W2 Lec 2 Rings, Polynomial Rings, Homomorphism

Continuing on rings

Lemma: Let R be a ring. Then R has no zero-divisors iff ∀ a , b , c ∈ R , a≠ 0 then

ab=ac ⇒ b=c ,ba=ca ⇒ b=c , the cancellation law

Proof:

Forward. If ab=ac , a ≠0 then a ( b−c )=0. Since R has no zero-divisors, b−c=0. Similarly,
ba=ca ⇒b=c
Backward. Suppose ∃ a≠ 0 , b ≠ 0 s.t. ab=0=a 0 ⇒b=0 which is a contradiction.

Definition: An integral domain is a nonzero commutative ring in which there are no zero-
divisors.

Example: Z , R , R [ x ]

Theorem: Every integral domain with finitely many elements is a field.

Proof: Let R be an integral domain with finitely many elements. Let a ∈ R be nonzero. Consider
the map φ a : R → R ,b ↦ ab. Then φ a is injective because a b 1=a b2 ⇒ b1 =b2 (integral domain).
Since R has finitely many elements, φ a is thus bijective. Therefore, it is also surjective. Thus,
∃b ∈ R s.t. ab=1, that is, b=a−1. Thus, a is a unit and since a was arbitrarily nonzero, it follows
that R is a field.

Examples:

 p is prime ⇔ then F p is an integral domain. Since it has finitely many elements, it is also
a finite field. Now if p is prime then we write F p in place of Z / p Z .
 Familiar fields: Q , R ,C

F2 = 0 0 , 1 0 , 1 1 , 0 1 ⊆ M 2 (Z / 2 Z )
 2
{( ) ( ) ( ) ( )}
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
The notation F p means the set of n × n matrices with entries taking values in Z / p Z .
n

Exercise: F 4 is a field. Note that F 4 ≠ Z / 4 Z which is not a field.

(11 10)× (01 11)=( 10 21 )(01 11) × (11 10)=(12 01 )

 Units in Z / 6 Z are 1 ,5 which shows that it is not a field as 2,4 are nonzero but yet are
not units.
 The ring of quarternions H is a division ring (exercise) but it is not a field as it lacks
commutativity.
a b
H=
{[
− b́ á ]| }
a , b ∈C ⊂ M 2 ( C )
2 2
∀ A ∈ H , det ( A ) =a á+b b́=|a| +|b|
 2 2
det ( A )=0 ⇔ |a| =|b| =0

Polynomial rings
Notations:

Suppose that R is a commutative ring

 R [ x ]= {f ( x )=an x n +…+ a1 x +a 0∨ai ∈ R }
n n
 f ( x )=∑ ai x i and g ( x )=∑ bi x i. For convenience, we do not assume a n , b n ≠ 0.
i =0 i=0

Definitions

 f ( x )=g ( x ) ⇔ ai =bi
n
 f ( x ) + g ( x )=∑ ( a i+ bi ) xi
i=0
2n
f ( x ) g ( x )=∑ c i x where c k = ∑ ai b j
i

i + j=k
i =0

Definition: Degree of a nonzero polynomial is the largest integer n such that the coefficient of x n
is nonzero.

 We write deg ( f ).
 We don’t define degree for the zero polynomial. Constant polynomials have degree zero.
 For a polynomial of degree n , the coefficient of x n is called the leading coefficient.
 A monic polynomial is one whose leading coefficient is 1. That is, f ( x )=x n +¿ lower
degree terms.
 R is a subring of R [ x ] if we identify elements of R with constant polynomials.

Proposition: (Division with remainder) Let R be a commutative ring. Let f ( x ) ∈ R [ x ] be a monic

polynomial and g ( x ) ∈ R [ x ]. Then ∃! q ( x ) ∈ R [ x ] and r ( x ) ∈ R [ x ] s.t.

1) g ( x )=f ( x ) q ( x )+ r ( x )
2) If r ≠ 0 then deg ( r )< deg ( f ) .

Moreover, f divides g ⇔ r =0.

(Exercise)

Note that deg ( f ) don’t necessarily have to be less than or equal to deg ( g ) . If deg ( f ) >deg ( g ) then
q ( x )=0 ,r ( x )=g ( x ).
Corollary: The above proposition holds whenever the leading coefficient of f ( x ) is a unit in R .

Polynomial rings in n variables

R [ x 1 , … , x n ] is a commutative polynomial ring in n variables. Elements in here are of the form
f ( x 1 , … , x n ) =∑ ai , …, i x i1 … x in ,a i ,… ,i ∈ R. Note that the variables commute x i x j =x j x i .
1 n
1 n

1 n

From now on, all rings are assumed to be commutative, unless otherwise stated.

Homomorphisms and ideals

Definition: A ring homomorphism φ : R → R ' from a ring R to a ring R' is a map s.t. ∀ a , b ∈ R

φ ( a+ b )=φ ( a ) +φ ( b ) , φ ( ab )=φ ( a ) φ ( b ) , φ ( 1 R ) =1R '

Definition: An isomorphism of rings is a bijective homomorphism.

Definition: If there exists an isomorphism from R to R' then we say that R and R' are
isomorphic. That is, R ≅ R' .