DIAMOND DRILLING FOR MINERALS

INTRODUCTION:
The ancient Egyptians used tubular drills for boring short holes in the
construction of pyramids. The ancient Egyptian drills were undoubtedly hand
operated and probably drilled holes of a depth measured in inches rather than feet.
Chinese using percussion drilling to obtain salt and water from a depth of nearly
1200 metres (Fig. 1) is also reported in ancient literature.

Fig. 1: Early diamond drill for deep holes, Circa 1870

Modern diamond core drilling with holes up to more than Kilometers in depth is
the outgrowth of the experiments of Jean Rudolphe Leschot, a Swiss engineer
living in Paris, who about 1862 conceived the idea of using diamonds in an annular
ring.
The first machine was built in 1862-63 with the help of Pihet. The first diamond
drill hole was used for blast hole drilling. The machine had hand rotation and feed
and was operated by two men.
India has become a leading exporter of Diamond and Water well drilling equipment
to many countries in South-East Asia, Far East, Africa Central, East Europe and
Middle East. Services of Indian experts are sought after in many countries.
Rotary drilling covers a wide range of applications, including oil well drilling,
prospecting drilling, water drilling, blast hole drilling, grout hole drilling and
drilling of drifts and tunnels
Diamond Core drilling is a major supporting entity in Mineral Exploration can be
classed amongst the various difficult and complicated engineering disciplines,
because one happens to operate against an odd assortment of variables beyond the
reach of human eye.
Drilling through soft collapsible rocks are required to be cased with different types
of casing to prevent the borehole walls from collapsing before continuing through
harder strata with a smaller bit. It may require conducting several casing operations
in telescopic manner in one borehole.
Mud pumps are used to deliver the required flow of drilling fluid /Mud / coolant
under sufficient working pressure for flushing the bore hole. A mixture of water,
bentonite mud, polymers, foam and various chemicals are used in porous,
permeable rocks such as some shales which swell when wetted. The basic function
of the drilling fluid to cool, lubricate the drill string, bit and flush the borehole.
Also increase the hydrostatic pressure by mixing the liquid component with high
density material. In hard rocks drilling at high speeds, surface tension reducing
agents are added to improve lubrication and cooling and thus enhancing the
penetration rate of drilling.
In core drilling for the collection of the samples, the core barrel, either single tube
or double tube or triple tube type is provided at the bottom. In conventional
drilling, entire drill string is required to bring the core barrel to the surface; whereas
in case of the wire line drilling the core sample is extracted from the bottom by
taking out the inner tube by virtue of cable to the surface. Coring and non-coring
drill bits are quite different in use, and are compatible to connect with the core
barrel or drill string.
Uses of the Diamond Drill:
The diamond drill
 Drilling Operation
The purpose of drilling is
1. to study samples of sub-surface mineral deposits, testing of rocks, soil and
groundwater physical properties, and also can be used to install sub-surface
fabrications, such as underground utilities, instrumentation, tunnels or wells.
2. To study Mineral and Energy Resource Assessment which includes ferrous
and nonferrous Minerals, base metals like Lead, Zinc, precious metals e.g.
gold/silver/diamond, coal and lignite etc.
3. For the study of Engineering Geology, Geochemical and Geo-Technical
investigations.
4. Geological hazard studies like landslides, earthquakes, and arsenic and
fluoride contamination in water.

Investigation by drilling is a preliminary prerequisite and precise method for

geological Assessments of the ore deposit. It is usually resorted to only when
preliminary geological studies like mapping, geophysical surveys etc. Indicate
probability of deposits in a particular area. The accuracy of data generated by
drilling is the most important factor in predicting the reserves correctly. Drilling is
a field based activity and is carried out throughout the year.

For conducting drilling operation Drill rigs are required, it can be mobile
equipment mounted on trucks, tracks or trailers, or more permanent land or marine-
based structures (such as oil platform, commonly called 'offshore oil rigs' even if
they don't contain a drilling rig). The term "rig" therefore generally refers to the
complex of equipment that is used to penetrate the surface of the Earth's crust.

Drilling rigs can be:

 Small and portable, such as those used in mineral exploration drilling, water
wells and environmental investigations.
 Huge, capable of drilling through thousands of metres of the Earth's crust.
Large "mud pumps" circulate drilling mud (slurry) through the drill bit and
up the casing annulus, for cooling and removing the "cuttings" while a
borehole is drilled.
Drilling rig classification
 Mechanical — the rig uses torque converters, clutches, and transmissions
powered by its own engines, often diesel
 Electric — the major items of machinery are driven by electric motors,
usually with power generated on-site using internal combustion engines
 Hydraulic — the rig primarily uses hydraulic power
 Pneumatic — the rig is primarily powered by pressurized air
 Steam — the rig uses steam-powered engines and pumps (obsolete after
middle of 20th Century.

Selection of Drill- The selection of drill depends on following factors.

1. Borehole depth- The proposed depth and size of the borehole are the guiding
factors for the selection of the drill. The capacity of a diamond core drill is based
on its capacity to lift the drill string along with factor of safety.
The capacity of drill (HP) = k (W x V x n)/100
W- Weight of string with extra 20% for frictional losses as per DCDMA standards.
V- Hoisting speed in meters per minute
n- Efficiency.
k- Factor of safety (i.e. k=1.2)
The power consumed by the auxiliaries is around 20 % and so the required
capacity of the drill is to be increased by 20%.

2. Character of rock-The character of rock determines the speed and feed

requirement. The drill ability depends mainly upon formation hardness and
toughness. Normally for conducting hard formation drilling hydrostatic drills are
preferred.

3. Terrain condition- In difficult and hilly terrain light weight rig and mud pumps
is preferred for easy mobility of the resources.

Drilling Mechanisms
There are a variety of drilling mechanisms which can be used to drill a borehole
into the ground. Each has its advantages and disadvantages, in terms of the depth to
which it can drill, the type of sample returned, the costs involved and penetration
rates achieved. There are two basic types of drills: drills which produce rock chips,
and drills which produce core samples.

Auger drilling

Auger drilling is done with a helical screw which is driven into the ground with
rotation; the earth is lifted up the borehole by the blade of the screw. Hollow stem
auger drilling is used for softer ground such as swamps where the hole will not stay
open by itself for environmental drilling, geotechnical drilling, soil engineering and
geo-chemistry reconnaissance work in exploration for mineral deposits. Solid flight
augers/bucket augers are used in harder ground construction drilling. In some cases,
mine shafts are dug with auger drills. Small augers can be mounted on the back of a
utility truck, with large augers used for sinking piles for bridge foundations.

Auger drilling is restricted to generally soft unconsolidated material or weak

weathered rock. It is cheap and fast.

Percussion rotary air blast drilling (RAB)

RAB drilling is used most frequently in the mineral exploration industry. (This tool
is also known as a Down-the-hole drill.) The drill uses a pneumatic reciprocating
piston-driven "hammer" to energetically drive a heavy drill bit into the rock. The
drill bit is hollow, solid steel and has ~20 mm thick tungsten rods protruding from
the steel matrix as "buttons". The tungsten buttons are the cutting face of the bit.

The cuttings are blown up the outside of the rods and collected at surface. Air or a
combination of air and foam lift the cuttings.

RAB drilling is used primarily for mineral exploration, water bore drilling and
blast-hole drilling in mines, as well as for other applications such as engineering,
etc. RAB produces lower quality samples because the cuttings are blown up the
outside of the rods and can be contaminated from contact with other rocks (samples
generated by such methods are not the correct representative of the formation
drilled). RAB drilling at extreme depth, if it encounters water, may rapidly clog the
outside of the hole with debris, precluding removal of drill cuttings from the hole.
The use of high-powered air compressors, which push 900-1150 cfm of air at 300-
350 psi down the hole, also ensures drilling of a deeper hole up to ~1250 m due to
higher air pressure which pushes all rock cuttings and any water to the surface. It is
all dependent on the density and weight of the rock being drilled, and the condition
of drill bit.

Air core drilling

Air core drilling and related methods use hardened steel or tungsten blades to drill a
hole into unconsolidated ground. The drill bit has three blades arranged around the
bit head, which cut the unconsolidated ground. The rods are hollow and contain an
inner tube which sits inside the hollow outer rod barrel. The drill cuttings are
removed by injection of compressed air into the hole via the annular area between
the inner tube and the drill rod. The cuttings are then blown back to surface up the
inner tube where they pass through the sample separating system and are collected.
Drilling continues with the addition of rods to the top of the drill string. Air core
drilling can occasionally produce small chunks of cored rock.

This method of drilling is used to drill the weathered regolith, as the drill rig and
steel or tungsten blades cannot penetrate fresh rock. Air core drilling is preferred
over RAB drilling as it provides a more representative sample. Air core drilling can
achieve depths approaching 300 metres in good conditions. As the cuttings are
removed inside the rods and are less prone to contamination compared to
conventional drilling where the cuttings pass to the surface via outside return
between the outside of the drill rod and the walls of the hole. This method is more
costly and slower than RAB.

Mud Rotary Drilling-

This method is used for drilling through soft rocks, sand and clay layers especially
in exploration for coal, lignite, oil and gas. A special mix of clay and water is
forced down the hole through the drill string fitted with bit. The return mud carries
the rock samples in the form of small chips. The method is used for deep holes
upto 3000 mts and can be done from ships or offshore platform especially for oil
and gas exploration. A mud logger is used to identify the chips.
Diamond Core Drilling-

In this method a coring bit connected in the core

barrel is used for drilling. The core gets collected in
the barrel which is recovered after completion of the
run. The core collected gives information about the
rock types and information about the various layers
of rock. Diamond Core Drilling is mostly used in
Mineral Exploration Corporation Limited and GSI.
Various types of Surface set and impregnated
diamond bits are used for core drilling operation.

Cable tool drilling MECL MECL

Cable tool rigs are a traditional way of drilling water

wells. The majority of large diameter water supply
wells, especially deep wells completed in bedrock
aquifers, were completed using this drilling method. Although this drilling method
has largely been supplanted in recent years by other, faster drilling techniques, it is
still the most practicable drilling method for large diameter, deep bedrock wells,
and in widespread use for small rural water supply wells. The impact of the drill bit
fractures the rock and in many shale rock situations increases the water flow into a
well over rotary.

BITS
The selection of the right core bit for the job is a rather difficult task. The variables
in a core bit design are:
 face contour
 cutting material
 Diamond types, grades and sizes
 Mounting matrix
 Waterway size, shape and position
 Kerf width.

The face of the bit may vary from a ‘flat’ surface to a ‘full-round’ surface, where
the radius of the surface is equal to half the ‘kerf’ width (i.e. half the thickness of
the diamond inset part of the bit). In practice most bits are semi-round or semi-flat
in design.
The cutting material may be tungsten, diamond impregnate or hand-set diamonds.
Tungsten bits usually have large tungsten inserts mounted radially across the kerf.
This type of bit can only be used for drilling very soft formations, such as soft
shale or coral.

Selection of bit- The selection of bit mainly depends on the type of formation to be
drilled and the acceptable core size. Surface set diamond bit and impregnated
diamond bits are generally used in GSI. The other features of the bit like carat
loading, kerfs area, no of water ways and design are governed by rotational speed,
type of drilling fluid, thrust applied on the bit etc.

Diamond core drill bits

Once the core tube is removed from the hole, the core sample is then removed from
the core tube and logged. The Driller's assistant unscrews the backend off the core
tube using tube wrenches, then each part of the tube is taken and the core is shaken
out into core trays. The core is washed, measured and broken into smaller pieces
using a hammer or sawn through to make it fit into the sample trays. Once
catalogued, the core trays are retrieved by geologists who then analyze the core and
determine if the drill site is a good location to expand future mining operations.

Rig equipments
Drilling rigs typically include at least some of the following items

 Blowout preventers: (BOPs) required of desired capacity for Geo-thermal,

oil and natural gas exploration etc.

 Centrifuge: an industrial version of the device that separates fine silt and
sand from the drilling fluid.
 Solids control: solids control equipments for preparing drilling mud for the
drilling rig.
 Chain tongs: wrench with a section of chain that wraps around whatever is
being tightened or loosened. Similar to a pipe wrench.
 Degasser: a device that separates air and/or gas from the drilling fluid.
 Desander / Desilters: contains a set of hydro cyclones that separate sand and
silt from the drilling fluid.
 Drill Bit: is a device attached to the end of the drill string that breaks apart
the rock being drilled. It contains jets passages through which the drilling
fluid exits.
 Drill rods: joints of hollow tubing used to connect the surface equipment to
the bottom Hole assembly and acts as a conduit for the drilling fluid.
 Mud Sumps: often called mud pits, provides a reserve store of drilling fluid
until it is required down the borehole.
 Shale shaker: separates drill cuttings from the drilling fluid before it is
pumped back down the borehole.

DRILLING FLUID

Drilling fluid is circulated in a bore hole in order to remove cutting from hole and
to enhance the penetration rate.

Functions of drilling fluid

1) Cooling bit & its cutting edges.
2) Cooling & lubricating the drill string.
 3) Controlling the formation pressure.
4) Carrying cutting to surface.
5) Stabilizing the borehole.

Parameters of Drilling Fluid

 Density (Specific gravity) – Density is defined as weight per unit volume. It

is expressed either in gm/cm3.or compared to the weight of an equal volume
of water as specific gravity. Weighting materials may be added to the
drilling fluids to increase their density so that the hydrostatic head pressure
becomes close to that of formation pressure. In order to prevent the inflow
of formation fluids and to lay down a thin, low permeable filter cake on the
walls of the hole, the pressure of mud column must exceed the pressure by at
least 200 psi (14 kg/cm2).

 Density is measured with the help of mud balance

 Viscosity - Viscosity is defined as the resistance to flow while the gel

strength is the thixotropic property of fluid i.e. mud tends to thicken on un-
agitated for some time. Viscosity is usually measured by marsh funnel.
However funnel viscosity does not represent the correct value of the actual
viscosity of drilling fluid.
 Viscosity depends upon Temperature, Size, Shape of particles, Number of
solids particles/unit volume, Inter-particle force, Degree of emulsification of oil in
water.
Additives which increase the viscosity-
Bentonite clay, Attapulgite, Carboxyl methyl cellulose (CMC), Asbestos.
Additives which decrease the viscosity-
Thinner or dispersants, Ferrochrome lignosulphonate, Chrome free lignosulphonate
The following instruments are used to measure the viscosity and /or gel strength of
drilling fluids
A. Marsh funnel
B. Direct indicating viscometer

Optimum Viscosity Chart

Formation Viscosity range
 clay 40-45
Clay loam 40-45
Sandy loam 50-60
loam
sand 55-65

 pH- It is the measurement of relative acidity or alkalinity of a liquid.

Drilling fluid pH affects the dispensability of clays, solubility of various
products and chemicals corrosion of steel materials, and mud rheological
properties. Typical pH range is 9.0 to 10.5; however, high pH fluid can
range up to 12.5 to 13.0.

pH Measurement -The test paper is impregnated with dyes of such nature

that the colour is dependent upon the pH of the medium in which the paper
is placed. A standard colour chart is supplied in a wide range type, which
permits estimation of pH to 0.5 units, and in narrow range papers with which
the pH can be estimated to 0.2 unit.

1) pH affects the solubility of organic thinners and dispersion of clays present

in the mud.
2) Corrosion is reduced at higher pH.
3) Effect of contamination is reduced at high pH.
4) High pH affects the viscosity and optimizes the rheological properties.

 Gel Strength- Denotes the carrying capacity of the drilling fluid, or its
ability to suspend and carry through the bore hole. It is determined by using
the viscometer. The sample stirred at high rpm & the allowed to rest for 10
sec or 10min.The torque reading at 3 rpm is taken as gel strength at specified
time.
 Filtration Loss- Fluid loss against porous & permeable rock is called filter
loss. A layer of solid deposited on the rock is called filter cake. Loss occurs
when drilling fluid pressure is higher than formation pressure. It can be
determined by the use of filter press. Ideal drilling fluids have small filter
loss and thin & tough cake.
COMMENLY USED DRILLING FLUID
AIR
Air is readily available for use on site as a flush fluid. It has the attraction that,
provided groundwater inflows to the borehole are not great, it does not lead to
degradation and softening of the core. From all other points of view, however, it is
a relatively undesirable form of flush fluid.
Air has a very low viscosity, which means that satisfactory air flush drilling
normally requires up hole velocities of about 1000 m/mm., which can only be
obtained in the relatively large-diameter drill holes used for ground investigation
by using expensive, high-output air compressors.

WATER
Water, being cheap to provide in the UK, is most frequently used and overcomes
several of these problems. Being more viscous it can lift cuttings at a much lower
velocity (c. 24—50m/min) which often means less borehole erosion, and less loss
of return. But even water return may be lost in zones of high permeability, and
water has the significant disadvantage of causing softening and disintegration of
soft rocks, such as shale or chalk, and hard clays.

BENTONITE AND POLYMER MUDS

The use of ‘drilling mud’ (a thin mixture of water and bentonite) has various
advantages over water. First, it is more viscous and can therefore lift cuttings
adequately at a lower velocity. Secondly it will cake the edges of the borehole, and
the outside of the core, and will largely eliminate the seepage of water out of the
borehole, thus reducing problems of loss of return. Because of this, smaller
volumes of flush fluid will be required and the fluid may he recirculated via a
settling tank. The cake formed on the outside of the borehole has the effect of
considerably improving the stability of the borehole, provided the flush fluid head
is maintained higher than that of the groundwater.

Relationship between Function of a Polymer in a Drilling Fluid and Its General

Structure

Common Inorganic Materials

Ammonium Acid Phosphate [(NH4)2HPO4] — Di-ammonium phosphate (DAP);

white crystals. Used with polyanionic cellulose polymer as a shale inhibitor.
Concentrations range from 2.0 to 8.0 lb. /bbl.
Ammonium bisulfite [NH4HSO3]:—Used as an oxygen scavenger to reduce
corrosion of iron.
Ammonium sulfite [(NH4)2SO3 H2O] —White crystals. Used as an oxygen
scavenger to reduce corrosion of iron. Recommended excess of sulfite is 100 to
300 ppm.
Calcium bromide [CaBr2, CaBr2 6H2O] — White powder; natural brine. Used in
the preparation of dense salt solutions.
Calcium chloride [CaCl2, CaCl2 H20, CaCl2 2H2 0, CaCl2 6H2O] — White
deliquescent crystals, granules, lumps, flakes. Produced as a byproduct of the
Solvay soda and other processes, and also mined. Used in hole-stabilizing oil
muds, in calcium treated muds, in the preparation of dense salt solutions for
completion and work over and for lowering the freezing point of water muds.
Concentrations range from 10.0 to 200.0 lb. /bbl.

Mud conditioning
Mud prepared by mixing water or oil with bentonite or Attapulgite, barite
and various chemicals. Mud loose much of its desired properties if drilled
solids are not removed, and cause potential problems such as loss of
circulation. Mud conditioning equipment removes unwanted solids
Three sections are available
• Suction tank
• Addition and mixing section
• Removal section

The addition and mixing section

Mixing operation involves pouring of mud solids or chemicals through a
hopper connected to high shear jet. The shear jet homogenize the mixture and
resulting mud is again agitated with mud gun or an agitator after this the mud
is directed to the suction tank with the help of a centrifugal or
Charge pumps. The charge pumps give the mud a pressure of 89 to 90 psi
(5.5-6.2 bar) before it delivers to the main rig pump, this improve the rig
pump efficiency.

The removal section

Consists of
• Shale shaker
• Hydro cyclone
• Mud cleaner
• Centrifuge

Shale shaker
It consists of a vibrating or rotating sieve having opening enough to pass
mud and its solids. Cuttings is retained on the sieve and collected in a pit.
Mud from shale shaker pass to sand trap below shale shaker and the small
drill cutting removed by gravity
Centrifuges
Use centrifugal forces to separate heavy solids from liquid and lighter
component. It Consists of Horizontal conical steel bowel, rotating at high
speed and double screw type conveyor inside the bowel rotated at low.

Desander and desilter

Mud is sent from sand trap to desander and desilter (hydro cyclone)
It separate solids from mud by centrifugal action.
Consists of an upper cylindrical section with a tangential feed tube and
Fitted with a vortex