Number theory L4

May 25, 2020

1 Induction.
Given P (n), a property depending on a positive integer n,
(i) if P (n0 ) is true for some positive integer n0 , and
(ii) if for some k ≥ n0 , k ∈ N, P (k) true implies P (k + 1) true,
then P (n) is true for all n ≥ n0 .

The method of Mathematical Induction is used to proved P (k) for

all k in the following fashion:
(i) First verify P (1). (Induction base)
(ii) Assume P (j) for some general j ∈ N
(iii) Verify that P (j) =⇒ P (j + 1) .
This completes the proof for every j ∈ {1, 2, 3, ...}.

2 Induction in Geometry

1. A 2n x2n square grid , without one square , can be cut into ’corner
trominoes’ . The corner trominoe is a L shape made by 3 squares shown
as follows

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 Solution:
Let P(n) be the statement that ”A 2n · 2n square grid , without one square
, can be cut into corner trominoes. ”
Clearly P(1) is true.
We show how to cover 22 x22 − 1 square grid by trominoes.

Let P (n) be true that is A 2n · 2n square grid , without one square , can
be cut into corner trominoes.
Now we will prove the result be true for n + 1.
Consider 2n+1 · 2n+1 square grid without one square.
As 2n+1 · 2n+1 square grid contains four 2n · 2n square grids.
We mentally divide the 2n+1 · 2n+1 square into four 2n · 2n squares. One of
these lacks one box, and can be dissected into "corners" by assumption.
Then we cut out one "corner" in the center of the big square so that it
contains one box from each of the other three 2n x 2n squares. After that,
we can use the assumption again!
n(n−3)
2. A convex n-gon has 2 diagonals.

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 Sol by Induction:
Clearly for n = 3 and n = 4 statements are true.
Let the statement be true for any convex polygon with n sides.
Consider the convex polygon with n + 1 sides. Let the vertices of polygon
be V1 , V2 , · · ·, Vn+1 .
Now consider the convex polygon with n sides formed by V2 , V3 , · · ·, Vn+1 .
Clearly it has n(n−3) 2 diagonals by induction hypothesis.
V1 V2 and V1 Vn+1 are edges. But rest V1 Vk are diagonals for k = 3, 4, · · ·, n
Now adding V1 we get n − 2 more diagonals of type V1 Vk for k = 3, 4, · · ·, n
and now V2 Vn+1 will act as a diagonal.
∴ The total number
of diagonals for
n + 1 gon = n(n−3) 2 + (n − 1) =
1 2 1 2 1 1
2 n − 3n + 2n − 2 = 2 n − n − 2 = 2 (n + 1) (n − 2) = 2 (n + 1) (n + 1 − 3)
Hence the statement P (n) is true implies P (n + 1) is true.
Hence by induction P (n) is true for all n ∈ N. and n ≥ 3
Sol by combi:
Let the polygon has n vertices each will get connected to n − 1 other ver-
tices .
so we get totally n(n − 1) edges but here each edge AB is counted twice
once while counting wrt A and once wrt
B.
Totoal number number of edges = n2 = n(n−1) 2
Out of these nare sides .
∴ The number of diagonals = n(n−1) 2 − 2n
2 =
n(n−3)
2
Third method:
Let the polygon has n vertices each will get connected to n − 1 other
vertices . but two of them will edges so each vertex has (n-3) diagonals
connected to it. but here each edge AB is counted twice once while count-
ing wrt A and once wrt B .
∴ The number of diagonals = n(n−3) 2

3. Give a formal inductive proof that the sum of the interior angles of a
convex polygon with n sides is (n − 2)π. You may assume that the result
is true for a triangle.
Sol: Clearly for n = 3, 4 statements are true.
Let the statement be true for any convex polygon with n sides.
Consider the convex polygon with n + 1 sides. Let the vertices of polygon
be V1 , V2 , · · ·, Vn+1 .
Now consider the convex polygon with n sides formed by V2 , V3 , · · ·, Vn+1
so the sum of it’s interior angles is (n − 2)π.
The sum of the interior angles of a convex polygon with n + 1 sides is
(n − 2)π+ the sum of angles of the 4V1 V2 Vn+1 .
= (n − 2)π + π = (n − 1)π = ((n + 1) − 2) π
Combinotorial argument:
Consider a vertex say V1 . There will be (n-3) diagonals at V1 . These
diagonals will divide the polygon in n − 3 + 1 = n − 2 triangles with
disjoint interiors.

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 Hence the sum of all angles = (n − 2)π.
4. We have 200 sides convex polygon with 51 interior points drawn on a
paper, such that no three of these 251 points are collinear. We need to cut
this polygon into triangles such that every triangle has its vertices from
these 251 points . How many triangles we get?
Two cuts can meet only at vertex.
Let n >
3 be an odd
5. 
number. Show

that there is a number in the set
21 − 1 , 22 − 1 , · · ·, 2n−1 − 1 which is divisible by n. (USSR MO,
1980)
Sol: By Euler , as (2, n) = 1 so n | 2φ(n) − 1 and clearly 1 < φ(n) < n so
we are done.
Proof by PHP:
Define ai = 2i − 1 so we have a1 , a2 · · · an−1 .
case1 If n | ak for some k ∈ {1, 2, · · ·, n − 1} we are doen.
case 2
If not then no ai is divisible by n .
As n is odd n - 2x for any x so 2x − 1 can not leave remainder (−1) ≡ n − 1
.
Hence we have (n − 1) number of ai and the possible remainders are n − 2
that are {1, 2, · · ·, n − 2}.
Hence some two of them say ak ≡ at (modn) , k > t
∴ n | ak − at = (2k − 1) − (2t − 1) = (2k − 2t ) = 2t (2k−t − 1)
As n is odd (n, 2t ) = 1 so n | (2k−t − 1) = ak−t .
6. For any natural number n greater than 3, there exists , a convex ’n-gon’
with exactly 3 acute angles. A convex polygon has no angle greater than
180o .
Induction base n = 4
sol: For n = 3 we take a acute angled triangle.
Let the result be true for some n ∈ N, n > 3. That is there exists , a
convex ’n-gon’ V1 , V2 , · · ·, Vn with exactly 3 acute angles .
Consider an obtuse angle say Vk Vk+1 Vk+2 of this n-gon.
Consider any points A ∈ Vk Vk+1 and B ∈ Vk+1 Vk+2 . then clearly
∠ABVk+2 > ∠Vk Vk+1 Vk+2 > 90o and ∠Vk AB > ∠Vk Vk+1 Vk+2 > 90o
.
Hence V1 , V2 , · · ·Vk , A, B, Vk+2 , · · ·, Vn is the required (n+1)-gon with ex-
actly same three acute angles as that of original n-gon.

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So P(n) is true implies p(n+1) is true. By induction the result is true all
n ∈ N , n > 3.
Stronger result :
We will prove that any convex n gon can have at most 3 acute angles.
Sum of all interior angles of a convex n gon = (n − 2)π = (n − 2)180o
Suppose if possible that there are 4 acute angles
As each angle of convex polygon < 180
Sum of remaining (n-4) angles < (n − 4)180 .
Sum of remaining (n-4) angles
>(n − 2)180o − 4(90) = (n − 2)180o − 2(180) = (n − 4)180
Implies a contradiction.
∴ Any convex n gon can have at most 3 acute angles.

(a) “Tower of Hanoi”

It’s a children ’s game. It has 3 spindles on a base , with n rings
on one of them. The rings are arranged in order of their size It is
permitted to move the highest (smallest) ring on any spindle
onto another spindle, except that you cannot put a larger
ring on the smaller one Prove that
1) it is possible to move all rings to one of the free spindles
2) Peter can do so using 2n − 1 moves.
3) it can not be done in lesser moves.

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Let f (n) the minimum no of moves required to shift nrings from A
to B.
f (1) = 1
f (2) =
Let us call rings as 1, 2, 3, · · · with 1 smallest and 2 second smallest
and so on .
We show moves using table .
A B C
1, 2
2 1
2 1
1, 2
f (2) = 3
f(3)=7
A B C
1, 2, 3
2, 3 1
3 1 2
3 1, 2
3 1, 2
1 3 2
1 2, 3
1, 2, 3

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 7. 2n points are given in space. Altogether n2 + 1 line segments are drawn
between these points. Show that there is at least one set of three points
which are joined pairwise by line segments.

8. There are n identical cars on a circular track. Among all of them, they
have just enough gas for one car to complete a lap. Show that there is a
car which can complete a lap by collecting gas from the other cars on its
way around.

9. Every road in Sikinia is one-way. Every pair of cities is connected by ex-

actly one direct road. Show that there exists a city which can be reached
from every other city either directly or via at most one other city.

3 Identities by Induction

1. Prove the the following properties for all n, m ∈ N

a) 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n − 1) = n2

P (n) : 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n − 1) = n2

So P (1) : 1 = 12 . is T
P (2) : 1 + 3 = 22 is T.
Let assume P (n) is true for some n ∈ N .
P (n) : 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n − 1) = n2 is true .
2
TPT P (n + 1) : 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n − 1) + (2(n + 1) − 1) = (n + 1)
LHS= {1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n − 1)} + (2(n + 1) − 1) = n2 + 2n + 1 = (n + 1)2
∴P(n) is T implies p(n+1) is true.
By induction P (n) is true for all n ∈ N.

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b) 12 + 22 + ... + n2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6

1 2
c) 13 + 23 + · · · + n3 = n (n + 1)2
4

1 1 1 n−1
d) + + ... + = for n > 1
1·2 2·3 (n − 1)n n

1 1 1 n
e) + + ... + =
a(a + b) (a + b)(a + 2b) (a + (n − 1)b)(a + nb) a(a + nb)

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 m! (m + 1)! (m + n)! (m + n + 1)!
f) + + ... + =
0! 1! n! n!(m + 1)

2. Use mathematical induction to prove De Moivre’s theorem [R(cost + isint)]n = Rn (cosnt + isinnt)

3. 3 is prime and 3 is odd .

5 is prime and 5 is odd
7,11,13,19 ,· · ·
Conclusion is All primes are odd .
Infinite examples also can not prove a statement.
Hence we prove things for variables.
Suppose I want to disprove a statement , then a single example is sufficient.

4 Divisibility by Induction

1. Prove the the following properties for all n ∈ N

a) 9|n3 + (n + 1)3 + (n + 2)3

b) 16|32n+2 + 8n − 9

n n−1
2. f (n) = 22 + 22 + 1 has at least n different prime factors.

5 Inequalities by Induction

1. Prove the the following properties for all n ∈ N

a) 2n > n

1 1 1 13
b) + + .. + > ∀n > 1
n+1 n+2 2n 24

1 · 3 · 5...(2n − 1) 1
c) ≤√
2 · 4 · 6...2n 2n + 1

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6 Other Models of Induction

6.1 Strong form of the Induction principle.

Given P (n), a property depending on a positive integer n,
(i) if P (n0 ) is true for some positive integer n0 , and
(ii) if for every k ≥ n0 ,, k∈N ,P (k) true implies P (k + 1) true,
then P (n) is true for all n ≥ n0 .
1. Every natural number can be expressed as a sum of several distinct powers
of 2.

2. Prove that any polygon (not necessary convex) can be dissected into tri-
angles by disjoint diagonals.

1 1
3. If x ∈ R such that x + x ∈ Z , then, xn + xn ∈ Z ∀n ∈ N .

6.2 Cauchy’s Backward induction

The method of Backwards Induction is used to proved P (k) for all
k in the following fashion:
(i) First verify P (k). (Induction base)
(ii) Assume P (j) for some general j ∈ N
(iii) Verify that P (j + 1) =⇒ P (j) .
This completes the proof for every j ∈ {1, 2, 3, ..., k}.
So for proving the statement for all j , the induction base k must be
infinite.
So usually ew take some infinite series as an induction base.

1. Prove the AM-GM inequality .

1 √
Statement: For any nonnegative numbers x1 , x2 , ..., xn we have (x1 + x2 + ... + xn ) ≥ n x1 x2 ...xn
n