• Has brought minority sports to the fore
• Helps participants reach superstar status
• Raised performers earnings
• Provides role models
• Developed academic qualifications, sports science, books, journals and videos.
• Places athletes under pressure to perform more regularly than is good for them Players
become public figures where their every move is scrutinised
• Over dramatises problems in sports world. Sensationalism sells papers
• Focus is often on the critical element of sport e.g. a violent incident or a challenge to the
ref.
• Deals between sporting bodies and the media can favour certain sports e.g. Adidas and
FIFA

How media affects sport

• Some sports have had to change to be more amenable to media coverage

• Television influence participation rates in certain sports (when channel 4 showed
volleyball between 1980 and84, affiliation rose by 70%. When table tennis was no longer
covered, participation dropped by a third)
• Participation in sport is falling and this is partly attributed to too much watching of sport.
However, studies like The Wolfenden Report suggest watching sport on TV may actually
positively influence people to take up a sport.
• When British teams do well in a sport at the Olympics there is often and increase in grass
roots participation.
• Spectatorism is on the decline because it is more comfortable to watch the game from
home.
• This is why football clubs charge large fees to TVcompanies wanting to televise the
match.

Positive Effects of media on sports

The media coverage of sport has good effects:

• Money - Media companies pay for the rights to show sporting event. Also, sports shown
on the TV generate more sponsorship
• Education - People learn the rules of the sport from watching it on TV.
• Role models - Seeing good sports people on TV and in newspapers makes them a role
model for people to look up to.

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• Inspiration - Media brings sport to people who may not normally get to experience it
otherwise. This can encourage people to get involved.
• Coaching aid - Watching professionals on the TV can help you see how a technique
should be performed which could help your performance.

Negative Effects of media on sports

The media can also have a negative effect on sport:

• Bias - Only the really popular sports get much attention on the TV and in newspapers
etc. This doesn't help encourage people into the less popular sports
• Lack of Attendance - For matches that are shown on TV, ticket sales often drop
• Overload - There is a lot of sport on TV nowadays, some say too much!
• Attention - Sport stars often complain of too much attention being paid to their private
lives.
• Demands - The media can put pressure on the organizers of sporting competitions to
make the viewing experience better for TV audiences. For example, in a previous
Olympics, the marathon was run at a time which suited TV companies, even though it
was at the hottest time of day!

4. Olympism and its role in sports development

"The goal of Olympism is to place sport at the service of the harmonious development of
man, with a view to promoting a peaceful society concerned with the preservation of human
dignity." They emphasize that "sport is not just physical activity; it promotes health and helps
prevent, or even cure, the diseases of modern civilization. It also is an educational tool which
fosters cognitive development; teaches social behaviour; and helps to integrate communities".
Sport is used as a tool for development and advance the Sustainable Development Goals.

National Olympic Committees also support these activities locally through their sports
expertise and networks. The Olympic Games are an international sports festival that began in
ancient Greece.

The Ancient Olympics

The earliest reliable date that recorded history gives for the first Olympics is 776 B.C.
The original Greek games were staged every fourth year for several hundred years, until they

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were abolished in the early Christian era. The revival of the Olympic Games took place in 1896,
and since then they have been staged every fourth year, except during World War I and World
War II (1916, 1940, 1944).

The growth of the Games fostered "professionalism" among the competitors, and the
Olympic ideals waned as royalty began to compete for personal gain, particularly in the chariot
events. Human beings were being glorified as well as the gods; many winners erected statues to
deify themselves. In A.D. 394 the Games were officially ended by the Roman emperor
Theodosius I, who felt that they had pagan connotations.

The Modern Olympics

The revival of the Olympic Games in 1896, unlike the original Games, has a clear,
concise history. Pierre de Coubertin (1863–1937), a young French nobleman, felt that he could
institute an educational program in France that approximated the ancient Greek notion of a
balanced development of mind and body. It was Baron de Coubertin's determination and
organizational genius; however that gave impetus to the modern Olympic movement. In 1892 he
addressed a meeting of the Union des Sports Athlétiques in Paris. Despite meager response he
persisted, and an international sports congress eventually convened on June 16, 1894 with 9
countries. He found ready and unanimous support from the nine countries. De Coubertin had
initially planned to hold the Olympic Games in France, but the representatives convinced him
that Greece was the appropriate country to host the first modern Olympics. The council did agree
that the Olympics would move every four years to other great cities of the world.

Beginning in 1924, a Winter Olympics was included — to be held at a separate cold-

weather sports site in the same year as the Summer Games — the first held at Chamonix, France.
The Summer Games, with its wide array of events, are still the focal point of the modern
Olympics. Among the standard events are basketball, boxing, fencing, field hockey, gymnastics,
modern pentathlon, rowing, shooting, soccer, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field,
volleyball, etc. New sports are added to the roster at every Olympic Games; among the more
prominent are baseball, martial arts, and most recently triathlon, which was first contested at the
2000 Games. The Games are governed by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), whose

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headquarters is in Lausanne, Switzerland. The Summer and Winter Games were traditionally
held in the same year, but because of the increasing size of both Olympics, the Winter Games
were shifted to a different schedule after 1992.

CORE VALUES OF OLYMPICS

The three core values of the Olympic Movement, which inspire us on individual and
organisational levels, are:

• Excellence: This value stands for giving one's best, on the field of play or in the
professional arena. It is not only about winning, but also about participating, making
progress against personal goals, striving to be and to do our best in our daily lives and
benefiting from the healthy combination of a strong body, mind and will.
• Friendship: This value encourages us to consider sport as a tool for mutual
understanding among individuals and people from all over the world. The Olympic
Games inspire humanity to overcome political, economic, gender, racial or religious
differences and forge friendships in spite of those differences.
• Respect: This value incorporates respect for oneself, one's body, for others, for the rules
and regulations, for sport and the environment. Related to sport, respect stands for fair
play and for the fight against doping and any other unethical behaviour.

THE PRINCIPLES OF OLYMPISM

The principles of Olympism, described below, amplify the Olympic values and allow them to be
expressed in a way that drives far-reaching social change.

• Non-Discrimination: the Olympic Movement strives to ensure that sport is practised

without any form of discrimination whatsoever.
• Sustainability: the Olympic Movement organises and delivers programmes in a way that
promotes sustainable economic, social and environmental development.
• Humanism: the Olympic Movement's activities place human beings at the centre of its
attention, ensuring that the practice of sport remains a human right.
• Universality: Sport belongs to everyone. In all its decisions and actions, the Olympic
Movement takes into account the universal impact sport can have on individuals and
society.
• Solidarity: the Olympic Movement is committed to developing programmes that,
together, create a meaningful and comprehensive social response to issues within its
sphere of influence.

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• Alliance between sport, education and culture: The Olympic Movement is committed
to promoting the spirit of Olympism, which emerges at the convergence of sport, culture
and education.

Paralympic Values

• Courage: It encompasses the unique spirit of the Paralympic athlete who seeks to
accomplish what the general public deems unexpected, but what the athlete knows as a
truth.
• Determination: The manifestation of the idea that Paralympic athletes push their
physical ability to the absolute limit.
• Inspiration: When intense and personal affection is begotten from the stories and
accomplishments of Paralympic athletes, and the effect is applying this spirit to one's
personal life.
• Equality: Paralympic Sport acts as an agent for change to break down social barriers of
discrimination for persons with impairment.

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5. Discuss the social significance of Sport

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Module 3- Sports Psychology

1. The nature of Psychology as related to sport
Sport psychology is an interdisciplinary science that draws on knowledge from many related
fields including biomechanics, physiology, kinesiology and psychology. It involves the study of
how psychological factors affect performance and how participation in sport and exercise affect
psychological and physical factors. In addition to instruction and training of psychological skills
for performance improvement, applied sport psychology may include work with athletes,
coaches, and parents regarding injury, rehabilitation, communication, team building, and career
transitions.

Sport psychology dates back to the turn of the twentieth century. Although Norman Triplett,
a psychologist from Indiana University, is credited with conducting the first study on athletic
performance in 1898, Coleman Griffith is known as the father of sport psychology.

Coleman Griffith worked as an American professor of educational psychology at the

University of Illinois where he first performed comprehensive research and applied sport
psychology. He performed causal studies on vision and attention of basketball and soccer
players, and was interested in their reaction times, muscular tension and relaxation, and mental
awareness. Griffith began his work in 1925 studying the psychology of sport at the University of
Illinois funded by the Research in Athletics Laboratory. Until the laboratory's closing in 1932, he
conducted research and practiced sport psychology in the field.

As sport psychology evolved over the twentieth century, two different kinds of sport
psychologists emerged. Clinical sport psychologists are trained primarily in applied areas of
psychology such as abnormal, clinical, counseling, and personality psychology and are usually
licensed psychologists. They tend to be less well trained in the sport sciences. Educational sport
psychologists are usually not licensed psychologists. Their training is in exercise and sport
science, physical education, kinesiology, and the psychology of human movement, especially as
it is related to the context of sport. They often have additional training in counseling. They see
themselves either as researchers or as ‘mental coaches.’

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Sport psychology development in Europe was strongly boosted by the foundation of the
International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) in Rome in 1965. Developmental sport
psychology refers to a theoretical perspective for studying children's social and psychological
consequences of sport participation. Adapted from Baltes et al., this perspective seeks to explain
psychological and behavioral variations in individuals between age groups as well as within
individuals across developmental periods.

Educational sport psychologists

Educational sport psychologists emphasize the use of psychological skills training (e.g., goal
setting, imagery, energy management, self-talk) when working with clients by educating and
instructing them on how to use these skills effectively during performance situations.

2. Major Theories of Motivation

Definition and role of motivation

• Motivation is an internal energy force that determines all aspects of our behaviour; it
also impacts on how we think, feel and interact with others. In sport, high motivation is
widely accepted as an essential prerequisite in getting athletes to fulfill their potential.
• Motivation, simply defined, is the ability to initiate and persist at a task. To perform your
best, you must want to begin the process of developing as an athlete and you must be
willing to maintain your efforts until you have achieved your goals.
• Motivation in sports is so important because you must be willing to work hard in the face
of fatigue, boredom, pain, and the desire to do other things.
• Motivation will impact everything that influences your sports performance: physical
conditioning, technical and tactical training, mental preparation, and general lifestyle
including sleep, diet, school or work, and relationships.

Motivation to participate in sport and exercise

✓ Extrinsic factors: and introjected regulations represent non-self-determined or

controlling types of extrinsic motivation because athletes do not sense that their
behaviour is choiceful and, as a consequence, they experience psychological pressure.
Participating in sport to receive prize money, win a trophy or a gold medal typifies
external regulation. Participating to avoid punishment or negative evaluation is also
external. Introjection is an internal pressure under which athletes might participate out of
feelings of guilt or to achieve recognition.

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✓ Intrinsic factors: motivation comes from within, is fully self-determined and

characterised by interest in, and enjoyment derived from, sports participation. There are
three types of intrinsic motivation, namely intrinsic motivation to know, intrinsic
motivation to accomplish and intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation. Intrinsic
motivation is considered to be the healthiest type of motivation and reflects an athlete’s
motivation to perform an activity simply for the reward inherent in their participation.
✓ Drive theory: The best known of these early conceptions was Clark Hull's drive theory.
According to Hull, behavior is a function of drive and habit. Drives in the Hullian
framework are unsatisfied needs, such as the need for food (hunger) or the need for water
(thirst). The drive to satisfy one's needs is what arouses or energizes behavior. Habits, in
turn, provide a direction for behavior. Habits are stimulus response bonds that are built up
over time as a result of prior learning. For example, if some-one's need to achieve has
been satisfied in the past by studying hard for exams, then deficits in that need (arousal)
should be satisfied by renewed study behavior. Thus behavior can be explained by both a
motivation component (the drive that energizes behavior) and a learning component (the
habit that provides direction or indicates what particular behavior will be initiated).
✓ Attribution theory: Three theories have addressed beliefs about ability. The first is
attribution theory as developed by Bernard Weiner. Attributions are inferences about
the causes of success and failure. (e.g., "Why did I get a poor grade on the exam?" or
"Why did I get the highest grade?") Among the most prevalent inferred causes of success
and failure are ability (aptitude), effort, task difficulty or ease, luck, mood, and help or
hindrance from others. According to Weiner, these causes have certain underlying
characteristics, which are known as causal dimensions. Causes differ in locus, or whether
the cause is internal or external to the person; stability, which designates as cause as
constant or varying over time; and in controllability, or the extent to which a cause is
subject to volitional alteration. For example, low aptitude as a cause for failure is
considered to be internal to the actor, stable over time, and uncontrollable, whereas lack
of effort is judged as internal, but variable over time and subject to volitional control.

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✓ Self-efficacy theory: Popularized by Albert Bandura, self-efficacy refers to individuals'

beliefs about their capabilities to perform well. When confronted with a challenging task,
a person would be enlisting an efficacy belief if they asked themselves: "Do I have the
requisite skills to master this task?" Unlike causal beliefs in attribution theory, which are
explanations for past events, efficacy percepts are future oriented. They resemble
expectations for personal mastery of subsequent achievement tasks. Also unlike
attribution theory, which focuses on the perceived stability of causes as a determinant of
expectancy, efficacy theorists have articulated a much more extensive set of antecedents,
including prior accomplishments, modeling, persuasion, and emotional arousal. For
example, physiological symptoms signaling anxiety, such as rapid heartbeat or sweaty
palms, might function as cues to the individual that he or she lacks the requisite skills to
successfully complete a task. According to Bandura, perceived efficacy determines how
much effort a person is willing to put into an activity as well as how long they will
persevere in the face of obstacles. Many studies have documented the adaptive
consequences of high self-efficacy.

✓ Achievement need: MsClelland-Atkinson achievement needs capture the reasons why a

person engages in achievement behavior, and two broad types have been identified.
Students who pursue mastery goals are oriented toward acquiring new skills or improving
their level of competence. In contrast, students who adopt performance goals are
motivated by the intent to demonstrate that they have adequate ability and avoid
displaying signs that they have low ability. According to this analysis, individuals can
therefore decide to engage in achievement activities for two very different reasons: They
may strive to develop competence by learning as much as they can, or they may strive to
publicly display their competence by trying to outperform others.

Goal setting

Athletes should be encouraged to set a few ambitious but achievable long-term goals;
perhaps to represent their country in a major championship in three or four years. Through
empowering athletes to set their own goals, they are more likely to accept the challenges that lie

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ahead and pursue the goals with enthusiasm. To keep athletes on track with their long-term
goals, they should also set appropriate medium-term goals.

By far the most important goals in practical terms are those for the short-term, as it is
these that keep athletes focused on the checkmarks which are seminal to achieving superior
performance. Therefore, short-term goals should be predominantly process-oriented. For
example, when Manchester United’s Wayne Rooney injured a metatarsal six weeks before the
start of the soccer World Cup, he set a series of process goals in his race to regain full fitness.
These included daily physiotherapy sessions, remedial exercises in an oxygen chamber, non-
weight-bearing aerobic activities, monitoring of nutritional intake and so on;

Goals need to be monitored and revised on a regular basis. One of the biggest mistakes that
coaches make in setting goals is that they are often too rigid in their approach. The goal setting
process works best when there is some flexibility and the individual athlete or team takes
ownership of each goal. Thus, coaches and managers are better off exercising some democracy
when setting goals, particularly if working with more experienced athletes.

3. Relationship between arousal/activation and performance

Differentiate among arousal, activation, stress and anxiety in relation to sport

• Arousal is general physical and psychological activity. When preparing ourselves to do

an activity (whether that be preparing a meal or running a marathon), our body will be in
a specific state of alertness, although this will vary dependent on the activity and how
motivated we are to do it – this is known as arousal.
• In general, arousal has two kinds of effects on performance. First, it increases muscle
tension and affects co-ordination. Too much tension is detrimental to performance.
Second, arousal affects attention. Therefore, attention can become either too narrow with
too much arousal, or too broad with too little arousal which makes person to pay too
much attention to his/her environment.
• Anxiety is a negative emotional state with feelings of worry, nervousness and
apprehension that is associated with the activation of the body.

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• Anxiety is a negative emotional state with feelings of worry, nervousness and

apprehension that is associated with the arousal and activation of the nervous system.
• Stress is an imbalance between that demands that someone feels and his or her feelings
of capably to meet that demands - when failure of these demands has important
consequences.

Theories of Arousal/Anxiety

Initially, it was thought that arousal had a linear relationship with performance, and as
one increased so did the other. This is known as the Drive Theory, which was initially
researched by Hull (1943) and further developed by Spence and Spence (1966). This means
that as arousal increases so does the performer’s dominant response or behaviour, leading to an
improved performance (Weinberg & Gould, 2011). Drive theory states that the more arousal and
anxiety an individual experiences, the higher their performance will be. The Drive Theory
states a linear positive relationship between arousal and performance. This means that at low
levels of arousal, performance is low whereas it increases in line with an increase in arousal.

Inverted U Hypothesis: This theory posits that there is a medium amount of arousal and anxiety
that causes one to perform higher - too little anxiety/arousal and too much anxiety/arousal will
cause performance to be poorer. An alternative approach to the drive theory (one which is
preferred by many psychologists) in the Inverted-U Hypothesis presented by Yerkes and
Dodson (1908). Similar to the drive theory it states that at low levels of arousal performance
will be below average, but it will increase as arousal does. The difference however, is that
performance only increases to a certain point (the optimal zone of arousal) where performance is
at its best. After this point, even though arousal continues to increase performance will decrease,

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symmetrical to the graphic at which it improved. This theory proposes a relationship between
arousal and performance in a symmetrical inverted U. Increases in arousal will result in the
increase of performance, up to a point (optimal arousal) beyond which further arousal is
dysfunctional to the outcome of performance.

Multidimensional anxiety theory: This theory of anxiety posits that when one has anxious
thoughts - they will have poorer performance. Anxiety felt by the body will have an effect on
performance much like that of the inverted U theory (see above). However, there is little support
for this theory. It demonstrates that when someone has anxious thoughts he/she will have poorer
performance.

Control of arousal: somatic and cognitive anxiety:

Cognitive anxiety represents the mental component of anxiety and is caused by negative
expectations about success or about negative self-evaluation. Thus, cognitive anxiety is worrying
and negative thoughts.

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Somatic anxiety reflects physiological elements of the anxiety that develops directly from
autonomic arousal. This is perceived as ‘butterflies’ in the stomach, tense muscles, sweating and
nausea.

4. Relationship between learning and performance

This proficiency helps protect the public by insuring that those who seek services receive
them from qualified individuals. The proficiency provides a recognized set of standards to guide
appropriate training of psychologists who wish to practice sport psychology. Many strategies and
procedures are used by sport psychology proficiency to address problems faced by athletes and
sports participants. Some of the principal areas include:

• Cognitive and behavioral skills training for performance enhancement: goal setting;
imagery and performance planning; concentration and attention control strategies;
development of self-confidence, self-esteem and competence in sports; cognitive-
behavioral self-regulation techniques; emotion management, sportsmanship and
leadership skills.
• Counseling and clinical interventions: athletic motivation; eating disorders and weight
management; substance abuse; grief, depression, loss and suicide; overtraining and
burnout; sexual identity issues; aggression and violence; athletic injury and rehabilitation;
career transitions and identity crises.
• Consultation and training: team building; sports organization consultation; systems
interventions with parents and families involved in youth sports participation; education
of coaches regarding motivation, interpersonal and leadership skills and talent
development; education of coaches and administrators regarding early identification and
prevention of psychological difficulties.

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Stages of Learning

Cognitive or Understanding Phase

In this stage of learning, performances are inconsistent and not success is not guaranteed.
Performing the skill requires all of the athlete’s attention and so they rely on the coach for cues.
This is a process of trial and error with a success rate of 2 or 3 out of 10 attempts. Correct
performances must be reinforced through external feedback.

Associative or Verbal Motor Phase

Also known as the "practise phase". Performances are becoming more consistent as
motor programmes are being formed. While the simpler parts of the skill now look fluent and are
well learned, the more complex elements requires most of the spare attention. The athlete is
starting to get a sense of internal 'kinaesthetic' feedback when they perform the skill well. They
are starting to detect and correct their own errors and success rate has risen to 5-7 out of 10.

Autonomous or Motor Phase

In the final stage of learning, performances have become consistent, fluid and aesthetically
pleasing. The motor programmes involved are well learned and stored in the long-term memory.
There is now spare attention which can be focused on opponents and tactics. To retain the new
skill at this level, it must be constantly practiced to reinforce the motor programmes. Success is
now 9 out of 10.

5. Importance of Effective leadership

Leadership is an interpersonal dynamics, is about the process of influence. How leadership
influences others and brings diverse people together to do purposeful things. This brings out
three concerns, what is the influence for, how the influence happens and what is the experience
of people who are part of such influence.

Leadership Effectiveness must result in enabling and empowering the team of people to do
what they ought to do. Effective Leadership is not about coercive and manipulative tactics that
force people to act according to the wishes of the one who influences.

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Why Leadership is important today than ever before?

Leadership is a massive part of any sport. Whether you’ve been a coach for the last 20
years or you recently stepped up to captain your side for the first time, leadership should always
be at the forefront of your thinking. It does come with a lot of pressure and the best captains and
managers are constantly under scrutiny; that’s why it’s important to incorporate certain values
into your leadership to allow your team to reach its full potential and ease the overall pressure.

The leadership concepts that apply to the workplace are very much the same as those on the
football pitch - every great sports leader will be aware of this. Here we’ve given you the best
advice on what it takes to be a true leader on-and-off the pitch.

Leadership Theories

"Great Man" Theory: Have you ever heard someone described as "born to lead?" Great man
theory assumes that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are born, not
made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to
leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was
thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

Multidimensional Theory: is an established model of leadership in sports by

Packianathan Chelladurai’s. This theory leadership is a concept that encompasses all
three factors—the leader; the members; and the organizational context including goals,
structures, and processes. A unique feature of the model is that it includes three states of leader
behaviors namely, required behavior, preferred behavior and actual behavior. Required
behavior is the set of prescriptions and proscriptions of the situation in which leadership
occurs. Preferred behavior refers to the preferences of the followers for specific forms of
behavior (such as training, social support, and feedback) from the leader. The actual
behavior (how the leader actually behaves) is largely based on leader characteristics in terms
of personality, expertise, and experience. However, the leader would also be constrained to
abide by the requirements of the situation and to accommodate member preferences (Box 6)
as well.

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6. Effects of group dynamic on sports performance

7. Role of sport in moral development

Define values, morals, beliefs

• Ethics describes a generally accepted set of moral principles

• Morals describes the goodness or badness or right or wrong of actions
• Morals are relative values that protect life and are respectful of the dual life value of self
and others.
• Morals have a greater social element to values and tend to have a very broad acceptance.
Morals are far more about good and bad than other values. We thus judge others more
strongly on morals than values. A person can be described as immoral, yet there is no
word for them not following values.
• Values describes individual or personal standards of what is valuable or important.
• Values are “things that have an intrinsic worth in usefulness or importance to the
possessor,” or “principles, standards, or qualities considered worthwhile or desirable.”
• Values represent the standards that individuals and societies set for themselves. Values
motivate behavior by guiding action and choice of activities.
• Values are the rules by which we make decisions about right and wrong, should and
shouldn't, good and bad. They also tell us which are more or less important, which is
useful when we have to trade off meeting one value over another.

Kohlberg’s Theory of moral development

Kohlberg offered a cognitive developmental theory of moral development.

According to Kohlberg, cognition is key to morality. A moral act is one motivated by
commitment to moral principles. People may not always act consistently with their best
thinking, but sophisticated moral thinking is a necessary, if insufficient, precondition for
acting morally. The defining characteristic of mature moral reasoning, according to
Kohlberg, is an ability to weigh everyone’s claims in a fair, unbiased, impartial manner.
Stated differently, the core of morality is the principle of justice.

Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)

• Obedience and punishment orientation- (How can I avoid punishment?)

• Self-interest orientation- (What's in it for me?), (Paying for a benefit)

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Level 2 (Conventional)

• Interpersonal accord and conformity- (Social norms), (The good boy/girl attitude)
• Authority and social-order maintaining orientation- (Law and order morality)

Level 3 (Post-Conventional)

• Social contract orientation

• Universal ethical principles

Pre-conventional Stages

Stage 1: Morality is equivalent to whatever is rewarded; wrong is equivalent to whatever is

punished. Moral reasoning is guided by considerations of authority and power. “Whatever the
coach says is right” would be an example.

Stage 2: Morality is equivalent to what is good for the self. Moral reasoning is guided by a
desire to obtain benefits. Simple reciprocity is embraced: “I’ll scratch your back if you’ll scratch
mine.” In sports, it may also take the form of “cheating is okay when opponents cheat.”

Conventional Stages

Stage 3: What is good or right is equivalent to stereotypic notions of what a “good” person does.
This stage involves a superficial embrace of group norms. Moral reasoning is guided by ideas
about what is nice, polite, or conforming. If the person identifies with an antisocial group, this
conformist mode of thinking may take on a more rebellious tone. In sports, conformity to
superficial conventions of good sportsmanship may reflect this stage of thinking.

Stage 4: Social maintenance is the core value of this stage. This can vary from a “law and order”
orientation to a strong but uncritical embrace of one’s cultural beliefs and practices. Moral
reasoning is guided by rules, formal or informal, that serve group maintenance functions. The
athlete who defines morality by rigid appeal to rules is likely reasoning at this stage.

Post conventional Stages

Stage 5: This stage is characterized by a humanistic perspective that seeks to uphold universal
values. Moral reasoning is guided by allegiance to chosen values that the person believes should
be upheld everywhere by everyone. The athlete who thinks about the “purpose of the rules,”
rather than just the literal rules themselves, may be reflecting Stage 5 reasoning. For example,
consider a skier who shares a pole with an opponent who breaks hers. The skier may do so, even
though not required to by the rules, to uphold the “spirit of fairness” that the rules seek to
express.

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Stage 6: Justice is the core decision-making principle at this stage. Moral reasoning is guided by
a concern to apply the principle of justice impartially to all parties. It should be noted,however,
that Kohlberg dropped Stage 6 from later versions of his scoring manual because too few
individuals were found who actually demonstrated unambiguous Stage 6 reasoning. He retained
the sixth stage only as a hypothetical terminal point to the stage sequence.

Sport and character development; the impact of sport participation on moral development

D. Corry