AREODYNAMIC TERMS.

An airfoil is a structure or body which produces a useful reaction to air movement. Airplane wings
,helicopter rotor blades, and propellers are airfoils .

The chord line is an imaginary straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge of an
airfoil.

In aerodynamics, relative wind is the wind felt by an airfoil. It is created by the movement of air
past an airfoil, by the motion of an airfoil through the air, or by a combination of the two. Relative wind
is parallel and in the opposite direction to the flight path of the airfoil.

The angle of attach is the angle between the chord line of the airfoil and the relative wind. By
manipulating ( control, điều khiển) the aircraft controls, the pilot can vary the angle of attack.

The angle of incidence (góc tới) is the angle at which a wing is attached to the aircraft fuselage.
The airplane pilot has no control over the angle of incidence. The angle of incidence changes for a
powered parachute based on the design, and is controlled by the pilot on a weight-shift control aircraft.

Angle of incidence is the angle formed by the longitudinal axis of the airplane and the chord line.

The angle of attack is the acute angle between the relative wind and the chord line of the wing.

The angle of attack at which an airfoil stall will remain the same regardless of gross-weight.

When the angle of attack is increased to between 18 and 20 (critical angle of attack) on most
airfoils, the airstream can no longer follow the upper curvature ( mặt cong bên trên cánh) of the wing
because of the excessive change in direction. The airfoil will stall if the critical( tới hạn, limitation) angle
of attack is exceeded. The indicated airspeed at which stall occurs will be determined by weight and load
factor, but the stall angle of attack is the same.

AXES OF ROTATION AND THE FOUR FORCES ACTING IN FLIGHT.

Aircraft have three axes of rotation: the lateral axis, longitudinal axis, and the vertical axis.

Lateral axis (pitch)- elevator- pull or push the wheel

Longitudinal axis (roll)- aileron –turn right or turn left the wheel

Vertical axis ( yaw)- rudder- push left or right pedal for controlling the rudder.

The lateral axis is an imaginary line from wing tip to wing tip of an airplane. The rotation around this axis
is called pitch. Pitch is controlled by the elevators, and this rotation is referred to as longitudinal control
or longitudinal stability.

The Longitudinal axis is an imaginary line from the nose to the tail. Rotation around the longitudinal axis
is call roll. Roll is controlled by the ailerons, and this rotation is referred to as lateral control or lateral
stability.
The vertical axis is an imaginary line extending vertically through the intersection of the lateral and
longitudinal axes. Rotation about the vertical axis is call yaw. Yaw is controlled by the rudder, and this
rotation is referred to as directional control or directional stability.

For aerodynamic forces are considered to the basic because the act upon an aircraft during all flight
maneuvers: the is the downward-acting force called weight which must be overcome by the upward-
acting force called lift; and there is the rearward acting force called drag, which must be overcome by
the frontward acting force call thrust.

Lift

Air is gas which can be compressed or expanded. When compressed, more air can occupy a give volume
and air density is increased. When allowed to expand, air occupies a greater space and density is
decreased.

Temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity all affect air density. Air density has significant effects
on an aircraft’ performance.

As the velocity of a fluid( gas or liquid) increases, its pressure decreases. This is known as Bernoullis
principle.

Lift is the result of a pressure difference between the top and the bottom of the wing. A wing is
designed to accelerate air over the top camber of the wing, thereby ( bằng cách đó) decreasing the
pressure on the top and producing lift.

Several factors are involved in the creation of lift:

Angle of attack

Wing area and shape(planform)

Air velocity

Air density

All of these factors have an effect on the amount of lift produced of any given moment. The pilot
can actively control the angle of attack and the airspeed, and increase either of these will increase in lift.

DRAG

Drag is a rearward acting force which resists the forward movement of an airplane through the air. Drag
may be classified into two main types: parasite drag and inducted drag.

Parasite drag is the resistance of the air produced by any part of an airplane that does not
produce lift (antennae, landing gear.etc) . Parasite drag will increase as airspeed increases.

Inducted drag is a by-product of lift. In other words, drag is induced as the wing develops lift.
The high pressure air beneath the wing (bên dưới cánh), which is trying to flow around and over the
wing tips into the area of low pressure, causes a vortex behind the wing tip. This vortex induces a span
wise (xuyên xuốt) flow and creates vortices all along the trailing edge of the wing. As the angle of attack
is increased (up to the critical angle), lift will increase and so will the vortices and downwash. This
downwash redirects the lift vector rearward, causing an rearward component of lift(induced drag)

Inducted drag will increase as airspeed decrease.

STABILITY

Stability is the inherent ability of an airplane to return or not return, to its original flight condition after
being disturbed by an outside force, such as rough air.

Positive static stability is the initial tendency of an aircraft to return or not return to its original
position.

Positive dynamic stability is the tendency of an oscillating airplane to return to its original
position relative to time.

Aircraft design normally ensures that the aircraft will be stable in pitch. The pilot can
adversely( bất lợi) affect this longitudinal stability by allowing the center of gravity (CG) to move
forward or aft of specified CG limits through improper loading procedures. One undesirable flight
characteristic a pilot might experience in an airplane loaded with the CG located aft of the aft CG limit
would be the inability to recover from a stalled condition.

The location of the CG with respect to ( liên quan đến) the center of lift( CL) will determine the
longitudinal stability of an airplane.

An airplane will be less stable at all airspeed if it is loaded to the most aft CG. An advantage of an
airplane said to be inherently stable is that will require less effort to control.

Changes in pitch can also be experienced with changes the power setting ( except in T tail
airplane). When power is reduced, there is a corresponding reduction in downwash on the tail, which
result in the nose pitching down.

A properly designed weight shift control is stable because the center of lift is above the CG.
Slower than trim, the center of lift moves aft. Faster than trim, the center of lift moves forward to make
the aircraft stable.

Effects of Forward CG.

- Increased longitudinal stability.

- Lower cruise speed. The wing flies at a higher angle of attack to create more lift to counter
the added downward forces produced by the tail, therefore the wing also produces more
induced drag.
- Higher stall speed. The wing flies at a higher angle of attack to create more lift to counter
the added downward forces produced by the tail, therefore the wing also produces more
induced drag.

Effects of aft CG

- Decreased longitudinal stability.

 - Higher cruise speed
- Lower stall speed
- Poor stall/spin recovery

TURN ,LOAD,LOAD FACTOR.

The amount of excess load that can be imposed on the wing of an airplane depends upon the speed of
the airplane.

During an approach to a stall, an creased load factor will cause the airplane to stall at a higher airspeed.

MANEUVERS

Rectangular Course

For the best result when planning a rectangular course, the flight path should be positioned
outside the field boundaries just far enough that they may be easily observed from either pilot seat by
looking out the side of the airplane. The closer the track of the airplane is to field boundaries , the
steeper the bank necessary at the turning point.

Fuel induction(cảm ứng) systems

Most light airplane engine use either a carburetor or a fuel injection system to deliver an air/fuel
mixture to the cylinders.

In a carburetor induction system, the float type carburetor takes in air that flows through a
restriction(venture), which creates a low pressure area. The pressure difference between the low
pressure area and outside air forces fuel in to the airstream where it is mixed with the flowing air
,drawn through an intake manifold, and delivered to the combustion chamber and ignited.

Carburetor are normally set to deliver the correct air/fuel mixture at sea level. Since air density
decreases with altitude, a mixture control allows the pilot to decrease the fuel flow as altitude increases
and thus maintain the correct mixture. Otherwise the mixture may become too rich at high altitude.

When descending ,air density increases. Unless fuel flow is increased, the mixture may become
excessively lean the amount of fuel is too small for the amount of air reaching the cylinders. Modern 4
stroke engines may automatically adjust the mixture control. Two stroke engines typically require main
jet changes for operation at different altitudes.

In fuel injection system the fuel and air are mixed just prior to entering the combustion
chamber. No carburetor is used.

The operating principle of float type carburetor is base on difference in air pressure at the
venture throat and the air inlet.

CARBURETOR ICE
As air flows through a carburetor it expands rapidly. At the same time, fuel forced into the airstream is
vaporized. Expansion of the air and vaporization of the fuel cause a sudden cooling of the mixture which
may cause ice to form inside the carburetor. The possibility of icing should always be considered when
operating in conditions where the temperature is between 20 f and 70 f and relative humidity is high.

Carburetor heat preheat the air before it enters the carburetor and either prevents carburetor ice from
forming or melts any ice which may gave formed. When carburetor heat is applied, the heated air that
enters the carburetor is less dense. This causes the fuel air mixture to become enriched and this is turn
decrease engine output and increase engine operating temperatures.

During engine runup prior to departure from a high altitude airport, the pilot may notice a slight engine
roughness which is not affected by the magneto check, but grows worse during the carburetor heat
check. In this case, the air/fuel mixture may be too rich due the lower air density at the high altitude,
and applying carburetor heat decreases the air density even more.A leaner setting of the mixture control
may correct this problem.

In an airplane with a fixed pitch propeller , the first indication of carburetor ice would likely be a
decrease in RPM .

ENGINE TEMPERATURE

PREFLIGHT INSPECTION PROCEDURES.

A thorough( kỹ lưỡng) preflight inspection should be performed on an aircraft to help ensure that the
aircraft is prepared for safe flight and should be a thorough and systematic by which the pilot
determines the airplane is ready for safe flight.

AIRSPEEEDS AND THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR

A pilot must be familiar with the following airspeed term s and abbreviation (viết tắt)

Indicated airspeed (IAS) the uncorrected reading obtained (thu được) from the airspeed
indicator.

Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) indicated airspeed corrected for installation and instrument error.

True Airspeed(TAS) calibrated airspeed corrected for temperature and pressure variations.

Vso stall speed or minimum steady flight speed in the landing configuration.

Vfe maximum flap extended speed .

Vs1 the stall speed or minimum steady flight sped in a specified configuration.

Vy the best rate of climb speed (most altitude given a period time)

Vx the best angle of climb speed (most altitude given a distance)

THE ALTIMETER AND ALTITUDES

Altitude mean elevation with respect to any assumed reference level, and different terms identify