W3 Lec 3 Unique factorisation domain Size function

n
Last time, we have shown that for any ( a 1 , … , an ) ∈C , ( x 1−a 1 , … , x n−an ) is a maximal ideal in
C [ x 1 ,… , x n ]. We also partially proved that every maximal ideal in C [ x 1 ,… , x n ] is of the form
( x 1−a 1 , … , x n−an ) for some ( a 1 , … , an ) ∈C n. It still remains for us to show that
ker (Π i) ≠ 0 ∀ i ≤n .

Suppose otherwise that ker ( Π i ) =0. Then Π i :C [ xi ] → k is injective ⇒ C [ x i ] ≅ subring of the field
k ⇒ C ( xi ) ≅ subfield of k . But this is a contradiction since C ( x i ) is a vector space over C which
1
contains the set { | }
x i−a
a∈ C which is an uncountable set of linearly independent vectors. On

the other hand, k is a vector space over C spanned by countably many vectors
{ x i1 … x in|i1 ,… , in ∈ Z ≥ 0 }.
1 n

Remark: A little bit of algebraic geometry

Let f 1 , … , f s ∈ C [ x 1 , … , x n ]. Are there solutions to the system ( ¿ ) of the following equations

f 1 ( x 1 , … , x n )=0... f s ( x1 , … , x n) =0 ?

Consider the ideal I =( f 1 ,… , f s ). If I =( x 1−a 1 , … , x n−a n) that is, I is maximal, then

n
f i=∑ gi ( x 1 , … , x n )( x j−a j ) and thus f i ( a1 , … , a n )=0 ∀ f i ∈ I . Meaning we get a unique solution.
j=1

If I =( 1 ) then { f 1 ,… , f s } spans the entire of C [ x 1 ,… , x n ]. In particular, the polynomial 1 can be

s
written as 1=∑ g i f i for some g1 , … , g s ∈ C [ x 1 , … , x n ]. But this means
i =1
∀ ( x 1 , … , x n ) ∈ C , ∃i≤ s : f i ≠ 0 ∀ ( a1 ,… , a n ) ∈ C . That is, the f i’s can’t all be zero at the same time
for any values. Meaning, we get no solutions.

If I ≠ ( 1 ), then as I is not necessarily maximal, it is possible to show that it is contained in a

maximal ideal J , as we will see in possibly later lectures. Suppose that J= ( x1 −a1 , … , x n−an ).
i i
Then for any i≤ s, since f i ∈ J , it has form f i=g1 ( x1 −a1 ) +…+ g n ( x n−an ) (here the super script
does not mean power, purely a symbol) and thus f i ( a1 , … , a n )=0 . Meaning, ( a 1 , … , an ) is a
solution.

Bottom line is: if ( f 1 ,… , f s ) =( 1 ) there’s no solution. Otherwise, if it’s maximal then there is a
unique solution while if it’s not maximal, it will be contained in a maximal one and thus there
will also be a unique solution.

The set of solutions to ( ¿ ) , that is, the common zeros of f 1 , … , f s is called an algebraic variety.

Theorem:
{ Maximal ideals of C [ x 1 , … , x n ] / ( f 1 , … , f s ) }
↔

{ points ( a 1 , … , an ) ∈C n satisfying f i ( a 1 , … , an ) =0 ∀ i=1, … , s }

Unique factorisation domains

Consider some properties of the ring Z

1) All ideals are principal

2) ∀ a , b ∈ Z not both zero, a , b have a greatest common divisor, that is a positive integer d
s.t.
i) Z d =Z a+ Z b
ii) d∨a and d∨b
iii) e|a ∧e|b ⇒ e∨d
iv) ∃r , s ∈ Z s.t. d=ra+ sb
3) If p is prime, then p|ab ⇒ p|a ∨ p∨b
4) Fundamental theorem of arithmetic: every positive integer a> 1 can be written as
a= p1 … p k
Where pi are positive prime numbers, with k > 0, unique up to ordering of factors.

Question: Which rings have analogous properties?

But first, some definition…

Definition: Let R be an integral domain

1) u ∈ R is a unit if u has multiplicative inverse in R or equivalently, ( u ) =( 1 )=R.

If u is a unit then 1 ∈ ( u ) and thus everything is in ( u ) . So ( u ) =R .
2) For a , b ∈ R , a∨b if b=ac for some c ∈ R or equivalently, ( b ) ⊆ ( a ).
If b=ac then all elements in ( b ) have form rac= ( rc ) a ∈ ( a ).
3) For a , b ∈ R , a is a proper divisor of b ∈ R if b=ac and neither a nor c is a unit or
equivalently ( 1 ) ⊋ ( a ) ⊋ ( b ).
We don’t allow proper divisors to be units as units divide everything. For example, a
unit a will divide any d since d=a a−1 d . We also don’t want c to be a unit, otherwise b
will also divide a and that makes a not a “proper” divisor. In the case c is indeed a unit,
look at the next definition.
4) a , b ∈ R are associates if b=ua where u is a unit. Equivalently, a∨b and b∨a or
equivalently ( a )=( b ) .
5) a ∈ R is irreducible if a is not a unit and the only divisors of a are units and its
associates. Equivalently, ( a ) ≠ ( 1 ) and ∄ c ∈ R s.t. ( a ) ⊊ ( c ) ⊊ ( 1 ).
6) p ∈ R is a prime element if p is not a unit and p∨ab ⇒ p∨a or p∨b. Equivalently,
ab ∈ ( p ) ⇒ a ∈ ( p ) ∨ b∈ ( p ).
We have the following informal hierarchy

1 , units< irreducibles< associates≤ primes, , proper divisors<divisors

Example

1) In R [ x ], x−1∨x 5−1
2) In Z , 2 ,−2 are associates
3) In Z [ i ], 2+3 i,−2−3 i ,−3+2 i ,3−2i are associates
4) In Z , the irreducible elements are exactly the prime integers (we allow negative primes)
5) x 2+ 1 is irreducible in R [ x ]
6) In F 2 [ x ], x 2+ 1=( x+ 1 )( x +1 ) which is not irreducible.

Example

R=Z [ √−5 ] ={ a+ b √−5|a , b ∈ Z }

Consider the element 6 ∈ R . It can be factorised as

6=2× 3
2
6=1−(−5 )=1−( √−5 ) =( 1−√−5 ) ( 1+ √ −5 )
Claim: the elements 2 , 3 ,1+ √ −5 , 1−√ −5 are all irreducible elements of R .

Exercise: Check this. We need to show that we cannot write any of them as a product of two
non-units elements. Hint: use the absolute value

First, let us find all the units of this ring. For any elements a+ b √−5 , its absolute value squared
is a 2+5 b 2 and if it is a unit, there’s an inverse 1 / ( a+ √ −5 ) with square length 1 / ( a2+ 5 b2 ). But
for 1 / ( a2+ 5 b2 ) to be an element of Z , a 2+5 b 2 must be 1 as it is also in Z . Therefore units in the
ring are those with absolute value 1.

Now, consider 1+ √ −5. Suppose it is factorised into 1+ √ −5=( a1 +b1 √ −5 )( a 2+ b2 √−5 ) . Then

2
|1+ √ −5| =( a1 +b 1 √ −5 )( a2+ b2 √−5 )6=( a 21+5 b 21 )( a22 +5 b 22)
Now we know that 6=2× 3 or 6=1× 6. In the latter case, a 21+5 b 21=1 meaning a 1+b 1 √ −5 is a
2 2
unit in which case, 1+ √ −5 is irreducible. In the former case, a 1+5 b 1=2 which implies that b=0
and a 21=2 which is a contradiction since a 1 ∈ Z . Therefore 1+ √ −5 is irreducible.

The other cases are almost identical.

These are not prime elements of R as 2∨( 1+ √−5 )( 1−√−5 ) but 2 ∤ ( 1+ √ −5 ) nor 2 ∤¿. So, we
now have a ring which behaves quite differently from Z . Unlike Z , irreducible elements are not
the same as prime and 6 can be decomposed in two different ways.

Definition: A size function on an integral domain R is a function σ : R ∖ { 0 } → Z ≥0

Definition: An integral domain R is a Euclidean domain if there exists a size function σ on R s.t.
division with remainder is possible, in the following sense: let a , b ∈ R with a ≠ 0. There are
elements Σ ,r ∈ R s.t. b=a Σ+r and either r =0 or σ ( r ) < σ ( a ).
(Note that we do not require uniqueness of Σ and r ).

Examples:

1) Z is a Euclidean domain with size function σ ( α )=|α|.

2) Polynomial ring F [ x ], with F being a field, is a Euclidean domain, with σ ( f )=deg ( f ).