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October 7, 20081
1
J.D.Jackson, ”Classical Electrodynamics”, 3rd Edition, Chapter 12
Dynamics of Relativistic Particles and EM Fields
Lagrangian Hamiltonian for a Relativistic Charged Particle
The equations of motion
d~p ~ ~u ~
=e E + ×B (1)
dt c
dE ~
= e~u · E (2)
dt
~ and B
for a particle with charge e in external fields E ~ can be written in
the covariant form (??)
dU α e αβ
= F Uβ (3)
dτ mc
where m is the mass, τ is the proper time, and U α = (γc, γ~u ) = p α /m is
the 4-velocity of the particle.
• The Lagrangian treatment of mechanics is based on the principle of of
least action or Hamilton’s principle.
• The system is described by generalized coordinates qi (t) & velocities
q̇i (t).
• The Lagrangian L is a functional of qi (t) and q̇u (t) and perhaps the
time.
Dynamics of Relativistic Particles and EM Fields
• The action A is the time integral of L along a possible path of the
system.
• The principle of least action states that the motion of a mechanical
system is such that in going from a configuration a at time t1 to a
configuration b in time t2 the action
Z t2
A= L [qi (t), q̇i (t), t] dt (4)
t1
is an extremum.
By considering small variations of coordinates and velocities away from
the actual path and requiring δA = 0 one obtains the Euler-Lagrange
equations of motion
d ∂L ∂L
− =0 (5)
dt ∂ q̇i ∂qi
~ = ~p + e A
P ~ (14)
c
where ~p = γm~u is the ordinary kinetic momentum.
The Hamiltonian H is a function of the coordinate ~x and its conjugate
momentum P ~ and is a constant of motion if the Lagrangian is not an
explicit function of time, in terms of the Lagrangian is :
~ · ~u − L
H=P (15)
~ and ~x we find (HOW?) that
by eliminating ~u in favor of P
~ − eA
cP ~
~u = r 2 (16)
~ − e ~A + m2 c 2
P c
(Verify that from this Lagrangian you can get the Lorentz equation)
Equation (17) is an expression for the total energy W of the particle.
Actually, it differs by the potential energy term eΦ and by the
replacement ~p → [P ~ − (e/c)A].
~
These two modifications are actually a conseqency of considering
4-vectors. Notice that
2
2 ~ = mc 2 2
~ − eA
(W − eΦ) − c P (18)
This invariant form can be the starting point for a variational calculation
leading to the equation of motion dU α /dτ = 0. One can further make
use of the constraint
Uα U α = c 2 (23)
or the equivalent one:
dU α
Uα =0 (24)
dτ
Dynamics of Relativistic Particles and EM Fields
The integrant in (22) is:
r
dxα dx α
p q
Uα U α dτ = dτ = g αβ dxα dxβ
dτ dτ
i.e. the infinitesimal length element in 4-space. Thus the action integral
can be written as
Z s2 r
dxα dxβ
A = −mc g αβ ds (25)
s1 ds ds
where the 4-vector coordinate of the particle is x α (s), where s is a
parameter monotonically increasing with τ , but otherwise arbitrary.
• The action integral is an integral along the world line of the particle
• The principle of least action is a statement that the actual path is the
longest path, the geodesic. We should keep in mind that
r
dxα dxβ
g αβ ds = cdτ (26)
ds ds
and then a straightforward variational calculation with (25) leads to
d dx α /ds
mc =0 (27)
ds dxβ dx β 1/2
ds ds
Dynamics of Relativistic Particles and EM Fields
or
d 2x α
m =0 (28)
dτ 2
as expected for a free particle motion.
For a charged particle in an external field the form of the Lagrangian (11)
suggests that the manifesltly covariant form of the action integral is
Z s2 " Z s2 r #
dxα dx β e dxα α
A=− mc g αβ + A (x) ds (29)
s1 s1 ds ds c ds
Hamilton’s principle yields the Euler-Lagrange equations:
" #
d ∂ L̃
− ∂ α L̃ = 0 (30)
ds ∂(dxα /ds)
where the Lagrangian is:
" r #
dxα dx β e dx α
L̃ = − mc g αβ + Aα (x) (31)
ds ds c ds
Then (30) becomes
d 2x α e dAα (x) e dxβ α β
m + − ∂ A (x) = 0
dτ 2 c dτ c dτ
Dynamics of Relativistic Particles and EM Fields
Since dAα /dτ = (dxβ /dτ )∂ β Aα this equation can be written as
d 2x α e α β dxβ
m = ∂ A − ∂ β Aα (32)
dτ 2 c dτ
which is the covariant equation of motion (3).
d~p e ~, dE
= ~v × B =0 (37)
dt c dt
where ~v is the particle’s velocity. Since the energy is constant in time,
the magnitude of the velocity is constant and so is γ.
Then the first equation can be written
d~v
= ~v × ω
~B (38)
dt
where
~
eB ~
ec B
ω
~B = = (39)
γmc E
is the gyration or precession frequency.
~ and a uniform
The motion is a circular motion perpendicular to B
~
translation parallel to B.
Dynamics of Relativistic Particles and EM Fields
The solution for the velocity is (HOW?)
~v (t) = vk~3 + ωB a(~1 − i~2 )e −iωB t (40)
~3 : is a unit vector parallel to the field
~1 and ~2 : are the other two orthogonal unit vectors
vk : is the velocity component along the field, and
a : the gyration radius
One can see that (40) represents a counterclockwise rotation for positive
charge e
Further integration leads to the displacement of the particles
~ 0 + vk t~3 + ia(~1 − i~2 )e −iωB t
~x (t) = X (41)
The path is a helix of radius a and pitch angle α = tan−1 (vk /ωB a).
The magnitude of the gyration radius a depends on the magnetic
~ and the transverse momentum ~p⊥ of the particle
induction B
cp⊥ = eBa
This relation allows for the determination of particle momenta. For
particle with charge equal to electron charge the momentum can be
written numerically as
p⊥ (MeV/c) = 3 × 10−4 Ba(Gauss-cm) = 300Ba(tesla-m) (42)
Dynamics of Relativistic Particles and EM Fields
Figure: This three basic motions of charged particles in a magnetic field:
gyro, bounce between mirror points, and drift. The pitch angle α between
~ and the electron velocity ~v .
the directions of the magnetic field B
The angle between the direction of the magnetic field and a particle’s
spiral trajectory is referred to as the ”pitch angle”, which in a
non-uniform magnetic field changes as the ratio between the
perpendicular and parallel components of the particle velocity changes.
Pitch angle is important because it is a key factor in determining whether
a charged particle will be lost to the Earth’s atmosphere or not.
Dynamics of Relativistic Particles and EM Fields
Motion in Combined, Uniform, Static E- and B- Field
~ ×B
E ~
~u = c 2
(43)
B
we find that the fields in K 0 (HOW?)
~0 = 0,
E ~0 = γ E
E ~ + ~u × B
~ =0
k ⊥
c
(44)
2 2
1/2
~0 = 0, ~ 0 = 1B~ = B −E ~
Bk B ⊥ B
c B2
~ 0 which
In the frame K 0 the only field acting is a static magnetic field B
points in the same direction as B~ but is weaker by a factor 1/γ . Thus
0
the motion in K is the same as in the previous section, namely spiraling
around the lines of force.
Dynamics of Relativistic Particles and EM Fields
As viewed from the original frame, this gyration is accompanied by a
~ and B.
uniform “drift” ~u perpendicular to E ~
The direction of the drift is independent of the sign of the charge of the
particle.
~ ×B
Figure: E ~ drift of charged particles in perpendicular fields
1 1
L=− Fαβ F αβ − Jα Aα (52)
16π c
If we want to use it for the Euler-Lagrange equations given in (50) we get
1 1
L=− gλµ gνσ (∂ µ Aσ − ∂ σ Aµ ) ∂ λ Aν − ∂ ν Aλ − Jα Aα (53)
16π c
∂L 1 1
= − Fβα = Fαβ (54)
∂(∂ β Aα ) 4π 4π
The other part of the Euler-Lagrange equations is
∂L 1
= − Jα (55)
∂Aα c
Thus the equations of motion for the EM field are
1 β 1
∂ Fβα = Jα (56)
4π c
which is a covariant form of the inhomogeneous Maxwell equations (??).
The conservation of the source current density cen be obtained from (56)
1 α β 1
∂ ∂ Fβα = ∂ α Jα
4π c
The left hand side has a differential operator which is symmetric in α and
β, while Fαβ is antisymmetric. Again the contraction vanishes (why?)
and we have:
∂ α Jα = 0 . (57)
Dynamics of Relativistic Particles and EM Fields
Proca Lagrangian; Photon Mass Effect
If we assume that the photon is not massless then the Lagrangian (52)
has to be modified by the addition of a “ mass” term, this is called Proca
Lagrangian
1 µ2 1
LProca = − Fαβ F αβ + Aα Aα − Jα Aα (58)
16π 8π c
The parameter µ has dimensions of inverse length and is the reciprocal
Compton wavelength of the photon (µ = mγ c/~). Instead of (56) the
Proca equations of motion are
4π
∂ β Fβα + µ2 Aα = Jα (59)
c
with the same homogeneous equations ∂α F αβ = 0 as in Maxwell theory.
In contrast to the Maxwell equations the potentials have real physical
(observable) significance through the mass term. In the Lorentz gauge
(59) can be written
4π
Aα + µ2 Aα = Jα (60)
c
Dynamics of Relativistic Particles and EM Fields
In the static limit takes the form
4π
∇2 Aα − µ2 Aα = − Jα (61)
c
If the source is a point charge q at rest in the origin then the only
non-vanishing component is A0 = Φ. the solution will be the spherically
symmetric Yukawa potential
q
Φ(x) = e −µr (62)
r
i.e. we observe an exponential falloff of the static potentials and fields,
with 1/e distance equal to 1/µ.
Notice that the exponential factor alters the character of the Earth’s (and
other planets) magnetic fields sufficiently to permit us to set quite
stringent limits on the photon mass from geomagnetic data.
i µ2 r 2 e −µr 2 2 e −µr
h
~ ˆ ˆ
B(~x ) = 3~r (~r · m
~)−m
~ 1 + µr + − ~ 3
µ m
3 r3 3 r
The result shows that the Earth’s magnetic field will appear as a dipole
angular distribution plus an added constant magnetic field antiparallel to
~ . Measurements show that this “ external” field is less than 0.004 times
m
the dipole field at the magnetic equator which leads to
µ < 4 × 10−10 cm−1 or mγ < 8 × 10−49 g.
Dynamics of Relativistic Particles and EM Fields
Conservation Laws : Canonical Stress Tensor
In particle mechanics the transition to the Hamilton formulation and
conservation of energy is made by first defining the canonical momentum
variables
∂L
pi =
∂ q̇i
and then introducing the Hamiltonian
X
H= pi q̇i − L (63)
i
The first factor in the sum is the field momentum canonically conjugate
to φk (x) and ∂ α φk (x) is equivalent to the velocity q̇i .
The Lorentz transformation properties of H suggest that the covariant
generalization of the Hamiltonian density is the canonical stress tensor:
X ∂L
T αβ = ∂ β φk − g αβ L (65)
∂(∂α φk )
k
but because of the equation of motion (50) the first term can be
transformed so that
X ∂L ∂L
αβ β
∂α T = ∂ φk + ∂ (∂α φk ) − ∂ β L
β
∂φk ∂(∂α φk )
k
α
since L = L(φk , ∂ φk ) the term in the square bracket is an implicit
differentiation, hence
∂α T αβ = ∂ β L(φk , ∂ α φk ) − ∂ β L = 0
d d ~
Efield = 0 , Pfield = 0 (70)
dt dt
The results are valid for an observer at rest in the frame in which the
fields are specified.
and
3
∂gi X ∂ (M) 1 ~ ~
− Tij = − ρEi + J ×B (82)
∂t ∂xj c i
j=1