Fluid Mechanics For Engineers, Ibrahim Saleh and M Galal Rabie - May - 2023

Fluid Mechanics
For Engineers
Second Edition
Ibrahim Saleh M. Galal Rabie

Professor of Mechanical Professor of Mechanical
Engineering Engineering
This book is published by the authors. The hard copy is for free
distribution, it is not for sale by any means. Likewise, the
electronic copy is for free download and free distribution.
No part of this publication may be reproduced for the purpose
of re-publishing, without the author’s prior written permission.
ISBN 978-977-5092-00-7,
2011
2011/5464 :‫رقم اإليداع بدار الكتب المصرية‬

SALEH I. and RABIE M.G., Fluid Mechanics for Engineers
INTRODUCTION
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under shear stress; that is why a
fluid at rest has the shape of its containing vessel. Fluids include liquids, gases,
and plasmas. A fluid at rest has no shear stress. Fluid mechanics is the study of
fluids and the forces on them. Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid statics,
fluid kinematics and fluid dynamics. Fluid statics is the study of fluids at rest.
Fluid kinematics is the study of fluid motion without considering the forces
acting on them, while fluid dynamics is the study of the effect of forces on fluid
motion.
Fluid mechanics is a branch of continuum mechanics. It models matter from a
macroscopic viewpoint rather than from a microscopic viewpoint.
The study of fluid mechanics goes back at least to the days of ancient Greece,
when Archimedes investigated fluid statics and buoyancy and formulated his
famous Archimedes Principle. Rapid advancement in fluid mechanics began with
Leonardo da Vinci (observation and experiment), Evangelista Torricelli
(barometer), Isaac Newton (viscosity) and Blaise Pascal (hydrostatics). It was
continued by Daniel Bernoulli with the introduction of mathematical fluid
dynamics in his book Hydrodynamica (1738). Inviscid flow was further analyzed
by various mathematicians: Leonhard Euler, d'Alembert, Lagrange, Laplace,
Poisson and others. Viscous flow was explored by a multitude of engineers
including Poiseuille and Gotthilf Heinrich Ludwig Hagen. Further mathematical
justification was provided by Claude-Louis Navier and George Gabriel Stokes in
the Navier–Stokes equations. Boundary layers were investigated (Ludwig
Prandtl), while various scientists advanced the understanding of fluid viscosity
and turbulence: Osborne Reynolds, Andrey Kolmogorov and Geoffrey Ingram
Taylor.
This book is prepared as a basic course in fluid mechanics for engineers, arranged
in six chapters:
Chapter 1: properties of fluids
Chapter 2: fluid statics
Chapter 3: fluid kinematics
Chapter 4: fluid dynamics
Chapter 5: steady incompressible real flow in hydraulic conduits
Chapter 6: dimensional analysis and similarity
Cover Design
The authors are indebted to the graphic designer Rehab Rabie, PhD.
i
THE AUTHORS
Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Saleh Mostafa

Birth date & place: 27 November 1945, Cairo, EGYPT
Degrees Hold:
PhD Field: Rheology, Multi-phase Flow.
Awarded by: ENSEEIHT Toulouse & Paul Sabatier Univ.,
Toulouse, France, Sept., 1980
MSc Field: Hydraulic Engineering
Awarded by: VUT, Brno, CSSR, , July,1976
BSc Field: Mechanical Engineering (Power & Energy)
Awarded by: Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Egypt, 1968
Previous occupations and Experience
Professor in Mechanical engineering, title awarded by the supreme
council of the Military Technical College (MTC), Cairo, April.1992
Author or co-author of more than 50 papers published in local and
international journals and conferences n and supervisor of 45 PhD & MSc
Thesis.
Current Institution: Military Technical College, Cairo, Egypt.
Prof. Dr. Mahmoud Galal El-Din Mohamed RABIE

Birth date & place: 19 April 1946, Dakahlia, EGYPT
Degrees Hold:
PhD Field: Automatic Control and Computer Science Applied to
Industrial Systems
Awarded by: INSA Lyon & Claud Bernard Univ., Lyon, France,
Oct., 1980
MSc Field: Mechanical Engineering
ii
Awarded by: Military Technical College, Cairo, Jan.,1977

BSc Field: Mechanical Engineering (Aircraft Engines)
Awarded by: Military Technical College, Cairo, 1968
Previous occupations and Experience
Professor in Mechanical engineering, title awarded by the supreme
council of the Military Technical College (MTC), Cairo, Nov.1991
Author of: M Galal Rabie, Fluid Power Engineering, McGraw-Hill, NY,
May 18, 2009.
Author or co-author of 57 papers published in local and international
journals and conferences n and supervisor of 25 PhD & MSc Thesis
Current Institution: Modern Academy for Engineering and Technology,
Cairo, Egypt.
iii
Content
CHAPTER 1: PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 BASIC PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 2
1.2.1 Density 3
1.2.2 Compressibility and Elasticity 4
1.2.3 Viscosity 8
1.2.4 Surface Tension 12
1.2.5 Vapor Pressure 15
1.3 EXERCISE 17
CHAPTER 2: FLUID STATICS 22
2.1 INTRODUCTION 22
2.2 CONTROL VOLUME AND CONTROL SURFACE 22
2.3 SURFACE AND BODY FORCES 22
2.4 PRESSURE AND PASCAL’S LAW 23
2.5 EULER’S EQUATIONS OF FLUID STATICS 25
2.6 APPLICATIONS OF EULER’S EQUATION OF FLUID 26
STATICS
2.6.1 Pressure Difference Between Two Points in a Gravity 26
Field
2.6.2 Pressure Measuring Devices 29
Mercury barometer 29
Piezometer - Piezo-manometer 30
U-Tube Manometer 31
2.6.3 Pressure Forces on Submerged Surfaces 36
Pressure Forces on Plane Surfaces 37
Pressure force on curved surfaces 41
2.7 BUOYANCY AND STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES 46
2.7.1 Buoyancy Forces 46
2.7.2 Stability of Submerged Bodies 47
2.7.3 Stability of Floating Bodies 47
2.8 RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM IN LINEAR AND ROTARY 52
MOTIONS
2.8.1 Relative Equilibrium, Linear Motion 52
2.8.2 Relative Equilibrium, Rotary Motion 54
2.9 EXERCISE 56
iv
CHAPTER 3: FLUID KINEMATICS 66

3.1 INTRODUCTION 66
3.2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF FLUID FLOW 67
3.2.1 Uniform and Steady Flow 67
3.2.2 One, Two and Three-Dimensional Flow 68
3.2.3 Rotational and Irrotational Flow 69
3.3 MOTION AND DEFORMATION OF A FLUID ELEMENT 69
3.3.1 Fluid Element Translation, Velocity and Acceleration 70
3.3.2 Fluid Element Rotation about its Own Axis- Spin 72
3.3.3 Angular Deformation of Fluid Element 74
3.3.4 Linear Deformation of a Fluid Element 74
3.4 STREAMLINES, PATH LINES AND STREAK LINES 75
3.5 STREAM AND POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS 78
3.5.1 Stream Function  78
3.5.2 Velocity Potential Function φ 81
3.5.3 Flow net 82
Uniform flow in x- direction 83
Source and sink 83
Vortex 84
Combination of a source and a uniform flow in x-direction 85
Combined source-sink 85
Doublet 85
3.6 EXERCISE 86
CHAPTER 4: FLUID DYNAMICS 88
4.1. INTRODUCTION 88
4.2. MASS CONSERVATION - Continuity Equation 88
4.2.1 Discharge and mean velocity 88
4.2.2 Continuity Equation 89
4.3. MOMENTUM EQUATION 92
4.4. ENERGY CONSERVATION, BERNOULLI’s EQUATION 94
4.5. FLUID DYNAMICS, APPLICATIONS OF BASIC 96
EQUATIONS
4.5.1. Applications on Continuity equation 96
4.5.2. Mass flow rate 98
4.5.3. Volume flow rate: Discharge 98
4.5.4. Orifice Flow 99
4.5.5. Application of the Momentum Equation 102
4.5.6 Applications of Bernoulli’s equation 105
Free jet flow 105
v
Flow from a reservoir 105

Flow in a conduit 107
Pressure head, velocity head, potential head and total head 108
Piezo-meter and Pitot tube 109
Venturi Meter 112
Flow over notches and weirs 113
Emptying of tanks 116
4.6 EXERCISE 118
CHAPTER 5: STEADY INCOMPRESSIBLE REAL FLOW IN 124
HYDRAULIC CONDUITS
5.2. REAL FLOW IN CONDUITS 124
5.3. HYDRAULIC LOSSES IN PIPES 125
5.4. FRICTION LOSSES IN PIPELINES 125
5.4.1. Laminar Flow in Pipelines 126
5.4.2 Flow between two parallel plates 131
5.4.3 Internal Leakage in Hydraulic Elements 132
5.4.4. Friction Losses in Turbulent Flow Pipelines 134
5.5 LOCAL LOSSES IN HYDRAULIC CONDUITS 137
5.6. APPLICATIONS ON HYDRAULIC LOSSES IN PIPES 140
5.6.1 Head Loss for a Given Flow Rate 140
5.6.2 Flow Rate for a Given Head Loss 142
5.6.3 Selecting a Pipe Diameter 144
5.6.4 Total Head Loss 145
5.6.5 Fluid Pumping 146
5.6.6 Complex Networks 148
5.7 EXERCISE 151
CHAPTER 6: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY 153
6.2. BASIC PRINCIPLES 154
6.3. BUCKINGHAM PI () THEOREM 155
6.4 SIMILARITY AND NON-DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 156
6.4.1. Geometric Similarity 160
6.4.2. Kinematic Similarity 160
6.4.3. Dynamic Similarity 161
6.5. EXERCISE 165
vi
1 Chapter
FLUIDS
PROPERTIES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
All substances consist of a very large number of molecules separated by empty
spaces. The intermolecular interaction depends largely on the inter-distance
between them. The difference in the properties of solids, liquids, and gases
depends mainly on their molecular structure. The basic properties of fluids are
defined and discussed in this chapter.
In a solid, the molecules can be modeled as being held together by tiny springs
that permit them to vibrate about their equilibrium position. They, almost, do not
exchange positions with other molecules. Solids are almost incompressible
and they have, almost, definite volume and shape
In a liquid, the molecules are also densely packed. They cannot easily escape
from one another, but they are free to move toward each other. Molecules
continually attract and repel one another. The attraction force between molecules
is sufficient to keep the liquid in a definite volume. Liquids are of poor
compressibility. They have the shape of their container and they have a free
surface.
In a gas, the molecular activity is very much greater. The space between
molecules is large and the intermolecular forces are negligible. The molecules
are free to travel away from each other compared with liquids and
solids. Therefore, gases occupy their container and they are compressible. Gas is
a substance that can only be contained if it is fully surrounded by a container.
Fluid can be defined as a substance that deforms continuously under the action
of shear stress. According to the physical form in which fluids exist, they are
classified as gases, vapors, liquids, and plasma. Plasma is an ionized fluid.
Fluid mechanics is the science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (Fluid
statics) and in motion (Fluid Dynamics).
Fluid Statics is the study of fluids at rest or in equilibrium; Σ𝐹⃗ = 0.
1
Fluid Dynamics is the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion, Σ𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗.
where a = Acceleration, m/s2
F = Force, N
m = Mass, kg
Continuum Assumption
The continuum is a homogeneous media without voids. Therefore, the properties
and behavior can be described by differential equations. In many engineering
applications, the interest lies only in the macroscopic behavior of molecules. The
molecular and microscopic nature of the fluid is ignored. Thus, the fluid is
assumed a continuum.
Because of the continuum assumption, the fluid properties are assumed to have a
definite value at any point in the space at a certain time; the fluid properties
depend on the position and time. The fluid properties at a point, such as the
density, are assumed to have an average value. The quantities such as velocity,
acceleration, and the properties of the fluid are assumed to vary continuously
from one point to another in the fluid.
The continuum assumption fails when the characteristic length of the problem is
less than the mean free path of molecules. The mean free path λ is the average
distance a particle travels between collisions. For air, at the standard atmospheric
conditions (Standard Pressure and Temperature; STP), the mean free path is
within 0.14 μm.
1.2 BASIC PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
The fluid behavior and its effects on the fluid systems depend on its properties.
The fluid properties are classified to:
➢ Physical properties, e.g., density, viscosity, elasticity, …
➢ Thermal properties, e.g., specific heat, heat transfer coefficient, fire point, …
➢ Chemical properties, e.g., acidity, compatibility with other materials, …
➢ Mechanical properties, e.g., lubricity and load-carrying capacity, ...
➢ Biological properties,
➢ Radioactive properties.
2
1.2.1 DENSITY
The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in a unit volume of
the substance. It can be expressed in different forms:
Mass Density ρ is the mass m of substance per unit volume V.
𝑑𝑚
𝜌= kg/m3 (1.1)
𝑑𝑉
For liquids and homogeneous fluids, the density could be simply written as:
𝑚
𝜌= (1.2)
𝑉
The fluid density depends mainly on the pressure and the temperature; ρ = f (p,
T). The variation of the density with temperature can be evaluated by the thermal
expansion coefficient (α). The fluid volume at temperature T can be related to
that at reference temperature To as:
𝑚 𝑚
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝑜 (1 + 𝛼𝛥𝑇), 𝜌𝑇 = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌𝑜 = (1.3)
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑜
Then
𝜌𝑜 𝜌𝑜 (1 − 𝛼𝛥𝑇) 𝜌𝑜 (1 − 𝛼𝛥𝑇)
𝜌𝑇 = = =
(1 + 𝛼𝛥𝑇) (1 + 𝛼𝛥𝑇)(1 − 𝛼𝛥𝑇) (1 − 𝛼 2 𝛥𝑇 2 ) (1.4)
≈ 𝜌𝑜 (1 − 𝛼𝛥𝑇)
For a typical hydraulic oil, 𝛼 = 7 × 10−4 𝐾 −1 , ∆𝑇 = 50 𝐾 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛼 2 𝑇 2 =
0.00122 ≪ 1.
The densities ρo and ρT are the fluid densities at To and T temperatures
respectively where To is the reference value.
Table 1.1 gives the density of some fluids, at standard ambient temperature and
Pressure, STP (temperature of 288.15 K and absolute pressure of 1.013 ×
105 𝑁/𝑚2 ).
The variation of the density with the pressure can be evaluated by considering
the fluid compressibility.
Specific Weight 𝜸 is defined as the weight of a substance per unit volume.
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 , N/m3 (1.5)
3
where g= Gravitational force per unit mass = 9.807 m/s2
Table 1.1 Density of some fluids

Fluid Density (kg/m3)
Water 999.1
Mercury 13558
Air 1.23
Paraffin Oil 800
Table 1.2 gives the specific weights of some commonly used fluids.
Table 1.2 Specific weights of common liquids at STP
Specific weight Specific weight
Fluid Fluid
(kN/m3) (kN/m3)
Water 9.798 Gasoline 6.6
Motor oil 8.5 Ethyl alcohol 7.76
Kerosene 7.9 Mercury 132.96
glycerin 12.3 Paraffin Oil 7.85
Specific gravity s: is the ratio of fluid density to that of pure water at 4 oC. At
4 oC, water density is 1000 kg/m3. The specific gravity is dimensionless.
𝜌
𝑠= (1.6)
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡4𝑜 𝐶
Specific volume v is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid.
𝑉 1
𝑣= = m3/kg (1.7)
𝑚 𝜌
1.2.2 Compressibility
Fluid compressibility is the ability of the fluid to change its volume when its
pressure varies. It is measured by the compressibility coefficient β where:
𝛥𝑉/𝑉
𝛽=− m2/N (1.8)
𝛥𝑝
The negative sign indicates that the volume decreases as the pressure increases
and vice versa.
The bulk modulus of fluid, B, is a measure of the ability of fluid to resist
changes in its volume when its pressure varies. It is the inverse of the
compressibility coefficient.
4
1 𝛥𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝛥𝑝𝑉
𝐵= =− or 𝐵 = − N/m2 & 𝛥𝑉 = − (1.9)
𝛽 𝛥𝑉/𝑉 𝑑𝑉/𝑉 𝐵
where Δp = Pressure variation, Pa
ΔV = Change in volume due to pressure variation, m3
V= Initial fluid volume, m3
B= The bulk modulus of fluid, N/m2,(Pa)
β= Coefficient of compressibility, m2/N, (1/Pa)
The gases are highly compressible while liquids are of very low compressibility.
Therefore, liquids are assumed incompressible in many applications.
The bulk modulus of a pure liquid is slightly affected by its pressure. Table 1.3
gives the numerical values of the bulk modulus of pure water at different working
pressures and temperatures. Equation 1.10 gives an expression for the effect of
the pressure on the bulk modulus of water, at 20oC.
𝐵 = 2.18 × 109 + 6.7𝑝 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝 < 100 𝑀𝑃𝑎) (1.10)
For gases, the compression process is governed by the following equation:
𝑝𝑉 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 (1.11)
The value of exponent n depends on the process type:
An adiabatic process is defined as a process in which no heat transfer takes
place. For air, the adiabatic exponent n=1.4
Table 1.3 Bulk modulus of pure water in 109 N/m2
Pressure Temperature (oC)
(bar, abs) 0 20 50 93 150
1 2.01 2.21 2.29 2.12 Vapor
100 2.07 2.28 2.35 2.20 1.71
300 2.19 2.40 2.50 2.33 1.87
1000 2.62 2.85 2.94 2.79 2.41
An isothermal process is a thermodynamic process in which the temperature
of a system remains constant. For air, the isothermal exponent n=1
The polytropic process is a reversible process on any open or closed system of
gas or vapor which involves both heat and work transfer, such that a specified
combination of properties were maintained constant throughout the process
5
Then 𝑉 𝑛 𝑑𝑝 + 𝑛𝑉 𝑛−1 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = 0 (1.12)

𝑑𝑝
Or 𝐵𝑔 = − = 𝑛𝑝 (1.13)
𝑑𝑉/𝑉
Where 1 bar = 100 kN/m2, and standard atmospheric pressure = 101.3 kN/m2
When the liquid includes bubbles of gases, air, or vapors, the bulk modulus of
this mixture decreases due to the high compressibility of the contained gases. If
the total volume of the mixture at standard conditions is VT, the gas volume is
αVT and the liquid volume is (1-α)VT, an equivalent bulk modulus Be of the
mixture can be deduced. Assuming that the liquid-gas mixture is subjected to
pressure variation Δp, then the variations of volumes are:
𝑉𝑇
𝛥𝑉 = − 𝛥𝑝 = 𝛥𝑉𝑔 + 𝛥𝑉𝐿 (1.14)
𝐵𝑒
𝛼𝑉𝑇
𝛥𝑉𝑔 = − 𝛥𝑝 (1.15)
𝑛𝑝
(1 − 𝛼)𝑉𝑇
𝛥𝑉𝐿 = − 𝛥𝑝 (1.16)
𝐵
Then:
𝛥𝑝𝑉𝑇 𝛥𝑝𝑉𝑇
𝐵𝑒 = − =−
𝛥𝑉𝐿 + 𝛥𝑉𝑔 (1 − 𝛼)𝑉𝑇 𝛼𝑉𝑇 (1.17)
− 𝛥𝑝 −
𝐵 𝑛𝑝 𝛥𝑝
𝑛𝐵𝑝 1 𝛼 1−𝛼
𝐵𝑒 = or 𝛽𝑒 = = + (1.18)
np(1 − 𝛼) + Bα 𝐵𝑒 𝑛𝑝 𝐵
The relative equivalent Bulk modulus of elasticity 𝐵𝑒 can be written as:

𝐵𝑒 np
𝐵𝑒 = = (1.19)
𝐵 np(1 − 𝛼) + Bα
The effect of air volumetric ratio (α) on the bulk modulus of a mixture is shown
in Fig.1.1, for an adiabatic air compression process. The bulk modulus of the
mixture decreases to very low values at low pressures, due to the low bulk
modulus of air. At higher pressures, the air bulk modulus (np) increases.
Therefore, the equivalent bulk modulus of the mixture increases as the pressure
increases.
6
The speed of sound in fluids (speed of pressure wave) is calculated by the

following expressions.
For liquids: 𝑐 = √𝐵/𝜌 (1.20)
For gases: 𝑐 = √𝐵𝑔 /𝜌 = √𝑛𝑝/𝜌 (1.21)
𝑝𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 (1.22)
Then 𝑐 = √𝑛𝑅𝑇 (1.23)
Where: c= Sound speed, m/s
R= Gas constant; for air R = 287.1 J/kg K
n= Polytrophic exponent, for adiabatic process, n = 1.4
T= Air temperature, K
v= 1/ρ = Specific volume of gas, m3/kg
Bg = np=Bulk modulus of gas, Pa.
ρ= Gas density, kg/m3
Fig.1.1 Effect of entrained air and operating pressure on the bulk modulus of
a typical mineral-base hydraulic oil, where α is the fraction of volume
occupied by air
7
1.2.3. Viscosity
Viscosity is defined as the ability of fluid to resist shear force. Simply, it is a
measure of the resistance to flow. It results from the cohesion and interaction
between the molecules. The viscosity of fluids has dominant effects in many
applications such as lubrication, damping, and leakage. This section deals with
some of these effects.
Consider the fluid contained between two infinite plates, Fig.1.2. The lower plate
is fixed, while the upper plate is moving at a steady velocity u. Assuming no-slip
between the fluid and plates, a velocity distribution is created. At certain
conditions, this velocity distribution is linear as shown in Fig.1.2. The upper and
lower plates will experience shear (friction) forces. The fluid is subjected to shear
stress 𝜏. Newton's law of viscosity is expressed as:
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇 (1.24)
𝑑𝑦
The proportionality coefficient μ is known as the coefficient of dynamic
viscosity;
𝜏
𝜇= (1.25)
𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦
where 𝜏 = Shear stress, N/m2
μ = Coefficient of dynamic viscosity, Ns/m2. μ is often
expressed in Poise, where 1 Poise = 0.1 Ns/m2 = 0.1 Pa s
→
𝑢 = Fluid velocity, m/s
y = Perpendicular distance of the velocity vector →
𝑢 , m.
𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦 = Velocity gradient or shear strain rate, s-1.
Fig.1.2 Velocity profile of viscous fluid between two parallel plates.
8
The fluids, which obey Newton’s law of viscosity, are known as Newtonian
fluids. Other fluids are known as non-Newtonian fluids. The non-Newtonian
fluids are of special and complicated behavior.
At certain operating shear strain, the coefficient of dynamic viscosity μ is
constant for Newtonian fluids. Meanwhile, the viscosity of non-Newtonian
fluids, changes depending on the shear strain, as shown in Fig. 1.3. Some non-
Newtonian fluids exhibit viscosity change with time. The ideal fluid is non-
viscous; μ = 0.
Fig.1.3 Viscous behavior of fluids

Kinematic Viscosity ν is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity of fluid to its
density.
𝜈 = 𝜇/𝜌 (1.26)
where 𝜈 = Kinematic viscosity, m2/s.
The kinematic viscosity 𝜈 is often expressed in Stokes, where: 1 St = 10-4 m2/s,
or in cSt, where 1 cSt = 10-6 m2 /s. The viscosity may be given in other scales
such as Redwood (R), Saybolt universal seconds (SUS), or in degree Engler ( o
E), according to the measuring method. These units are no longer used, but
conversion tables are available.
The viscosity of liquids decreases with increasing temperature, Fig.1.4, while that
of gases increases with increasing temperature. This is due to intermolecular
relations between molecules. Viscosity also increases slightly as pressure
increases. For oils, the viscosity is approximately doubled as pressure increases
9
by 400 bar. Generally, the effect of pressure is of little importance, compared to

that of temperature variation.
Fig.1.4 Variation of dynamic viscosity of typical fluids with temperature

Viscous friction force on a sliding spool
The parts moving in oil are subjected to viscous friction forces due to the viscous
shear stress. Figure 1.5 shows a spool moving axially inside a cylindrical hole,
with radial clearance c. The cylindrical surface of the spool land is subjected to
shear stress due to the oil viscosity. For small radial clearances, the velocity
distribution is assumed linear. An expression for the friction forces is deduced
as:
𝑑𝑢 𝑣
𝜏=𝜇 =𝜇 (1.27)
𝑑𝑦 𝑐
10
𝜋𝜇𝐷𝐿 𝜋𝜇𝐷𝐿
𝐹 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿𝜏 = 𝑣 = 𝑓𝑣 where 𝑓 = 𝑐 (1.28)
𝑐
where F= The friction force, N
c= Radial clearance, m
f= Friction coefficient, Ns/m
L= Length of spool land, m
D= Spool diameter, m
Fig.1.5 Velocity distribution in the radial clearance of a sliding spool
Fig.1.6 Velocity distribution in the radial clearance of a rotating spool.

Viscous friction torque on a rotating spool
Fig.1.6 shows a cylindrical spool of length L and radius r, rotating at an angular
speed ω inside a cylindrical hole of inner radius r1. The radial clearance is filled
with the oil of dynamic viscosity μ. An expression for the frictional torque T
11
created by the oil at this condition can be deduced as follows, assuming linear
velocity distribution:
𝑑𝑢 𝑢 𝑟𝜔
= = (1.29)
𝑑𝑟 𝑟1 − 𝑟 𝑐
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇 = 𝜇𝑟𝜔/𝑐 (1.30)
𝑑𝑟
2𝜋𝑟 3 𝐿𝜇 2𝜋𝑟 3 𝐿𝜇
𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝜏 𝑟 = 𝜔 = 𝑓𝜔 𝜔 where 𝑓𝜔 = (1.31)
𝑐 𝑐
1.2.4 Surface Tension
Surface tension is a property of liquids, which is noticed, at the interface (the
separating surface) between the liquid and another fluid or solid. Surface tension
is defined as the energy per unit area, or force per unit length, required to
form the surface of separation, Figs.1.7 & 1.8.
Surface-tension is caused by the attraction between the liquid's molecules. In
the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by
neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in a net force of zero, Fig.1.7. At the
surface of the liquid, the molecules are pulled inwards by other molecules
deeper inside the liquid and are not attracted as intensely by the molecules in
the neighboring medium. Therefore, all of the molecules at the surface are
subject to an inward force of molecular attraction which is balanced only by
the liquid's resistance to compression. There is no net inward force. However,
there is a driving force to diminish the surface area, and in this respect a liquid
surface looks like a stretched elastic membrane. Thus the liquid squeezes itself
together until it has the locally lowest possible surface area.
Fig.1.7 Surface tension due to cohesive forces between liquid molecules
12
A soap bubble is a good example to illustrate the effect of surface tension. How
does a soap bubble remain spherical in shape? The answer is that there is a higher
pressure inside the bubble than outside, much like a balloon. The surface tension
in the soap film acts similar to the tension in the skin of a balloon. Consider a
soap bubble of an inner radius r with internal pressure pin and external
atmospheric pressure pout. Figure 1.8 shows a free body diagram of half spherical
soap bubble. On the free body diagram, the sum of all forces must be zero, since
the soap film segment is stationary. The surface tension acts along two circular
lines, as shown. Considering the equilibrium of the half spherical bubble, and
neglecting the film thickness relative to radius r, the following equation is
obtained.
𝜋𝑟 2 (𝑝𝑖𝑛 − 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) = 2𝜎(2𝜋𝑟) (1.32)
Then
4𝜎
𝛥𝑝 = 𝑝𝑖𝑛 − 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 = or 𝜎 = 𝑟(𝑝𝑖𝑛 − 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 )/4 (1.33)
𝑟
The surface tension is also important at the liquid-gas interface and the liquid-
solid interface (Capillary action). For example, a meniscus occurs when the
surface of a liquid touches a solid wall, as noticed when a capillary tube is placed
in a liquid. Consider a glass capillary tube inserted into a liquid, such as water.
The water rises up the tube to a height, h, because surface tension pulls the
surface of the water towards the glass, Fig.1.9. The meniscus is the curved surface
at the top of the water column.
Fig.1.8 Surface tension forces in a soap bubble.
13
Fig.1.9 Capillary rise in a tube

The contact angle 𝝑 is the angle between the tangent to liquid and the solid
surface at their contact line, Fig.1.9. The contact angle depends on both of the
liquid and the solid. For 𝜗 < 90𝑜 , the liquid is said to "wet" the solid and the
liquid rises in the capillary tube. However, for 𝜗 > 90𝑜 , the liquid is repelled by
the solid and tries not to "wet" it. Then, the liquid level drops in the capillary tube
(non-wetting). For example, water wets glass, but not wax and mercury does not
wet glass, Fig.1.10. Table 1.4 gives the surface tension of typical fluids.
To calculate the capillary height, consider a small glass capillary tube inserted
into water. The height of the water column can be found by summing all forces
acting on the water column as a free body diagram, Fig.1.10.
Weight of water column = mg = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ𝜌𝑔 (1.34)
Surface tension force = 2𝜋𝑟𝜎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜗 (1.35)
Then,
2𝜎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜗
ℎ= (1.36)
𝑟𝜌𝑔
where σ= Surface tension, N/m
𝜗= Contact angle, rad.
r= Capillary pipe radius, m
h= Capillary rise, m
14
Table 1.4 Surface tension of some liquids

Substance Surface tension σ (N/m)
Benzene-air 0.029
Water-air 0.073
Mercury-air 0.484
Mercury-water 0.375
Fig.1.10 Capillary in clean circular glass tube, published by Daugherty, 1937

1.2.5 Vapor Pressure
The saturated vapor pressure is defined as the pressure at which a liquid,
enclosed in a closed vessel at a certain temperature, will boil. For pure water,
the vapor pressure is one bar (abs) when its temperature reaches 100oC. The vapor
pressure increases as temperature increases and vice versa, Fig.1.11. For
example, on a high mountain (3000 m altitude), the atmospheric pressure is 70.1
kPa. Fig.1.11 shows that this vapor pressure corresponds to 90 oC. Therefore, at
3000 m of elevation, water boils at 90oC, rather than the common 100oC at
standard sea level pressure. In the pressure cookers, the pressure increases above
the standard atmospheric value and the water starts boiling at temperature higher
than 100 oC.
The pressure reduction below the vapor pressure of the liquid caused intensive
evaporation, which leads to the formation of cavities full of vapors. This might
lead to cavitation in hydraulic machines or elements. The cavitation
phenomenon is based on the formation and collapse of vapor cavities.
15
Cavitation is not desirable for the following reasons:

➢ It leads to a reduction of the efficiency of pumps.
➢ The collapse of the cavitation bubbles causes pitting and erosion of the
surfaces nearby, due to the resulting impact forces.
➢ It causes noise due to the collapse of cavities as they migrate into regions
of higher pressure.
Fig.1.11 Variation of the saturated vapor pressure of pure water with

temperature
Physical Properties
Tables 1.5 and 1.6 shows the main physical properties of Air and Water.
Table 1.5 Physical properties of air at standard atmospheric pressure
Dynamic Dynamic
Temperature Density Temperature Density
viscosity viscosity
o
C kg/m3 Ns/m2 o
C kg/m3 Ns/m2
-40 2.515 1.49×10-5 40 1.128 1.90×10-5
-20 1.395 1.61 60 1.060 2.00
0 1.293 1.71 80 1.000 2.09
10 1.248 1.76 100 0.946 2.18
20 1.205 1.81 200 0.747 2.58
30 1.165 1.86 300 0.616 2.95
16
Table 1.6 Physical properties of water
Bulk modulus
pressure (abs)
Temperature
Kinematic
Dynamic
viscosity
viscosity
Specific
Surface
Density
tension
weight
Vapor
o
C kN/m3 kg/m3 Ns/m2 m2/s N/m kPa GPa
0 9.805 999.8 1.781×10-3 1.785×10-6 0.0756 0.61 2.02
5 9.807 1000.0 1.519 1.519 0.0749 0.87 2.06
10 9.804 999.7 1.308 1.308 0.0742 1.23 2.10
15 9.798 999.1 1.140 1.141 0.0735 1.70 2.15
20 9.789 998.2 1.002 1.003 0.0728 2.34 2.18
25 9.777 997.0 0.890 0.893 0.0720 3.17 2.22
30 9.764 995.7 0.798 0.800 0.0712 4.24 2.25
40 9.730 992.2 0.653 0.658 0.0696 7.38 2.28
50 9.689 988.0 0.547 0.553 0.0679 12.33 2.29
60 9.642 983.2 0.466 0.474 0.0662 19.92 2.28
70 9.589 977.8 0.404 0.413 0.0644 31.16 2.25
80 9.530 971.8 0.354 0.364 0.0626 47.34 2.20
90 9.466 965.3 0.315 0.326 0.0608 70.10 2.14
100 9.399 958.4 0.282 0.294 0.0589 101.33 2.07
Go to the Table of Contents
1.3 EXERCISE
1. Calculate the density of air when the absolute pressure and the temperature
are respectively 140 kPa and 500C if R= 287 J/kg K.
[ρ=1.51 kg/m3]
2. Calculate the density, specific weight and specific volume of air at 38 oC
and 4800 mbar, abs.
[  =52.71 N/m3, v=0.186 m3/kg, ρ=5.38 kg/m3]
17
3. If a certain gasoline weighs 7,000 N/m3, what are the values of its density,
specific volume, and specific gravity relative to water at 4 oC?
[s=0.714, v= 0.0014 m3/kg, ρ=714 kg/m3]
4. A certain gas weighs 16 N/m3 at a certain temperature and pressure. What
are the values of its density, specific volume, and specific gravity relative
to air weighing 12 N/m3?
[s=1.333, v= 0.613 m3/kg, ρ=1.63 kg/m3]
5. If the specific weight of a liquid is 8.0 kN/m3, what is its density’?
[ρ=815.7 kg/m3]
6. If the specific volume of a gas is 0.72 m3/kg, what is its specific weight in
N/m3?
[  =13.62 N/m3]
7. A vessel contains 85 liters of water at 10 oC (ρ10=999.7 kg/m3) and
atmospheric pressure. If it is heated to 70 oC (ρ70=977.8 kg/m3) what will
be the percentage change in its volume? What weight of water must be
removed to maintain the volume at the original value?
[ΔV=2.24%, ΔW=18.22 N]
8. A cylindrical tank (diameter = 10 m and depth 5 m) is full of water at 20
o
C (ρ20=998.2 kg/m3). If the water is heated to 50 oC (ρ50=988 kg/m3), how
much water will spill over the edge of the tank?
[ΔV=4.053 m3]
9. If the density of mercury is 13558 kg/m3, calculate its specific gravity,
specific volume and specific weight if g = 9.807 m/s2.
[  =133 kN/m3, s=13.558, v=7.38  10-5 m3/kg]
10. Water in a hydraulic press is subjected to a pressure of 1000 bar at 20 oC
(B20=2.18 GN/m2). If the initial pressure is 1 bar, what will the percentage
decrease in specific volume?
[4.58%]
11. To two significant figures what is the bulk modulus of water in GN/m2 at
50 oC under a pressure of 30 MN/m2 (At 50 oC and atmospheric pressure
B= 2.29 GN/m2)?
[2.491 GN/m2 ]
18
12. Eight kilometers below the surface of the ocean the pressure is 81.7 MPa.
Determine the density of sea-water at this depth if the density at the surface
is 1025 kg/m3 and the average bulk modulus of elasticity is 2.34 GPa.
[1062 kg/m3]
13. Approximately what pressure must be applied to water to reduce its
volume 2% (B= 2.18 GN/m2)?
[Δp=43.6 MPa]
14. Calculate the speed of sound in water for B =2.18 GPa and ρ = 998 kg/m3.
[1478 m/s]
15. Calculate the speed of sound in air at sea level and temperature 20 oC.
[343 m/s]
16. a) show that the density of mixture of gas and liquid is given by:
m =  g + (1− )L
where ρm = Density of mixture, kg/m3
ρL = Density of liquid, kg/m3
ρg = Density of gas, kg/m3
α = Proportion of gas to total volume., N/m2
b) Calculate the speed of sound in water for (B =2.18 GPa and ρ = 998
kg/m3) at normal atmospheric pressure if it contains.
i) 0 % air nuclei. [1477 m/s]
ii) 100% air. [339 m/s]
iii) 0.2 % by volume air nuclei. [262.6 m/s]
iv) 0.8 % by volume air nuclei. [133.3 m/s]
Air density is 1.23 kg/m3 and adiabatic exponent n=1.4.
17. If 300 liters of carbon dioxide at 25 oC and 140 kN/m2, abs is compressed
isothermally to 60 liters what is the resulting pressure? What would the
pressure and temperature have been if the process had been isentropic?
The isentropic exponent for carbon dioxide is 1.28.
[isothermal 0.7 MPa & isentropic 1.1 MPa]
19
18. A hydraulic ram 200 mm in diameter and 1.2 m long moves wholly within
a concentric cylinder 200.2 mm in diameter, and the annular clearance is
filled with oil of specific gravity 0.85 and kinematic viscosity 400 mm 2/s.
a) Derive an expression for the viscous friction force.
b) What is the viscous force resisting the motion when the ram moves at
120 mm/s?
[307.6 N]
19. The space between two large flat and parallel walls 26 mm apart is filled
with a liquid of dynamic viscosity 0.7 Pa s. Within this space a flat plate;
250 mm x 250 mm x 1 mm is towed at a velocity of 150 mm/s at a distance
of 6 mm from one wall, the plate and its movement being parallel to the
walls.
Assuming linear variations of velocity between the plate and the walls,
determine the force exerted by the liquid on the plate.
[1.439 N]
20. A uniform film of oil 0.13 mm thick separates two discs, each of 200 mm
diameter, mounted co-axially. Ignoring edge effects, calculate the torque
necessary to rotate one disc relative to the other at a speed of 7 rev/s if the
oil has a viscosity of 0.14 Pa s.
[7.44 Nm]
21. A journal bearing consists of an 8 cm diameter shaft in a 8.03 cm sleeve
10 cm long, the clearance space (assumed to be uniform) being filled with
SAL 30 western lubricating oil at 40 oC (μ=0.065 Pas). Calculate the rate
at which heat is generated at the bearing when the shaft turns at 120 rpm.
Express answer in Nm/s.
[N=2.75 W, T=0.219 Nm]
22. At what absolute pressure will the water boil if its temperature is 40 oC?,
(Table 1.6)
[0.0738 bar]
23. Air at 10 C and pressure 80 kPa (abs) and viscosity μ = 1.77x10-5 Pa s,
o
flows along a smooth surface with a velocity profile given by;

y3
u = 1000 y − m/s
9  10 9
Calculate the shear stress at the smooth surface.
[  =0.0177 N/m2]
20
24. A fluid of viscosity μ = 0.0012 Pa s flows along a surface with a velocity

profile given by:
u = 750 y − 2.5  10 6 y 3 m/s
Calculate the shear stress and shear force at the smooth surface if the
surface area is 12 m2.
[  =0.9 N/m2, F=10.8 N]
25. Oil, of 850 kg/m3 density, flows through a 10 cm diameter pipe. The shear
stress at the pipe wall is measured as 3.2 N/m2 and the velocity profile is
given by:
u = 2 − 800r 2 m/s
Where r is the radial distance from pipe centerline in meters.
What is the kinematic viscosity of oil?
[47.1 cSt]
26. By how much does the pressure in a cylindrical jet of water 4 mm in
diameter exceed the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere if the surface
tension of water is 0.073 N/m?
[36.5 Pa]
27. What is the approximate capillary rise of water in contact with air (surface
tension 0.073 N/m) in a clean glass tube 5 mm in diameter?
[5.95 mm]
28. What is the pressure inside a droplet of water 50 μm diameter if the
surrounding pressure is standard atmospheric?
29. Calculate the pressure in a soap bubble in the atmosphere, assuming

surface tension of 0.1 N/m.
21
2 Chapter
FLUIDS STATICS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Fluid statics deals with the fluids at rest, or, when there is no relative motion
between fluid elements. In this case, no velocity gradient exists and hence no
shear stress whatever is the value of the fluid viscosity. The general laws of statics
can be applied to fluids. This chapter deals with the study of the forces acting
on/or generated by fluids at rest.
2.2 CONTROL VOLUME AND CONTROL SURFACE
Generally, fluids have undefined shapes. Their shapes are defined by the physical
surrounding boundaries. To study the statics and dynamics of fluid, it is essential
to define the working zone (control volume).
Fig. 2.1 Control volume (CV) and Fig.2.2 Body forces (FB) and surface
control surface (CS) force (FS)
Control volume (CV) is an imaginary volume containing the fluid to be studied.
The surface surrounding this volume is called the control surface (CS), Fig. 2.1.
2.3 SURFACE AND BODY FORCES
The external forces applied to the fluid are classified into surface forces and body
forces:
➢ Surface forces, or contact forces FS, include all forces affecting the control
surface. Usually, they have normal components (pressure forces Fp) and
tangential components (shear forces Fsh).
22
➢ Body forces FB, or non-contact forces, are due to field effect, which
affects the considered control volume, e.g., gravity, inertia, and
electromagnetic forces.
The total force applied on a fluid element can be written as, Fig. 2.2.
→ → → → →
𝐹 = 𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝑠 = ∭ 𝐹 𝐵 𝑑𝑉 + ∬ 𝐹 𝑠 𝑑𝐴 (2.1)
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
where FB= the body force per unit volume of the CV, N/m3
FS= the surface force per unit area of the CS, N/m2
2.4 PRESSURE AND PASCAL’S LAW
A static fluid has no shearing force acting on it. Any force between the fluid and
the boundaries must act normal to the boundary. For the curved surfaces, the
force acting at any point is normal to the surface at that point. For an element of
fluid at rest, the fluid element is in equilibrium, then:
➢ The sum of the components of all forces in any direction is zero.
➢ The sum of the moments of all forces about any point is also zero
It is common to test equilibrium by resolving forces along three mutually
perpendicular axes or by taking moments about these axes and then equate each
of them to zero. If the surface pressure forces exerted on each unit area of a
boundary is the same, the pressure is said to be uniform. The surface is then an
isobar.
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
(2.2)
𝐹
= (Pa)
𝐴
Pascal's Law: the pressure acts at certain point is equal in all directions
This law, can be proved by considering an element of fluid in the form of a
triangular prism ABCDEF, Fig.2.3. A relationship between the three pressures
px, py in the directions x and y and ps in the direction normal to the sloping face
can be deduced as follows.
The fluid is at rest, so there are no shearing forces, and all of the pressure forces
are perpendicular to the surfaces. Then the force Fs acts perpendicular to surface
ABCD, Fx acts perpendicular to surface ABFE and Fz acts perpendicular to
23
surface FEDC. Then, as the fluid is at rest, in equilibrium, the sum of the forces
in any direction is zero. The following relations are deduced assuming very small
dimensions of the considered fluid element.
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑝𝑥 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 (2.3)
𝐹𝑧 = 𝑝𝑧 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦 (2.4)
𝐹𝑠 = 𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑠𝛿𝑦 (2.5)
Fig.2.3 Triangular prismatic element of fluid

The components of force Fs in the x direction are:
𝛿𝑧
𝐹𝑠𝑥 = −𝐹𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = −𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑠𝛿𝑦 = −𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑧𝛿𝑦 (2.6)
𝛿𝑠
At rest, in equilibrium, the resultant horizontal force is zero, therefore:
𝐹𝑥 + 𝐹𝑠𝑥 = 𝑝𝑥 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 + (−𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧) = 0 or 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑠 (2.7)
The components of force Fs in the z direction is:
𝛿𝑥
𝐹𝑠𝑧 = −𝐹𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = −𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑠𝛿𝑦 = −𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦 (2.8)
𝛿𝑠
The body force due to gravity, weight W, is:
1
𝑊 = − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧𝜌𝑔 (2.9)
2
At rest, in equilibrium, the resultant vertical force is zero, or:
24
𝐹𝑧 − 𝐹𝑠𝑧 − 𝑊 = 0 (2.10)
1
𝑝𝑧 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦 + (−𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦) + (− 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧𝜌𝑔) = 0 (2.11)
2
The element is small i.e., 𝛿𝑥, 𝛿𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿𝑧 are very small, and so 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 is
considered negligible, hence;
𝑝𝑧 = 𝑝𝑠 (2.12)
Thus 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑧 = 𝑝𝑠 (2.13)
Equation 2.13 shows that for any arbitrary system of coordinates, the pressure
at any point is the same in all directions. This is Pascal’s law.
2.5 EULER’S EQUATIONS OF FLUID STATICS
Fig.2.4 Forces acting on a fluid element

Euler’s equations of fluid statics are a form of the general momentum
conservation equation, applied in fluid mechanics (the change of momentum is
equal to zero, in static conditions). It is the basic equation, used to determine
the pressure distribution within the fluid, due to the body forces. This equation
can be derived by considering a fluid element, defined by a control volume of
dimensions dx, dy, and dz in Cartesian coordinates, Fig. 2.4.
In the static conditions, the surface forces are due the pressure only, since the
shear force is zero. The body forces per unit mass are FX, FY, FZ, in the directions
25
x, y, z respectively. The considered fluid element is at rest, then, the forces

balance in the x-direction gives:
∑ 𝐹⃗xi = 0 (2.14)
𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑥
(𝑝 − )𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 − (𝑝 + )𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 + 𝐹𝑥 𝜌𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 = 0 (2.15)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2
1 𝜕𝑝
Then: 𝐹𝑋 − =0 (2.16)
𝜌 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑝
Similarly: 𝐹𝑌 − =0 (2.17)
𝜌 𝜕𝑦
1 𝜕𝑝
And 𝐹𝑍 − =0 (2.18)
𝜌 𝜕𝑧
Equations 2.16 thru 2.18 were firstly derived by Euler in 1750, and known as
Euler’s equations of fluid statics.
2.6 APPLICATIONS OF EULER’S EQUATION OF FLUID STATICS
Generally, the pressure at any point in a fluid may change from point to point and
may vary with time; p=f(x,y,z,t). In the static conditions, the fluid parameters do
not change with time, and p=f(x,y,z)then:
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧 (2.19)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 from Eqs.2.16 thru 2.18 in Eq.2.19
Substituting for , 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 yields:
𝑑𝑝 = 𝜌𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜌𝐹𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝐹𝑧 𝑑𝑧 (2.20)
This equation can be used to find the pressure distribution in a static fluid,
whenever the body forces and the overall dimensions of the control volume are
known.
2.6.1 Pressure Difference between Two Points in a Gravity Field
In a gravity field the gravity force per unit mass is g and the body forces per unit
mass are:
Fx = 0, Fy = 0 and Fz = -g (2.21)
26
The pressure difference between two points, can be calculated as follows:

𝑑𝑝 = 0 + 0 + 𝜌(−𝑔)(𝑑𝑧) or 𝑑𝑝 = -𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑧 (2.22)
The pressure difference between two points, (x1, y1, z1) & (x2, y2, z2), in a static
fluid can be obtained by integrating Eq.2.22, Fig.2.5
2 2
∫ 𝑑𝑝 = ∫ −𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑧 (2.23)
1 1
Then: (p2 – p1) = − ρ g (z2 – z1) (2.24)

The isobar surface is a constant pressure surface; dp = 0. So, at the isobar
surface; as dp = 0, then dz = 0. Therefore, an isobar surface in gravity field is
horizontal (e.g. the sea surface).
Absolute and Gauge Pressures
In a liquid with a free surface, Fig.2.5, the pressure at a depth h measured from
the free surface (at atmospheric pressure patm), is given by:
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 (2.25)
Fig.2.5 Fluid pressure in gravity field
27
Fig.2.6 Gauge and absolute pressures
The pressure p, calculated by Eq.2.25, is the absolute pressure pabs, measured

from the absolute zero pressure (the perfect vacuum). However, it is convenient
to consider the atmospheric pressure as the datum for the pressure measurements,
Fig.2.6. Then, the pressure measured relative to the atmospheric pressure is
defined as the gauge pressure p.
Gauge pressure 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ (2.26)
Or pabs = p +patm (2.27)
Pressure Head
Based on Eq. 2.26, the gauge pressure can be expressed by the pressure head h,
as ℎ = 𝑝/𝜌𝑔. It is defined as the vertical height of column fluid of density ρ,
which exerts a pressure p on its base. Generally, the term head is defined as the
energy per unit weight of fluid.
Example 2.1: Find the pressure head of water and mercury equivalent to of 500
kPa, if the water density is 1000 kg/m3 and the density of mercury is
13600 kg/m3.
𝑝 500 × 103
ℎ𝑤 = = = 51 𝑚 (water)
𝜌𝑔 1000 × 9.807
28
𝑝 500 × 103
ℎ𝑚 = = = 3.75 𝑚 (𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦)
𝜌𝑔 13600 × 9.807
2.6.2 Pressure Measuring Devices
The pressure can be measured by different methods using mechanical, electrical,
piezo-electrical, fluid and other measuring devices. Barometers are used to
measure the absolute atmospheric pressure while Manometers are used to
measure the pressure difference between two points. The manometers function
based on the fluid height measurement. It is important to remind here that:
“within continuous columns of the same stationary fluid, the pressure is the same
over a horizontal plane”.
Mercury barometer
Fig.2.7 Mercury Barometer

Fig. 2.7 shows a simple mercury barometer invented by Torricelli, 1643. This
barometer measures the absolute atmospheric pressure (patm). It consists of a tube
filled with mercury and inverted while submerged in a reservoir. The
atmospheric pressure can be measured as:
patm = ρHg g H + pvp (2.28)
Where pvp is the vapor pressure of mercury. At 25oC, pvp=0.261 Pa.
The mercury has an extremely small vapor pressure at room temperature and can
be neglected, compared with the atmospheric pressure. Consequently, the
29
atmospheric pressure is patm = ρHg g H. For high temperatures, the vapor pressure
increases and the glass tube scale dilates. Therefore, corrections of measurements
should be considered.
Piezometer; Piezo-manometer
The simplest manometer is a tube, opened at its top and attached to the top of a
vessel containing a liquid at the point at which the pressure is to be measured,
Fig.2.8. The measured pressure should be higher than atmospheric pressure. This
simple device is known as the Piezometer. As the tube is opened to the
atmosphere, the pressure measured is relative to atmospheric pressure so it is a
gauge pressure; p=ρgh.
The simple piezometer can be used only for liquids (not for gases) and only for
limited liquid pressure. The height should not be too small or too large so that the
pressure changes can be detectable.
Fig.2.8 Simple Piezometer (glass tube manometer)

Example 2.2 What is the gauge pressure of liquid that can be measured by a
piezometer of height 1.5m? If the liquid has a specific gravity of s =
0.85.
ρ = ρwater s = 1000 x 0.85 = 850 kg/m3
The maximum measurable pressure corresponds to a completely full
tube; h=1.5m. For greater heights, the tube will overflow.
Gauge pressure p = ρgh= 850 x 9.81 x 1.5 = 12508 Pa =12.5 kPa
=0.125 bar
30
U-Tube Manometer
The U-Tube is a manometer, which enables measuring the pressure difference
between two points. If one end of the manometer is opened to the atmosphere,
the manometer can read directly the gauge pressure at a point. The U tube is
connected as shown in Fig.2.9. It is filled with a fluid called the manometric
fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have a mass density
less than that of the manometric fluid. These two fluids should be immiscible.
For fluids of low density, as gases, inverted U-tube manometers are used.
Considering the U-tube manometer, illustrated by Fig. 2.9, the pressure in a
continuous static fluid is the same at any horizontal level so, the pressures at
points B and C are equal; pB = pC.
For the left-side
𝑝𝐵 = 𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 (2.29)
arm,
For the right-side
𝑝𝐶 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ2 (2.30)
arm,
where ρm is the density of the manometric fluid, kg/m3
Then; 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 Absolut pressure (2.31)
Or 𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 Gauge pressure (2.32)
Fig.2.9 U-Tube manometer

If the fluid being measured is a gas, the density will be very small, compared with
that of the manometric fluid; ρm » ρ. In this case, the term ρgh1 is negligible, and
the measured gauge pressure is given by:
31
𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ2 (2.33)
Example 2.3 A U-tube manometer, Fig.2.9, is used to measure the gauge
pressure of a fluid of density ρ = 700 kg/m3. The manometric
fluid is mercury, with a specific gravity of 13.6. What is the
gauge pressure in each of the following cases?
a) h1 = 0.4m and h2 = 0.9m.
b) h1 = 0.4m and h2 = -0.1m?
For the U-tube, pB = pC

pA = ρm gh2 - ρ gh1 (Gauge
Pressure)
a) pA = 13.6 x 103 x 9.807 x 0.9 - 700 x 9.81 x 0.4 =117.3 kPa
b) pA = 13.6 x 103 x 9.81 x (-0.1) - 700 x 9.807 x 0.4 = -16.1
kPa
The negative sign indicates that the pressure is below
atmospheric (vacuum pressure).
Measurement of Pressure Difference by U-Tube Manometers
To measure the pressure difference between two points, the ends of a U-tube
manometer are connected to these points, A & B, Fig.2.10. In the manometer, the
pressures at points C and D are equal; 𝑝𝐶 = 𝑝𝐷 .
𝑝𝐶 = 𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑎 (2.34)
𝑝𝐷 = 𝑝𝐵 + 𝜌𝑔(ℎ𝑏 − ℎ) + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ (2.35)
Then; 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝜌𝑔(ℎ𝑏 − ℎ𝑎 ) + 𝑔ℎ(𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌) (2.36)
If the fluid in the pipe is a gas then, ρm » ρ, and the terms involving ρ can be
neglected, then Eq.2.36 becomes:
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ (2.37)
32
Fig.2.10 U-Tube manometer, measuring pressure difference

To increase the measuring accuracy, manometers that are more complicated are
used (such as multi-leg and inclined manometers). For these types of
manometers, simpler method of calculation can be used, such as, starting at a
point of known pressure and moving vertically from one point to another through
the manometer fluids until the required measured point is reached.
Note that the pressure increases when moving down, while it decreases when
moving up.
For the considered example, Fig.2.10, an expression for the pressure difference
(pA-pB) can be derived by starting from point A, then move through the
manometer to point B.
pA + ρgha - ρm gh - ρg(hb – h) = pB (2.38)

Then; 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝜌𝑔(ℎ𝑏 − ℎ𝑎 ) + 𝑔ℎ(𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌) (2.39)
Special U-tube manometer

The U-tube manometer has the disadvantage that the change in height of the
liquid in both sides must be readable. In the case of small pressure differences,
this height is too small to be accurately read. This inaccuracy may be reduced by
33
using different diameters U-tube manometer, Fig.2.11. The diameter of one side
is very large compared with the other. In this case, the surface of liquid in the
side with the large area displaces very little compared with the displacement of
the small area side.
Fig.2.11 U-tube manometer with different diameters

The manometer can be used to measure the pressure difference (p 1-p2) of a gas
of negligible density. The datum line indicates the level of the manometric fluid
when the pressure difference is zero. When the pressures are applied, the heights
of fluid in both branches change as shown in Fig.2.11, the volume of liquid V
displaced from the left side to the right is given by:
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑉= 𝑑 ℎ2 = 𝐷2 ℎ1 (2.
4 4
Then: ℎ1 = ℎ2 (𝑑/𝐷)2 (2.
The Pressure difference (p1 - p2) is:
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔(ℎ1 + ℎ2 ) = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ2 {1 + (𝑑/𝐷)2 } (2.42)
In this case it is enough to measure h2 to calculate the pressure difference p1-p2
Inclined-tube manometer
For an inclined manometer of angle θ, Fig.2.12;
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑉= 𝐷 ℎ1 = 𝑑 2 𝑥, ℎ2 = 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (2.43)
4 4
ℎ1 = (𝑑/𝐷)2 𝑥 and ℎ1 + ℎ2 = {𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + (𝑑/𝐷)2 }𝑥 (2.44)
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔(ℎ1 + ℎ2 ) = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔{𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + (𝑑/𝐷)2 }𝑥 (2.45)
34
If D is very much larger than d then (d/D)2 is very small and negligible. For
example, for D/d=20, θ=20o Then, by neglecting the term, (𝑑/𝐷)2 /sin𝜃, the
error is 0.73%. Therefore, the pressure difference can be calculated using h2 only.
Fig.2.12 Inclined-tube manometer

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ2 (2.46)
For inclined manometer and (d/D)2 « sinθ,
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔𝑥sinθ (2.47)
Example 2.4 An inclined manometer consists of a vertical cylinder of 35mm
diameter. A 5 mm diameter tube is connected at the bottom of this
cylinder. The tube inclines upward at an angle of 15o to the horizontal.
The top of this tube is open to the atmosphere. The vertical cylinder is
connected to an air duct and the manometric fluid has specific gravity
0.785. Calculate the pressure in the air duct if the manometric reading is
50 mm along the inclined tube. What is the error if the movement of the
fluid in the vertical cylinder is ignored?
Calculation of the pressure in the air duct:
h1 = (d/D)2 x =.0002641 m
h2 = x sin θ = 0.05 sin (15) = 0.01294 m

The top of this tube is open to the atmosphere, p2=0.
𝑝1 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔(ℎ1 + ℎ2 ) = 107.4 𝑃𝑎
For a manometer where (d/D)2 « sin θ; h1 is negligible and:
𝑝1 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ2 = 99.55 𝑃𝑎
35
The error induced by neglecting h1 is:

107.4 − 99.55
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 = 7.3 %
107.4
Generally, to increase the precision and sensitivity of the U-tube manometers,
several methods can be used such as:
➢ use multi-leg manometers,
➢ use inclined manometers,
➢ Decrease the density-difference between manometer & measured fluids.
NB Sometimes, inverted U-tube manometers are used, if the density of the
manometric fluid is less than that of the measured fluid, e.g. air is used as a
manometric fluid for measuring water pressure.
Advantages and disadvantages of the U-tube manometers
The main advantages of manometers are:
➢ The simplicity of design and that no calibration is required (the pressure
can be calculated from first principles).
➢ Multiple legs U-manometers can be used to increase the accuracy
➢ Different manometric fluids are used to increase both of the accuracy and
range of measurement.
The following are the main disadvantages of the U-tube manometers:
➢ Slow response, therefore it is used mainly for steady state or very slowly
varying pressures.
➢ For the U tube manometer, two measurements must be taken
simultaneously to get the head difference. This may be avoided by using
a tube with a much larger cross-sectional area on one side of the
manometer.
➢ It is difficult to measure small variations in pressure. Alternatively, the
inclined manometer may be used
➢ It cannot be used for very large pressures unless several manometers are
connected in series
➢ For accurate measurements, the effect of temperature on the density
and the glass thermal expansion should be considered.
2.6.3 Pressure Forces on Submerged Surfaces
The calculation of the pressure force on plane or curved surfaces (magnitude,
direction and line of action) is essential in the design of dams, gates, tanks, ships
and the like. When a fluid is at rest, no tangential forces can exist within the fluid.
36
Forces on Plane Areas

If the pressure is uniformly distributed over an area, then the resultant pressure
force is equal to the pressure times the area. The point of application of the
resultant force (called the Center of Pressure CP) is at the center of that area (C).
In the case of compressible fluids (gases), the pressure variation with vertical
distance is very small due to the very low density. Hence, for practical
applications, the pressure is considered constant. The pressure center coincides
with the center of area. The static gas force is then:
→ →
𝐹𝑝 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑 𝐴 = − →
𝑛 𝑝 ∫ 𝑑𝐴 = − →
𝑛 𝑝𝐴 (2.48)
Where →
𝑛 is a unit vector perpendicular to the element of area dA.
Fig.2.13 Pressure forces on inclined submerged plane surface

In case of inclined surfaces in stationary liquids, the pressure distribution is not
uniform. It varies linearly with the depth. To calculate the pressure distribution
on a submerged surface, consider the flat plate (1-2) shown in Fig. 2.13. The plate
is of arbitrary shape. It is submerged in a liquid of density and inclines by an
angle The pressure at a point at depth h, due to liquid weight, is given by Eq.
2.49.
p = ρ g h = ρ g y sin θ (2.49)
Consider an elementary area dA, chosen such that the pressure can be assumed
uniform over it. The Pressure force acting on the plate is deduced as follows:
𝑑𝐹𝑃 = 𝑝𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 (2.50)
37
Then:
𝐹𝑃 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑦𝑐 𝐴 (2.51)
𝑦𝐶 = (1/𝐴) ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴 (2.52)
The area center is at distance yc from the line ox

ℎ𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (2.53)
𝐹𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐶 𝐴 Or 𝐹𝑃 = 𝑝𝐶 𝐴 (2.54)
where C= Is the center of area
hc = Vertical depth of center of area, , m.
pC = The pressure at the pressure center CP, Pa.
yc= The distance of between the points O and C on the plane of
area, m
The pressure at the center of area is 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑐 . Therefore, the total hydraulic force on
any plane area submerged in a liquid is the product of the area and the pressure
at its center.
The resultant pressure force FP is perpendicular to the surface. It acts at a point
called the center of pressure CP.
Pressure Center
The point of application of resultant pressure force is called the center of pressure.
An expression for the position of pressure center can be deduced by taking the
moments around the axis OX. This axis is the intersection of the plane of the area
with the liquid free surface plane, Fig.2.13.
𝑦 𝑑𝐹𝑝 = 𝑦𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝑦 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 (2.55)
The distance from the axis OX to the pressure center is yP
𝑦𝑃 𝐹𝑝 = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝐼𝑂 (2.56)
𝜌𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝐼𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝐼𝑂 𝐼𝑂

𝑦𝑃 = = = (2.57)
𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑐 𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝐴
𝐼𝑂 = 𝐼𝑐 + (𝐶𝑂)2 𝐴 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝑦𝑐2 𝐴 (2.58)
38
𝐼𝑐
Or 𝑦𝑃 = 𝑦𝑐 + (2.59)
𝑦𝑐 𝐴
where Ic = Moment of inertia of the plane area about its center axis, m 4
Io = Moment of inertia of the plane area about the axis OX, m4
yP = Distance between the center of pressure and point O, m
The expression for the pressure center shows that:
➢ The position of the pressure center, relative to the center of area C, is
independent of the inclination angle θ.
➢ The distance between the area center and pressure center (yP-yc) decreases
as the depth of the submerged area increases as (Ic/Ayc) decreases with
the increase of yc.
➢ The distance yP is always greater than yc. The pressure center is below the
center of area. They become on the same level in the case of horizontal
area.
The x-location of the center of pressure may be determined by considering the
area to consist of a series of elementary horizontal areas. The center of pressure
of each strip would be at its midpoint, then:
∫ 𝑋𝑒 𝑝𝑑𝐴
𝑋𝑝 𝐹 = ∫ 𝑋𝑒 𝑝𝑑𝐴 Or 𝑋𝑝 = (2.60)
𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑐 𝐴
where XP = Lateral distance of Pressure center of area from a selected y

axis, m
Xe = Lateral distance of the Pressure center of any horizontal strip
from a selected y axis, m
Table 2.1 Area, center of area and Moment of inertia of typical plane surface
2nd moment of area, about the

Shape Area
center axis; Ic
Rectangle
𝑏ℎ3
bh
12
39
Triangle
𝑏ℎ 𝑏ℎ3
2 36
𝜋𝑅4
Circle
𝜋𝑅2
4
Semicircle
𝜋𝑅2
0.1097 R4
2
Example 2.5 A circular flat plate of diameter D = 1m, closes off an opening in
a ship's hull, Fig.2.14. The center of circular plate is at a distance of 3 m
below the water surface. The plane of the plate is 45o from the vertical, as
shown in the figure below. If the water density, ρ=1000 kg/m3, calculate
the total force exerted on the plate by the water and the distance between
the center of pressure and the center of the circular plate.
Fig.2.14
40
The pressure at center, pc, Eq.2.54, is:

pc = ρghc=1000x9.807x3= 29420 Pa (gauge Pressure)
The pressure force Fp = pc A
𝜋
𝐹𝑝 = × 12 × 29420 = 23.1 𝑘𝑁
4
𝑦𝑐 = h𝑐 /sin𝜃 = 3/sin 45 = 4.2426 m
𝜋 × 14
𝐼𝑐 64
𝑦𝑃 = 𝑦𝑐 + = 4.2426 + 𝜋 = 4.2574 𝑚
𝑦𝑐 𝐴 4.2426 × (4 × 12 )
yP - yc = 0.01473 m
Pressure Force on Curved Surfaces
On any curved area such as 1-2 in Fig.2.15, the pressure forces upon the various
elementary areas are different in direction and magnitude. In this case, it is
practical to analyze the area vector dA (in Cartesian coordinates) to dA x, dAy ,
dAz . For 2-D problems, the components of resultant pressure force are the
horizontal and vertical components; Fx & Fz .
2 2
𝐹𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝐹𝑥 = ∫ (𝜌𝑔𝑧)𝑑𝐴𝑥 (2.62)
1 1
𝐹𝑥 = (𝜌gh𝐶 ) A𝑥 (2.63)
The area Ax is the projection of area over a vertical plane, Fig.2.15.
The resultant horizontal force of a fluid above a curved surface F x is equal to the
resultant force on the projection of the curved surface onto a vertical plane. It acts
horizontally through the center of pressure of the projection of the curved surface
onto a vertical plane.
2 2
𝐹𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝐹𝑧 = ∫ (𝜌𝑔𝑧) 𝑑𝐴𝑧 (2.64)
1 1
The resultant vertical force (Fz) of a fluid above a curved surface is equal to the
weight of fluid directly above the curved surface. It acts vertically
downward/upward (depending on the direction of pressure force) through the
center of gravity of the mass of fluid.
If the fluid is a gas, its weight is negligible compared to the pressure forces on
the surfaces. The horizontal component is the product of the pressure by the
vertical projection of area and passes by the center of area (CG=CP).
41
Fig.2.15 Pressure forces on submerged curved area

Resultant Force
When the horizontal and vertical forces lie on the same vertical plane, there exists
a resultant force. However, if the lines of action of these forces are skew, then
there is no single resultant force. This procedure can also be done for the three
dimensions. Considering the forces at one vertical plane, the resultant is given
by:
𝐹 = √𝐹𝑋2 + 𝐹𝑍2 (2.65)
The angle, which the resultant force makes with the horizontal direction, is:
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝐹𝑍 /𝐹𝑋 ) (2.66)
The line of action of the resultant force passes through the point of intersection
of both forces FX & FZ.
For three-dimensional problem, the three components of the pressure force
should be considered.
Pressure Forces of The Fluid Below The Curved Surface
This situation may occur on a curved gate for example. Figure 2.16 shows a
curved surface subjected to fluid pressure from below. The calculation of the
forces is the same as if the fluid is located above the gate surface, and extended
to the fluid free surface. But, the vertical component of the pressure force acts
upwards.
42
Fig.2.16 Pressure force on a curved surface

Example 2.6 Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force of water on
the quadrant gate (of width w=3m) shown by Fig.2.17.
The horizontal force, FX, is the force on the projection of the curved
surface on a vertical plane.
H = 1 m and hc = hc/2
ℎ
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑐 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 ℎ𝑤 = 0.5𝜌𝑔ℎ2 𝑤
2
= 0.5 × 1000 × 9.807 × 12 × 3 = 14.715 kN
The vertical force, FZ, is the weight of fluid above surface
𝐹𝑍 = 𝜌g × Volume = 1000 × 9.807 × (𝜋𝑟 2 /4) × 3
= 23.114 kN
The resultant force 𝐹 = √𝐹𝑋2 + 𝐹𝑍2 = 27.4 kN

At an angle 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝐹𝑍 /𝐹𝑋 ) = 57o 31'
Fig.2.17
43
Example 2.7 A cylinder of length L = 1.5 m and radius r = 1 m lies as shown in

Fig.2.18. It holds back oil of specific gravity 0.8. If the cylinder has
a mass of 2250 kg find the reactions at points A and B. Find also
the resultant force.
Fig.2.18
The reaction at point A is 𝐹𝐴 = - F𝑋 = 𝜌gh𝑐 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝑟(2r)𝐿 =
2 𝜌gr 2 L
Or, FA= 2 × 0.8 × 103 × 9.81 × 12 × 1.5 = 23544 N, to
the left
The force of fluid above DC = ρg × area of sector DCE x length
𝜋𝑟 2
= 0.8 × 103 × 9.807 x (𝑟2 − ) × 1.5
4
The force from below DB = ρg× volume of real or imaginary fluid

above BD
= ρg× area of BDEC × length
The force due to fluid below BD = 0.8 × 103 × 9.807 x (𝑟 2 +
𝜋𝑟 2
) × 1.5
4
The vertical force = Reaction at B = FB

= Force due to weight of fluid, DCE (downward)
+ Force due to fluid below BD (upward)
+ Force due to weight of cylinder
Or FZ = 3580 N, vertically upwards
44
The resultant and angle of application are given by:
Resultant force 𝐹 = √𝐹𝐴2 + 𝐹𝐵2 = 23.815 kN

At an angle 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝐹𝐵 /𝐹𝐴 ) = 8o 38' and passes by the pint O.
Example 2.8 A tank of 5m width with an L-shaped cross section, as shown by
Fig.2.19, has a gate, which is hinged at the top of its right hand end.
a) If the tank is filled with water to a level of 8m, determine the
minimum torque required at the hinge to keep the gate closed.
b) Determine the force on the base of the tank. Comment on why this
is not the same as the weight of the water.
Force on the gate F = Pressure at center x area of gate
= ρg (6+1)x(2x5) = 686700 N = 686.7 kN
Fig.2.19
The point O is the point where a line from the gate crosses the top
water surface level. This force passes through the center of
pressure, yp. The position of the pressure center, yP, is determined
as follows.
𝐼𝑐
𝑦𝑃 = 𝑦𝑐 +
𝑦𝑐 𝐴
𝑏𝑑 3 5 × 23 10 4
𝐼𝑐 = = = 𝑚
12 12 3
10 1
𝑦𝑝 = 7 + = 7.0476 𝑚
3 7×5×2
45
Torque required = (7.0476-6) x 686700=719.7 kNm, Clockwise.

Force on base = p A = ρgh A = 3924 kN
Weight of water = (4 × 8 × 5) + (6 × 4 × 5) × 1000 ×
9.807 = 2746800 𝑁 = 2746.8 kN
2.7 BUOYANCY AND STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES
The pressure in a fluid in equilibrium increases with depth. Therefore, the fluid
exerts a resultant upward force on anybody, which is immersed, wholly or
partially, in it. This force is known as the buoyancy force and it has only a vertical
component.
2.7.1 Buoyancy Forces
Fig.2.20 Submerged body

Figure 2.20 shows a wholly immersed body, BCDF. The upward thrust on the
lower surface BCD corresponds to the weight of the fluid, (real or imaginary
volume), located vertically above that surface. That is corresponds to the volume
ABCDE. The downward force on the upper surface BFD equals the weight of the
fluid of volume ABFDE. The horizontal components of force are balanced, while
the vertical components (up and down) are:
𝐹𝑈 = 𝜌𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔(𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸) (2.67)
𝐹𝐷 = 𝜌𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔(𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝐵𝐹𝐷𝐸) (2.68)
Then the resultant buoyancy force (FB) acting upwards is the difference between
these two forces;
46
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑈 − 𝐹𝐷 = 𝜌𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔(𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐹) (2.69)

For a partially immersed body, Fig. 2.21, similar considerations show that the
buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the fluid of the same volume as BCDGF.
Archimedes, 287-212 B.C., firstly derived this equation. It is known as
Archimedes principle. It states that "Anybody completely or partially submerged
in a fluid at rest is subjected to a vertically upwards force equal to the weight of
the displaced fluid". It acts in the center of displaced volume.
Fig.2.21 Floating Body

2.7.2 Stability of Submerged Bodies
For submerged and floating bodies it is important to study, not only their vertical
balance but also their equilibrium and stability. An originally vertical axis in the
body will remain vertical or not? There exist three types of equilibrium:
Stable equilibrium: A body is in stable equilibrium if, when given a small
displacement and then released, it returns to its original position.
Unstable equilibrium: A body is in unstable equilibrium if, when given a small
displacement and then released, it will not return to its original position, but it
will move further far from it.
Neutral equilibrium (meta-stable): a body is in neutral equilibrium if, when
given a small displacement, and then released, it will stay in its new position. It
will neither return to its original position nor increase its displacement.
For a body fully immersed in a fluid, a balloon for example, Fig.2.22, the stability
and equilibrium conditions are simple. The balloon is in equilibrium if the
buoyancy force FB and weight W are equal and have the same line of action.
An angular displacement from the equilibrium position results in a couple. This
47
couple acts in the direction to restore the system to its original position if the
buoyancy center B is higher than the center of gravity G. The body is in a stable
equilibrium. However, if the point B is below G, a small angular displacement
causes the assembly to topple over. The body is in unstable equilibrium. If B
and G coincide, a neutral equilibrium is obtained and the body is meta-stable.
Fig.2.22 Immersed body stability

2.7.3 Stability of Floating Bodies
Fig.2.23 Stability of floating boat

The condition for angular stability of a body floating in a liquid is more
complicated. This is because the shape of the immersed volume, and
consequently the position of center of gravity and buoyancy center move relative
to the body, as illustrated by Fig.2.23. This figure shows a floating boat. In its
equilibrium position, the buoyancy force is equal in magnitude to the weight W
of the body. The center of gravity and buoyancy center lie on the same vertical
line. This equilibrium is altered if the body has undergone a small angular
displacement θ. It is assumed that the position of the center of gravity remains
unchanged relative to the body. During the movement, the volume immersed on
the right-hand side increases while that on the left-hand side decreases, and so
the center of buoyancy moves to a new position B'. Suppose that the line of action
48
of the buoyancy (which is always vertical) intersects the axis BG at the point M.
For small values of θ, the point M is practically constant in position and is known
as the Meta center. The distance of M above G is called metacentric height. For
the body shown in the figure, M is above G (Positive metacentric height), and
the couple is tending to restore the body to its original position. If M were below
G the metacentric height is negative. Then the couple would be an overturning
couple and the original equilibrium would have been unstable. The neutral
equilibrium is obtained when the metacentric height is zero, when G and M
coincide.
It is important to determine the position of the metacenter and the metacentric
height before a boat is constructed. Figure 2.24 shows that cross-section,
perpendicular to the axis of rotation, in which the center of buoyancy B lies.
Figure 2.24(a) shows the initial equilibrium position, while Fig.2.24 (b) shows
the position after displacing by small angle θ. The section on the left, indicated
by cross-hatching, has emerged from the liquid whereas the crosshatched section
on the right has moved down into the liquid. Assuming that there is no overall
vertical movement; thus the vertical equilibrium is undisturbed. As the total
weight of the body remains unaltered so does the immersed volume, and therefore
the volumes corresponding to the cross-hatched sections are equal.
Choose the coordinate axes through O as origin. OY is perpendicular to the plane
of selected cross-section, Fig.2.24 (a) & (b). OX lies in the original plane of
flotation and OZ is vertically downwards in the equilibrium position. As the body
is rotated, the axes rotate with it and the tilting moment (around O) is equal to
the restoring moment produced by the weight of the hatched area.
𝐹𝐵 (𝑀𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜗) = ∫ 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝐴(𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜗)𝑥 (2.70)
(𝜌𝑔𝑉)(𝑀𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜗) = ∫ 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝐴𝑥 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜗

(2.71)
2
= 𝜌𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜗 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝐴|𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
For small angles:

𝐼𝑜
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜗 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜗; ..then: 𝑀𝐺 = (2.72)
𝑉
Where Io is the moment of inertia of the water-line area of the body.
49
Fig.2.24 determination of location of metacenter

The entire immersed volume V may be supposed to be made up of collection of
elementary volumes of columns of base area δA in the plane of flotation. The
center of buoyancy B is the center of the immersed volume. For symmetrical
body the x-coordinate of center 𝑥𝑜 is zero, otherwise it is determined as follows:
∫(𝑧𝑑𝐴)𝑥
𝑥𝑜 = (2.73)
𝑉
And the vertical distance BMbetween the metacenter and centroid is:
1
BM = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴 (2.74)
𝑉
Or
𝐵𝑀
Second moment of water area of plane of flotation about (2.75)
{ }
centroidal axis perpendicular to plane of rotation
=
Immersed volume
By the determination of the position of the metacentric, it is possible to judge the
stability of the floating body according to the criteria illustrated by Fig.2.25.
Generally, the system will be stable if 𝐵𝑀 > 𝐺𝑀
50
Fig.2.25 Stability of floating bodies
Example 2.9 A wooden block of square cross-section floats on the surface of

water, Fig.2.26. The block has a width w, height h and specific gravity
s. Find the minimum ratio of width to height (w/h) that will insure the
body stability. Denote the block bottom center by O, the center of
gravity by G, the center of buoyancy by B and the metacenter by M
as shown in the figure.
Fig.2.26
ℎ𝐺 = 0.5ℎ and ℎ𝐵 = 0.5ℎ𝑤
𝑤 2 ℎ𝜌𝑤 = 𝑤 2 ℎ𝑤 𝑠𝜌𝑤 Then ℎ𝑤 = 𝑠ℎ and ℎ𝐵 =
0.5𝑠ℎ
𝐵𝐺 = ℎ𝐺 − ℎ𝐵 = 0.5ℎ − 0.5𝑠ℎ = 0.5(1 − 𝑠)ℎ
51
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴 𝑤 4 1 𝑤2
BM = = × 2 =
𝑉 12 𝑤 𝑠ℎ 12𝑠ℎ
Limiting condition for stability is that 𝐵𝐺 = 𝐵𝑀, or:
(1 − 𝑠)ℎ 𝑤2
=
2 12𝑠ℎ
Or
𝑤
= √6𝑠(1 − 𝑠)
ℎ
2.8 RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM IN LINEAR AND ROTARY
MOTIONS
The hydrostatic equations applied to the fluids at rest can be used to solve
problems of fluid at motion in relative equilibrium. The fluid can be subjected to
a constant linear acceleration or a rotary motion at constant speed, without
occurrence of relative motion between fluid particles or between the particles and
the boundaries. In such cases, the fluid can be considered as a stationary fluid,
taking into consideration the body forces due to the acceleration; the inertia
forces.
2.8.1 Relative Equilibrium, Linear Motion
Consider an open tank moved horizontally at acceleration →
𝑎 (Fig.2.27). In this
case the body forces per unit mass are:
X = -a, Y = 0, Z = -g (2.76)
The following is the equation describing the pressure variation in a static fluid,
Eq.2.19.
dp = ρFx dx + ρFy dy + ρ Fz dz (2.77)
Substituting for Fx, Fy and Fz, from Eq.2.76, into Eq.2.77 yields:
dp = -ρadx + 0 - ρgdz (2.78)
The equation of an isobar and the pressure distribution on all surfaces of the tank,
are obtained directly from Eq.2.78.
For isobar (dp = 0);
0 = -ρadx - ρgdz (2.79)
Or
52
𝑑𝑧 𝑎 𝑎
= − 𝑔 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜗 and 𝑧 = − 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡 (2.80)
𝑑𝑥
The solution of this equation gives different isobars for different conditions such
as the free surface and the isobar passing through certain point. Therefore, other
conditions are required to locate the free surfaces, such as fluid volume, spill
conditions, touching certain point on the boundaries or in the space, ..etc. In the
absence of shear forces, the isobaric surface is usually perpendicular to the
resultant body force. To calculate the pressure distribution on a surface, substitute
for dx or dz and solve Eq.2.78.
Fig.2.27 Hydraulic tank moving by constant accelerations in x and z

directions
Fig.2.28 Hydraulic tank moving on an inclined Plane
53
Figure 2.28 shows the hydraulic tank subjected to accelerations in both x and z
directions. At rest, the dashed line illustrates the free surface. After giving an
acceleration a, the isobaric surfaces angle θ is given by the following equation.
−𝑎𝑥
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) (2.81)
𝑔 + 𝑎𝑍
In the case of a completely filled closed tank, the fluid has no free surface. The
isobars are still inclined by the angle θ. The pressure At particular point of fluid
is calculated as follows.
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝑝 = ∫ 𝑑𝑝 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = −𝜌𝑎𝑋 𝑥 − 𝜌(𝑔 + 𝑎𝑍 ) 𝑧 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (2.82)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
The integration constant is determined by the boundary conditions, for example,
at free surface, the pressure is constant. For open tank it is atmospheric.
Generally, the pressure difference between two-points (1&2) can be calculated
as:
∆p2-1 = -ρ∆x -ρg ∆z (2.83)
2.8.2 Relative Equilibrium, Rotary Motion
Fig.2.29 Fluid in rigid container rotating (Vortex motion)

A rigid cylindrical container, partially filled with water, is rotated with a constant
angular velocity ω about its vertical axis, Fig.2.29. By the end of the transient
period, the fluid rotates with the container by the same angular velocity ω and
there is no relative motion between them. Since there is an axial symmetry in this
case, it is convenient to use the cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z). The pressure
54
distribution will be a function of r and z; p=p(r, z).The pressure variation within

the fluid is investigated for an ax-symmetrical body. Consider a fluid element of
height dz, as shown by Fig.2.29.The body forces per unit mass of the fluid
element are:
In r-direction:
R = -ω2r (2.84)
In z-direction:
Z= -g (2.85)
Substituting Eqs. 2.84 and 2.85 in Eq. 2.20 yields:
dp = -ρ(-ω2r)dr -ρgdz (2.86)
The equation of an isobar (dp =0) is:
𝑑𝑧 𝜔2 𝑟
= (2.87)
𝑑𝑟 𝑔
or
𝜔2
𝑧 = (𝑟 2 ) + 𝑐 (this is an equation of a paraboloid) (2.88)
2𝑔
The integration constant can be calculated from the boundary conditions. The
head difference (Δz) between any two points on an isobar is:
𝜔2 2
𝛥𝑧 = (𝑟 − 𝑟12 ) (2.89)
2𝑔 2
The free surface is a special isobar and can be located by the boundary conditions
(e.g. volume of liquid, spill point and passing through certain point). The volume
of paraboloid of radius Ro & height h is:
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑅𝑜2 ℎ/2 (2.90)
The pressure distribution on any surface can be calculated using the equation;
dp = -ρ(-ω2r) dr -ρgdz (2.91)
In the vertical direction (on the side walls), dr = 0, then;
∆p = -ρg ∆z (2.92)
In the radial direction (on bottom), dz = 0; then:
𝜔2 2
𝛥𝑝 = 𝜌 (𝑟2 − 𝑟12 ) (2.93)
2
55
The pressure difference between two arbitrary points within the fluid (a & b) is:
𝜌𝜔2 2
𝛥𝑝 = (𝑟𝑏 − 𝑟𝑎 2 ) − 𝜌𝑔(𝑧𝑏 − 𝑧𝑎 ) (2.94)
2
2.9 EXERCISE
1. What is the pressure head of carbon tetrachloride (specific gravity 1.59)
for a 200 kPa pressure?
[12.83 m]
2. To what head of air (R = 287 J/kgK) at an absolute pressure of 101.3 kPa

and temperature of 15 oC is a pressure of 75 mm of water equivalent?
[61.27 m]
3. A spherical air bubble rises in water (ρa=1.25 kg/m3). At a depth of 9 m,

its diameter is 4 mm. If the surface tension effects are negligible, what is
its diameter just as it reaches the free surface where the pressure is 101.3
kPa?
[4.93 mm]
4. A tank containing alcohol of specific gravity of 0.82 to a depth of 3 m is
3.5 m long and 2.5 m wide. A 50 mm diameter pipe leads from the bottom
of the tank. What will be the reading on a gauge calibrated in Pa connected
at a Point
(a) 150 mm above the bottom of the tank
(b) in the 50 mm diameter pipe, 2 m below the bottom of the tank
(c) at the upper end of a 25 mm diameter pipe, connected to the 50 mm
pipe 2 m below the bottom of the tank, sloping upwards at 30o to the
horizontal for 1.2 m and then rising vertically for 600 mm?
(d) What is the load on the bottom of the tank?
[22.92 kPa, 40.2 kPa, 30.56 kPa, 211.1 kN]
5. A pressure gauge at elevation 8 m on the side of a tank containing a liquid

reads 57.4 kPa. Another gauge at elevation 5 m reads 80 kPa. Calculate
the specific gravity and density of the liquid.
[s =7.533]
56
6. An open tank contains 5.0 m of water covered with 2.0 m of oil (s =8).
Find the pressure at the interface and at the bottom of the tank.
[16 kPa, 65 kPa]
7. If the atmospheric pressure is 920 mbars, abs, and a gauge attached to a
tank reads 400 mm Hg vacuum, what is the absolute pressure within the
tank?
[38.8 kPa(abs)]
8. If the atmospheric pressure is 940 mbars, abs what would be the reading
in meters of a barometer containing water at 60 oC?.
[9.75 m]
9. What will be the gauge pressure and absolute pressure of water at depths
12m below the surface? ρ = 1000 kg/m3, and patm = 101kPa.
[117.72 kPa, 218.72 kPa]
10. At what depth below the surface of oil, of specific gravity 0.8, will produce
a pressure of 120 kPa? What is the equivalent depth of water?
[15.3m, 12.2m]
11. What would the pressure in kPa be if the equivalent head is measured as
400mm of (a) mercury of s =13.6 (b) water ( c) oil of specific weight 7.9
kN/m3 (d) a liquid of density 520 kg/m3?
[53.4 C, 3.92 kPa, 3.16 kPa, 2.04 kPa]
12. A manometer connected to a pipe indicates a negative gauge pressure of
50mm of mercury. What is the absolute pressure in the pipe in Pa if the
atmospheric pressure is 1 bar?
[93.3 kPa]
13. What height would a water barometer need to be to measure atmospheric
pressure?
[10.2 m]
57
14. An inclined manometer is required to measure an air pressure of 3mm of

water to an accuracy of ±3%. The inclined arm is 8 mm in diameter and
the larger arm has a diameter of 24mm. The manometric fluid has density
740 kg/m3 and the scale may be read to ±0.5mm. What is the angle
required to ensure the desired accuracy?
[7o 36']
15. The pressure at point A, in the closed tank is 90 kPa. Calculate the absolute
pressure at point B, then recalculate this pressure, neglecting the air
weight. What is the percentage error, made when neglecting the air
weight?
16. Two vessels are connected to a differential manometer using mercury

(s = 13.55), the connecting tubing are filled with water. The higher-
pressure vessel is 1.5 m lower than the other is. If the mercury reading is
10 cm, what is the pressure difference in m of water and in kPa?. If carbon
tetrachloride (s = 1.59) was used instead of mercury, what would be the
manometer reading for the same pressure difference?
[20.3 m, 199 kPa, 12.78 m]
58
17. The shown U-tube has a 1-cm

inner diameter and contains
mercury as shown. If 10 cm3 of
water is poured into the right-
hand leg, what will be the free
surface height in each leg?
18. For the given open tank, the

atmospheric pressure is 101.33 kPa
and the pressure at the bottom of the
tank is 237 kPa. What is the specific
gravity of the fluid X? (soil = 0.8 &
sHg = 13.55)
19. The shown manometer

contains two fluids.
Fluid 1 is glycerin,
s.=1.27 and fluid 2 is
carbon tetrachloride
s= 1.594. If pa=101
kPa, calculate the
absolute pressure at
point A.
59
20. For the shown manometer, calculate the pressure difference pA-pB,
(sben= 0.8, sHg= 13.6, sK= 0.85. , ρa = 1.29 kg/m3).
21. For the shown

manometer the
pressure difference PA-
PB = 99 kPa. Calculate
the height H
23. The shown two-fluid differential manometer can measure a very small
pressure difference (pA-pB) accurately. The density ρ2 is slightly larger
than that of the other fluid ρ1. Derive an expression for the Pressure
difference (pA-pB) in terms of the height h.
60
22. For the shown manometer, calculate the pressure at point A
24. Calculate the pressure

at point A in the
shown manometer
25. If a triangle of height h and base b is vertical and submerged in liquid with
its vertex at the liquid surface, derive an expression for the depth to its
center of pressure. Solve this problem if the vertex is at a distance a below
the liquid surface.
26. A circular area tube, of diameter d, is vertical and submerged in a liquid.

Its upper edge is coincident with the liquid surface. Derive an expression
for the depth to its center of pressure.
[yP=1.25 r]
61
27. A vertical semicircular area has its diameter at the liquid surface. Derive
an expression for the depth to its center of pressure.
[yP=0.59 r]
28. A plane circular surface of 1.2 m diameter is vertical. Its top edge is 0.3 m
below the water surface. Find the magnitude of the force on one side and
the depth to the center of pressure.
[9.982 kN, 1 m]
29. A triangle with a height of 1.8 m and a base of 1.2 m is placed vertically
with its base horizontal and 0.3 m below a liquid surface. Determine the
depth and horizontal position of the center of pressure.
[yP=1.1 m]
30.A rectangular plane 1.2 m by 1.8 m is submerged in water making an angle
of 30o with the horizontal plane. The 1.2 m side is horizontal. Calculate the
magnitude of the net force on one face and the position of the center of
pressure when the top edge of the plane is
(a) at the water surface,
(b) 500 mm below the water surface,
(c) 30 m below the water surface.
[(a) hc=0.45 m, F = 9.53 kN, (b) hc=0.95 m, F = 20.12 kN, (c) hc=30.45 m,
F = 645 kN]
31. Find the magnitude and point of application of the pressure force on the
circular gate shown in the figure.
62
32. A circular opening 1.2 m in diameter in the vertical side of a reservoir is

closed by a disc. The disk fits the circular opening. It is pivoted on a shaft
passing through its horizontal diameter. Show that, if the water level in the
reservoir is above the top of the disc, the turning moment on the shaft
required to hold the disc vertical is independent of the head of water.
Calculate the value of this moment.
[999 N m]
33. A square opening in the vertical side of a tank has one diagonal vertical.
It is completely covered by a plane plate hinged along one of the upper
sides of the opening. The diagonals of the opening are 2 m long and the
tank contains a liquid of specific gravity of 1.15. The center of the opening
is 1.5 m below the free surface. Calculate the net hydrostatic thrust on the
plate, the moment of this thrust about the hinge and the position of the
center of pressure.
[33.84 kN, 26.59 kN m, 1.111 m from top of aperture]
34. A hollow cylinder with closed ends is 300 mm diameter and 450 mm high,
of a mass 27 kg and has a small hole in the base. It is lowered into water
so that its axis remains vertical. Calculate the depth to which it will sink,
the height to which the water will rise inside it and the air pressure inside
it. Disregard the effect of the thickness of the walls but assume that it is
uniform and that the compression of the air is isothermal. The atmospheric
Pressure is Pa = 101.3 kPa.
[398 mm, 16.05 mm, 3747 Pa (gauge)]
35. A canal lock is 6 m wide and has two vertical gates, which make an angle
of 120o with each other. The depths of water on the two sides of the gates
are 9 m and 2.7 m respectively. Calculate the pressure forces acting on the
gate.
[1.376 MN, 0.124 MN]
36. A uniform wooden cylinder has a specific gravity of 0.6. Determine the
ratio of diameter to length so that it will just float upright in water.
[1.386]
63
37. A solid uniform cylinder of length 150 mm and diameter 75 mm is to float

upright in water. Between what limits must its total mass be so that it will
just float upright in water?
[0.641 kg and 0.663 kg]
38. A buoy, floating in the seawater of density 1025 kg/rn3, is conical in shape
with a diameter across the top of 1.2 m and a vertex angle of 60o. Its mass
is 300 kg and its center of gravity is 750 mm from the vertex. A flashing
beacon is to be fitted to the top of the buoy. If the mass of this unit is 55
kg, what is the maximum height of its center of gravity above the top of
the buoy if the whole assembly is to be stable? (The center of volume of a
cone of height h is at 3h/4 from vertex.)
[1.307 m]
39. What would be the hydrostatic pressure at a depth h of bucket of oil

(s=0.82) that is in elevator being accelerated upwards at 3 m/s2.
[10501 h, Pa]
40. A tank containing water to depth of 2 m is accelerated upwards at 3 m/s2.
Calculate the pressure at the bottom of tank.
[21 kPa]
41. A completely filled rectangular tank is closed at the top. It is 20 m long,
4 m wide and 3 m deep. What will be the pressure difference between the
left hand end and the right-hand end at the top, if the liquid has a specific
weight of 8 kN/m3 and a horizontal acceleration is 0.3g? Sketch the planes
of equal pressure, indicating their magnitude. Assume zero pressure at the
upper right-hand corner.
[16.7o]
42. A rectangular tank is completely open at the top. It is 20 m long, 4 m wide
and 3 m deep. If it is initially filled to the top, how much liquid will be
spilled if it is given a horizontal acceleration of 0.3g in the direction of its
length.
[180 m3]
64
43. An open topped tank, in the form of a cube of 900 mm side, has a mass of
340 kg. It contains 0.405 m3 of oil of specific gravity 0.85. The tank is
accelerated uniformly up a long slope at 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ( 1/3) to the
horizontal plane. The base of the tank remains parallel to the slope, and
the side faces are parallel to the direction of motion. Neglecting the
thickness of the walls of the tank, estimate the net force (parallel to the
slope) accelerating the tank if the oil is just on the point of spilling.
[3537 N]
44. A cylindrical tank, open at the top is filled with water to a height of 0.3 m.
The tank height is 0.5 m and diameter is 0.4 m. The tank rotates around its
vertical axis by an angular speed ω. Draw the pressure distribution at the
walls and base , calculate also the volume of spilled water for the
following cases:
a- The water just touches the upper tank edge.
b- The water just touches the bottom of the tank
c- The bottom of the tank is uncovered to a radius of 0.1 m.
45. A closed cylindrical tank of 0.2 m diameter and 0.3 m height is completely
filled with water at atmospheric pressure. The tank is rotated around its
vertical axis by an angular speed ω = 50 rad/s. Calculate and plot the
pressure distribution over the bottom and sides of the tank.
65
Chapter 3
Fluids Kinematics
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Fluid kinematics deals with the motion of fluid elements, without taking into
account the forces causing this motion. In fluid kinematics, the fluid flow is
described by the fluid displacement, velocity, acceleration, flow rate and nature
of flow. The fluid motion can be analyzed by one of two alternative approaches:
the Lagrangian and Eulerian.
Lagrangian approach
In the Lagrangian approach, a particle or a fluid element is identified and
followed during the course of its motion with time. The kinematical variables are
written as function of the time and the initial coordinates (xo, yo, zo in Cartesian
coordinates). The particle velocity, for example, is described by:
v = v(xo, yo, zo, t) (3.1)
The difficulty in tracing a fluid particle(s) makes it difficult to apply the

Lagrangian approach.
Eulerian approach
The alternative approach, the Eulerian approach, consists of observing the fluid
by setting up fixed stations (sections) in the flow field. A typical example of the
Eulerian approach is the observation of the variation of flow properties in a closed
volume, in the flow field (control volume).
The motion of the fluid is specified by the velocity components as functions of
the time and the location in the space; v =v(x,y,z,t). This is considerably easier
than the Lagrangian approach and is usually used in fluid mechanics.
66
3.2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF FLUID FLOW

It is useful to consider the following concepts, to study the fluid flow.
3.2.1 Uniform and Steady Flow
To simplify the used equations and their solutions, the fluid and flow problems
can be classified to the following types.
➢ Uniform or non-uniform flow :
• Uniform flow: The flow velocity (magnitude and direction) is the same
at every point in the fluid, at any instant; e.g. v=v(x, y, z, to) = constant
at time t0.
• Non-uniform flow: The flow velocity is not the same at every point at
any instant.
➢ Steady or Unsteady flow :
• Steady flow: A steady flow is one in which the conditions at certain
point (velocity, pressure …) do not change with time, but they may
differ from point to point, .g. v=v(xo, yo, zo, t) = constant at point (xo, yo,
zo).
• Unsteady flow: An unsteady flow is one in which the conditions
(velocity, pressure …) at certain point change with time. Practically, if
the average values are constant, the flow may be considered steady.
Looking at a fluid flow, in a river for example, the conditions vary from one point
to another. The flow velocity near the boundaries is less than that at the middle
of river. This flow is said to be a non-uniform flow. If the conditions at one point
vary with time, this flow is unsteady. Generally, the fluid flow may be one of the
following;
Steady uniform flow
The flow parameters do not change with position in the stream or with time,
v = constant. An example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter with
constant velocity, when neglecting the viscosity effect. This is the simplest case
of fluid flow. The quasi-time independent problems can be treated as steady flow.
Steady non-uniform flow
The conditions change from point to point in the stream but it does not change
with time; v = f(x, y, z). An example is the flow in a tapering pipe with constant
flow rate. The velocity changes along the length of the pipe. However, the fluid
velocity at certain point is time independent.
67
Unsteady uniform flow

At a given instant of time, the flow parameters at every point are the same, but
they change with time, v=f(t). An example is a pipe of constant diameter
connected to a pump of constant flow rate of negligible velocity effect. When the
pump is switched off, the fluid velocity decelerates until the fluid comes to rest.
Unsteady non-uniform flow
All of the flow parameters may change from point to point and with time;
v = f(x, y, z, t). An example is the waves in a water channel. The fluid velocity
changes from point to point in the three directions and changes with time.
3.2.2 One, Two and Three-Dimensional Flow
Generally, all fluids flow is three-dimensional. The pressure, velocity and other
flow properties vary in all directions. In many cases, the main changes occur in
one or two directions only. In these cases, the changes in the other directions are
negligible, which simplifies the flow analysis.
The flow is one-dimensional, Fig.3.1 if the flow parameters change in one
direction only. An example of this class of flow is the flow of a non-viscous fluid
in a pipe. The velocity and pressures are constant along the pipe cross-section.
But, they may vary along the pipe length, in the case of tapered pipe, for example.
Actually, the real fluid is viscous and the velocity at the boundary is zero while
the velocity changes along the pipe cross-section. The unidirectional flow may
be unsteady. In this case, the flow parameters vary with time but still not along
the cross-section.
Fig.3.1 One dimensional flow

The fluid flow is two-dimensional (plane flow), Fig.3.2, if the flow parameters
vary in two directions. In the two-dimensional flow, the flow lines are curved on
a plane and are the same on all of the parallel planes.
Figure 3.3 shows an example of a three-dimensional flow in a duct, where the
velocity changes in the x, y and z directions.
68
v=f(x,y) v=f(x,y,z)
Fig.3.2 Two-dimensional flow Fig.3.3 Three-dimensional flow

around long cylinder
3.2.3 Rotational and Irrotational Flow
The fluid flow may be classified according to the possible motion (or strain) of a
fluid element as:
➢ in hydrostatic condition; v = 0,
➢ irrotational flow; zero rate of rotation, Fig.3.4.
➢ incompressible fluid; zero linear strain,
➢ in-viscid flow; zero shear strain.
Fig.3.4 Rotational and irrotational flow

3.3 MOTION AND DEFORMATION OF A FLUID ELEMENT
In fluid mechanics, the fluid element may undergo four fundamental types of
motion or deformation: translation (displacement), rotation about its own axis
(spin), fluid angular deformation (shear strain) and linear strain (linear
deformation), Fig.3.5. Because fluids are in continuous motion, motion and
deformation are best described in terms of velocity rates, and not absolute values.
69
translation (displacement) rotation about its own axis (spin)
fluid angular deformation Linear deformation

Fig.3.5 motion and deformation of a fluid element
3.3.1 Fluid Element Translation, Velocity and Acceleration.
The motion of a fluid element is usually described by its displacement, velocity
and acceleration.
Velocity
The velocity of a fluid element along any direction can be defined as the rate of
change of its displacement along that direction. The velocity of a fluid element is
a vector, which is a function of the position in the space and time. Let V be the
velocity of a fluid along any direction and u, v and w be the velocity components
in x, y and z directions respectively. Mathematically, the velocity components
can be written as follows;
→ (3.2)
𝑉 = 𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑗 + 𝑤𝑘
where:
u = f ( x, y, z, t ), v = f ( x, y, z, t ) and w = f ( x, y, z, t ) (3.3)
then:
𝑉 = √𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 (3.4)
where:
70
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑢= , 𝑣= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤= (3.5)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Acceleration
The acceleration of a fluid element along any direction is the rate of change of
velocity of the fluid along that direction. If ax, ay and az are the components of
acceleration along x, y and z directions respectively then:
𝑑𝑢
𝑎𝑥 = (3.6)
𝑑𝑡
For u = f (x, y, z, t), then;
𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑢
𝑎𝑥 = + + + (3.7)
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
similarly:
𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑣
𝑎𝑦 = + + + (3.8)
and
𝜕𝑤 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑤 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑤 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑤
𝑎𝑧 = + + + (3.9)
Considering Eq. 3.5, then:
Convective acceleration Local acceleration
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
ax= 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
ay= 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 + Total Acceleration (3.10)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
az= 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
For steady flow, the local acceleration will be zero.
Flow Rate (or Discharge Q)
The fluid flow rate is either the mass flow rate or the volume flow rate. The mass
flow rate is the mass of fluid flowing per unit time across certain cross-section of
the conduit, (kg/s). The volumetric flow rate of fluid, or the discharge, is the
71
volume of fluid flowing per unit time across certain cross-section of the conduit,
(m3/s).
3.3.2 Fluid Element Rotation about its Own Axis- Spin
The rotation of a fluid particle, ω, is defined as the average angular velocity of
any two mutually perpendicular line elements of the particle. The rotation is a
vector quantity. A particle moving in a three-dimensional flow field may rotate
about all of the three coordinate axes. Thus, in general,
→
𝜔 = 𝑖𝜔 + 𝑗𝜔 + 𝑘𝜔 (3.11)
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
where ω= Angular velocity of the fluid element, rad/s

ωx = Angular velocity in the y-z plane, around the x-axis, rad/s
ωy = Angular velocity in the z-x plane, around the y-axis, rad/s
ωz = Angular velocity in the x-y plane, around the z-axis, rad/s
Consider the fluid motion in the x-y plane. the components of the velocity in the
flow field are u(x,y) and v(x,y). The motion is illustrated by Fig.3.6. The two
mutually perpendicular lines oa and ob rotate to the position indicated by the
dashed lines during a time interval Δt, when the velocities of points a and b are
different from the velocity at point o.
Fig.3.6 Rotation of fluid element around its own axis, spin

The rotation of line oa of length Δx is due to the variation of velocity of the y
component of velocity. If the y-component of the velocity at point o is taken vo,
then the y-component of the velocity at point a can be written as,
𝜕𝑣
𝑣𝑎 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝛥𝑥 (3.12)
𝜕𝑥
The angular velocity of line oa is given by
72
𝛥𝛼 𝛥𝜂/𝛥𝑥
𝜔𝑜𝑎 = 𝐿𝑖𝑚 = 𝐿𝑖𝑚 (3.13)
𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡
Since
𝜕𝑣
𝛥𝜂 = 𝛥𝑥𝛥𝑡 (3.14)
𝜕𝑥
Then
(𝜕𝑣/𝜕𝑥)𝛥𝑥𝛥𝑡/𝛥𝑥 𝜕𝑣
𝜔𝑜𝑎 = 𝐿𝑖𝑚 = (3.15)
𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡 𝜕𝑥
The rotation of line ob of length Δy is due to the variation of velocity of the x-
component of velocity. If the x-component of the velocity at point o is taken uo,
then the x-component of the velocity at point b can be written as,
𝜕𝑢
𝑢 𝑏 = 𝑢𝑜 + 𝛥𝑦 (3.16)
𝜕𝑦
The angular velocity of line oa is given by
𝛥𝛽 𝛥𝜉/𝛥𝑦
𝜔𝑜𝑏 = 𝐿𝑖𝑚 = 𝐿𝑖𝑚 (3.17)
𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡
Since
𝜕𝑢
𝛥𝜉 = − 𝛥𝑦𝛥𝑡 (3.18)
𝜕𝑦
Then:
−(𝜕𝑢/𝜕𝑦)𝛥𝑦𝛥𝑡/𝛥𝑦 𝜕𝑢
𝜔𝑜𝑏 = 𝐿𝑖𝑚 =− (3.19)
𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡 𝜕𝑦
The negative sign is introduced to give a positive value of ωob, as the counter
clockwise rotation is positive.
The rotation of the fluid element about the z-axis is the average angular velocity
of the two mutually perpendicular lines oa and ob in the x-y plane.
1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔𝑧 = ( − ) (3.20)
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Similarly,
1 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣
𝜔𝑥 = ( − ) (3.21)
2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
and
73
1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
𝜔𝑦 = ( − ) (3.22)
2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
NB: the flow is said to be irrotational if ωx = ωy = ωz = 0
3.3.3 Angular Deformation of Fluid Element
Angular deformation of a fluid element results from the change of the angle
between two mutually perpendicular lines in the fluid element. Referring to
Fig.3.7, the rate of change of the angle between the two lines oa and ob is:
Fig.3.7 Angular deformation of fluid element in x-y plane

𝑑𝛾 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛽
− = + (3.23)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝛼 𝛥𝛼 𝛥𝜂/𝛥𝑥 (𝜕𝑣/𝜕𝑥)𝛥𝑥𝛥𝑡/𝛥𝑥 𝜕𝑣
= 𝐿𝑖𝑚 = 𝐿𝑖𝑚 = 𝐿𝑖𝑚 = (3.24)
𝑑𝑡 𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝛽 𝛥𝛽 𝛥𝜉/𝛥𝑦 (𝜕𝑢/𝜕𝑦)𝛥𝑦𝛥𝑡/𝛥𝑦 𝜕𝑢
= 𝐿𝑖𝑚 = 𝐿𝑖𝑚 = 𝐿𝑖𝑚 = (3.25)
𝑑𝑡 𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡 𝜕𝑦
Consequently, the rate of angular deformation in the x-y plane is as follows:
𝑑𝛾 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛽 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
− = + = + (3.26)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
Similarly, the angular deformation in y-z and z-x planes are (𝜕𝑦 + ) and
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢
( 𝜕𝑧 + 𝜕𝑥 ) respectively.
3.3.4 Linear Deformation of a Fluid Element

During linear deformation, the shape of the fluid element remains unchanged. All
the right angles continue to be right angles, Fig.3.5. The fluid element will change
74
in length in the x direction only if 𝜕𝑢/𝜕𝑥 ≠ 0. Similarly the change in length in

the y-direction requires that 𝜕𝑣/𝜕𝑦 ≠ 0and a change in the z-direction requires
non-zero value of 𝜕𝑤/𝜕𝑧.The quantities𝜕𝑢/𝜕𝑥, 𝜕𝑣/𝜕𝑦 and 𝜕𝑤/𝜕𝑧represent the
components of the longitudinal rates of strain in the x, y and z directions
respectively. The rate of local instantaneous volume dilatation is given by:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
The rate of volume dilatation = ( + + ) (𝛥𝑥 • 𝛥𝑦 • 𝛥𝑧) (3.27)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
All fluids are compressible. Their volume and density will change as the pressure
changes. In the case of steady flow, and if the changes in pressure are small, it is
possible to neglect the fluid compressibility. However, in some unsteady
conditions and for very high-pressure variations, it is necessary to consider the
compressibility even for liquids. For incompressible fluid, the rate of volume
dilatation is zero, then,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ + =0 (3.28)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
3.4 STREAMLINES, PATH LINES AND STREAK LINES

When analyzing fluid flow, it is useful to plot the flow pattern by drawing
different imaginary lines for the paths of the fluid particles such as the
streamlines, path lines and streak lines.
Streamline is “an imaginary line to which the flow velocity is tangent at any
instant”. The fluid particles do not cross this line. Figure 3.8 illustrates the
streamlines and Fig.3.9 shows the streamlines around a long cylindrical rigid
body.
Fig.3.8 Stream lines
75
Fig.3.9 Stream lines around a rigid body (a cylindrical body)

For two-dimensional flow (in Cartesian coordinates) the velocity v = v(x,y). At
any point on the streamline (x, y) the tangent is:
dy/dx = - v/u (3.29)
When the fluid is flowing past a solid boundary, e.g. the surface of an airfoil or
the wall of a pipe, fluid does not flow into or out of the surface. Therefore, near
body surface, the flow direction is parallel to the boundary, and the boundaries
are considered as streamlines. The following are some important information
about the streamlines:
➢ For a steady flow, the position of streamlines does not change.
➢ The fluid moves in the same direction as the streamlines, therefore the flow
cannot cross a streamline.
➢ Streamlines cannot cross each other. If they cross, this would indicate two
different velocities at the same point (singular points). This is not
physically possible in a continuous media.
➢ The above point implies that, for steady state conditions, any particles of
fluid starting on one streamline will stay on the same streamline throughout
the fluid.
A useful technique in fluid flow analysis is to consider only an isolated part of
the fluid. Stream tube is an example of this technique; a tubular surface formed
by streamlines. The fluid cannot flow across the wall of the stream tube, Fig.3.10.
The stream tube can often be viewed as a solid walled pipe. Its walls change in
form with time, in unsteady flow.
Sometimes, for unsteady flow, it is useful to define other flow lines such as the
path lines and the streak lines.
76
Fig.3.10 Stream tube
Fig. 3.11 Path line of particle p

Path line (Trajectory)
The path line is the trajectory of a fluid particle in the space, Fig.3.11. The
velocity in a two-dimensional flow is: v = v(x,y,t).
Fig. 3.12 Streak lines of particles (1 to 10), passed by point (x o,yo)

Streak line
The streak line is an instantaneous locus of all fluid particles (1, 2, 3, …) that
have passed by a certain point in the space. It is useful for flow visualization,
Fig.3.12. If a dye is injected into a fluid in a given point, a photograph of the dye
77
at any instant is a streak-line. In steady state conditions stream, path, and streak
lines coincide.
3.5 STREAM AND POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS
It is of special interest to draw a flow grid (or net) of stream and potential lines.
These lines are mutually perpendicular for irrotational flow.
Fig.3.13. Stream Line

3.5.1 Stream Function 
Streamlines in 2-D incompressible flow may be described by the stream-
functions. The stream function  is a scalar function such that its partial
derivative with respect to any direction gives the velocity component at right
angles to that direction and satisfies the continuity, Fig.3.13.
Generally, for a steady two-dimensional flow,
 =  (x,y) (3.30)
Considering the incompressible flow between two stream lines, Fig.3.14, the
following equations can be concluded.
𝜕𝜓
𝑢= (3.31)
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜓
𝑣=− (3.32)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑑𝜓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = −𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦 (3.33)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Similarly, the following equations can be concluded for, for a two dimensional
flow in polar coordinates:
78
1 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑣𝑟 = 𝑟 𝜕𝜗 and 𝑣𝜗 = − 𝜕𝑟 (3.34)
Fig.3.14 Flow between two stream lines of incompressible flow

Equation of a two-dimensional streamlines:
For a streamline, Fig.3.13,
𝑑𝑦 𝑣 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
= 𝑢 = − 𝜕𝑥 / 𝜕𝑦 Then 𝑑𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (3.35)
𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑦
and
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑑𝜓 = 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢𝑑𝑦 = 0 (3.36)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Then, for a streamline, d = 0 or  =const.
For a two dimensional flow, Fig.3.14, the flow rate between two stream lines is
calculated as follows:
𝜓2
𝑄 = ∫(𝑢𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑥 ) = ∫ |𝑑𝜓| = |𝜓2 − 𝜓1 | (3.37)
𝜓1
Then, the difference between two stream functions equals the flow rate between
the corresponding streamlines.
→
Example 3.1 Given the velocity field of a steady incompressible flow; 𝑉 =
𝐴𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴𝑦𝑗, determine the stream function that will yield this velocity
field. Plot and discuss the streamline pattern in the first quadrant of the x-
y plane.
79
The flow is incompressible, and then the stream function satisfies the
following relation:
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑢= , 𝑣=− and 𝑢= = 𝐴𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Integrating with respect to y gives:

𝜕𝜓
𝜓=∫ 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ 𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑥𝑦 + 𝑓(𝑥)
𝜕𝑦
The function f(x) is arbitrary. It may be evaluated using the equation for
v.
𝜕𝜓 𝑑𝑓
𝑣=− = −𝐴𝑦 − = −𝐴𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑓
Then = 0 or f(x) = c = constant
𝑑𝑥
Therefore 𝜓 = 𝐴𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐
For a stream line, 𝜓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡., then 𝐴𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. Or 𝑦=
−𝑘/𝑥
The constant k will have different values for each stream line, as shown
by Fig.3.15
Fig.3.15 Stream lines of fluid flow field described by the stream function
𝜓 = 𝐴𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐
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3.5.2 Velocity Potential Function φ

For irrotational flow, the velocity potential φ is a scalar function, of space and
time, φ =f(x,y,z,t). Its negative derivative with respect to any direction gives
the velocity component in that direction.
For a steady two-dimensional flow
φ = φ (x,y) (2.38)
and
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑢=− , 𝑣=− (3.39)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Equi-potential lines (Potential lines)
The equi-potential line is an imaginary line along which the velocity potential φ
is constant; and:
φ = Constant or dφ = 0 (3.40)
Since
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑑𝜙 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 (3.41)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Then:
𝑑𝜙 = −𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦 (3.42)
For a two dimensional steady flow, the potential function is φ = f (x,y) and, for
equipotential line, φ = const. and dφ =0
Fig. 3.16 Stream and Potential Lines

For potential, dφ = -u dx – v dy = 0 and the lines the slope is:
81
𝑑𝑦 𝑢
=− (3.43)
𝑑𝑥 𝑣
This equation shows that for irrotational flow, the slope of the potential lines is
(-u/v). Referring to Eq.3.36, the slope of the streamlines is (v/u). Then the
potential lines are perpendicular to the streamlines, Fig.3.16.
Relationship between stream function () and velocity potential (φ)
Considering the stream and potential functions, the velocity components in a two-
dimensional flow are:
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑢=− , 𝑣 = (3.44)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
and
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑢=− , 𝑣 = − (3.45)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Then
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
𝑢=− =− and 𝑣 = − = (3.46)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
= and = − 𝜕𝑥 (3.47)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
3.5.3 Flow net
Fig 3.17 Flow net in an elbow

A grid obtained by drawing a series of potential lines and streamlines is called a
flow net. The flow net is an important tool in analyzing two-dimensional
irrotational flow problems. The flow through ducts or around solid bodies may be
82
solved by drawing the corresponding flow net. Figure 3.17 shows the flow net in
an elbow. The following are some important flow nets, widely used in hydraulic
engineering.
Uniform flow in x- direction
Fig. 3.18 Uniform flow in x-direction

The streamlines are all horizontal, while the potential lines are vertical, Fig.3.18.
In This case:
 = -uy (3.48)
and
φ = -ux (3.49)
Similarly for uniform flow of velocity v in y-direction:
 = -vx (3.50)
and
φ = -vy (3.51)
Source and sink
The source is a point from which fluid flows outwards uniformly in all directions.
The total flow rate is known as the strength K. The stream and potential lines at
an angle θ are:
 = K θ /2 (3.52)
and
φ = -K ln(r)/ 2 (3.53)
The sink is similar to the source, but the flow flows towards the inward direction,
Fig.3.19. The stream and potential functions are:
83
 = -K (3.54)
And
φ = K ln(r)/2 (3.55)
Source Sink
Fig. 3.19 Source and sink flow nets
Fig.3.20 Vortex Flow

Vortex
Vortex is a rotating flow around a point, Fig.3.20. For a free vortex, the fluid
rotates without energy addition.
vr=c (3.56)
then:
= K ln(r) (3.57)
and
φ = K θ/2 (3.58)
84
Combination of a source and a uniform flow in x-direction

As stream functions are scalar, then a resultant function could be obtained by
addition of the intersecting stream functions. As an example, combined source
and uniform flow in x-direction is given below, Fig.3.21.
Fig.3.21 Combined source and uniform flow in x-direction

Combined source-sink
Figure 3.21 shows a combined flow for a source and a sink.
Fig. 3.22 combined flow of source and sink

Doublet
The doublet is a combined source and sinks very close to each other. Figure 3.23
shows the doublet flow. It is widely used to simulate uniform flow around a
cylinder.
85
Fig. 3.23 doublet flow

3.6 EXERCISE
1. In a two dimensional incompressible flow the fluid velocity components
are given by: u = x - 4y and v = - y - 4x, where, u and v are the
x and y components of the flow velocity. Derive an expression for stream
function. If the flow is potential, obtain also the expression for the
velocity potential.
2. The components of velocity for a two dimensional flow are given by:
u = x y; v = x2 – y2/2
Check whether the flow is irrotational.
3. Find the components of velocity along x and y for the velocity potential
 = a cos (xy). Find also the corresponding stream function.
86
4. The stream function and velocity potential for a flow are given by
 = 2xy and  = x2 – y2
Plot and discuss the stream line pattern.
5. In a two-dimensional flow, the velocity components are u = 4y and v = -

4x. Determine the stream function. What is the pattern of streamlines?
6. A stream function in a two dimensional flow is  = 2 x y. Show that the

flow is irrotational and determine the corresponding velocity potential.
7. The velocity potential for a flow is given by the function  = x2 - y2.

Verify that the flow is incompressible and determine the stream function.
8. The velocity field in a fluid is given by: V=(3x+2y)i+(2z+3x2)j+(2t-3z)k.

i) What are the velocity components u, v, and w ?
ii) Determine the speed at the point (1,1,1).
9. Find the convective acceleration at the centerline of a pipe, which

converges uniformly from 0.4 m to 0.2 m diameter over a length of 2 m.
The rate of flow is 20 L/s. If the rate of flow changes uniformly from 20
L/s to 40 L/s in 30 seconds, find the total acceleration at 15th second.
87
4 Chapter
FLUIDS DYNAMICS
4.1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter is dedicated to the study of fluid dynamics. It treats the main
conservation equations, used in fluid mechanics:
• Mass conservation equation,
• Momentum conservation equation,
• Energy conservation equation.
4.2. MASS CONSERVATION - Continuity Equation

The law of mass conservation states that Matter cannot be created or destroyed;
but it changes from one form of matter to another.
4.2.1 Discharge and mean velocity
The velocity in a pipe is not constant over the pipe cross section. For real viscous
fluid, the velocity is zero at the walls (zero-slip phenomena) and increases to its
maximum value at the center. This variation over the section is known as the
velocity profile or velocity distribution. A typical one is shown in Fig.4.1.
Fig.4.1 A typical velocity profile over a pipe cross-section

The variation of velocity over the cross-section of the stream tube complicates
the fluid flow calculations. Therefore, in many cases, an average value of the
fluid velocity (mean velocity) is required. The mean velocity can be deduced if
the size of the pipe (pipe cross-section area A) and the discharge (fluid flow rate
Q) are known.
Consider a pipe of cross-sectional area A at section x, Fig.4.2. The mean velocity
is u. The flow rate through the section A (the discharge) is the volume of fluid
88
crossing this section during a unit time. If the fluid travels a distance L during a
time period Δt, the volume of fluid crossing the section x is AL and the oil flow
rate is
𝐴𝐿
𝑄= = 𝐴𝑢 (4.1)
𝛥𝑡
Where A = Pipe cross-section area, m2
u = Mean velocity =L/Δt, m/s
Q = Fluid flow rate (discharge), m3/s
Fig.4.2 Fluid flow through a pipe

Example 4.1 If the cross-section area, A, is 1.2x10-3 m2 and the discharge Q is
24 Liters/s, then the mean velocity, u, is:
𝑄 2.4 × 10−3
𝑢= = = 2 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 1.2 × 10−3
4.2.2 Continuity Equation
Fig.4.3 An arbitrarily shaped control volume

The continuity equation is one of the fundamental relations in fluid mechanics. It
is deduced by applying the principle of conservation of mass to a defined volume
89
in the space, known as control volume CV. The control volume is surrounded by
an imaginary surface called the control surface CS.
Consider the control volume illustrated in Fig.4.3. The mass conservation
equation, applied to a control volume, states:
(Rate of mass entering - Rate of mass leaving) through CS = (Rate of mass
(4.2)
change) in CV
For steady flow, the pressure and density at each point are constant. There is no
variation in the mass within the control volume, then;
(Mass entering per unit time)through CS = (Mass leaving per unit
(4.3)
time)through CS
The fluid particles move in streamlines, where the tangent to a streamline at a
certain point is in the direction of the fluid velocity at that point. The streamlines
don't intersect. A tubular region of fluid surrounded by streamlines is called a
stream tube. The same streamlines pass through a stream tube at all points along
its length. Consider a stream tube illustrated in Fig.4.4. No fluid flows across the
boundary. Therefore, the fluid mass enters through the cross-section 1 and leaves
through the cross-section 2. For steady flow, the application of Eq.4.3 to the
stream tube yields:
Mass entering per unit time at section 1 = Mass leaving per unit time
(4.4)
at section 2
•
Or ρ1 A1u1= ρ2 A2u2=𝑚=constant (4.5)
where m = Fluid mass, kg

ρ = Fluid density, kg/m3
Fig.4.4 A stream tube
90
Equation 4.5 is the continuity equation for a stream tube. If the fluid is
incompressible, ρ1 = ρ2 = constant, then the continuity equation has the following
form, which is the most often used form of the continuity equation, for liquids:
A1u1 = A2u2 = Q = Constant (4.6)
Continuity equation in steady three-dimensional flow
Consider a parallelepiped ABCDEFGH in a fluid flow of density ρ as shown in
Fig.4.5. Let the dimensions of the parallelepiped be dx, dy and dz along x, y and
z directions respectively and the velocity components along x, y and z be u, v and
w respectively.
The mass flow rate (kg/s), of fluid entering the section ABCD along x direction
is given by (𝜌 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦):
𝑑𝑀𝑥1 = 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 (kg/s) (4.7)
Similarly mass flow rate of fluid leaving the section EFGH along x direction is
given by:
𝜕
𝑑𝑀𝑥2 = {𝜌𝑢 + (𝜌𝑢)𝑑𝑥} 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 (4.8)
𝜕𝑥
The net gain in mass flow rate of the fluid along the x axis is given by:
𝜕
𝑑𝑀𝑥 = 𝑑𝑀𝑥1 − 𝑑𝑀𝑥2 = 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − {𝜌𝑢 + (𝜌𝑢)𝑑𝑥} 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 (4.9)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕
𝑑𝑀𝑥 = − (𝜌𝑢)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 (4.10)
𝜕𝑥
Similarly, net gain in mass flow rate of the fluid along the y and z-axes are given
by:
𝜕
𝑑𝑀𝑦 = − (𝜌𝑣)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 (4.11)
𝜕𝑦
𝜕
𝑑𝑀𝑧 = − (𝜌𝑤)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 (4.12)
𝜕𝑧
Then, the total change in mass flow rate of the fluid is given by:
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑑𝑀 = − (𝜌𝑢)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − (𝜌𝑣)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − (𝜌𝑤)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 (4.13)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
For steady state flow conditions, the net gain in mass flow rate should be zero
and hence;
91
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
{ (𝜌𝑢) + (𝜌𝑣) + (𝜌𝑤)} 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 0 (4.14)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
or { (𝜌𝑢) + (𝜌𝑣) + (𝜌𝑤)} = 0 (4.15)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
This expression is known as the general equation of continuity for steady three-
dimensional flow. If the fluid is incompressible then the density ρ is constant and
hence,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
{ + + }=0 (4.16)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Fig. 4.5 parallelepiped in a fluid flow

For two-dimensional compressible fluids, the continuity equation yields to:
𝜕 𝜕
{ (𝜌𝑢) + (𝜌𝑣)} = 0 (4.17)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
For two-dimensional incompressible fluids, the continuity equation yields:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
{ + }=0 (4.18)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
4.3. MOMENTUM EQUATION (Euler’s Equation of Fluid Dynamics)
The general statement of the Momentum Equation) is: The Rate of change of
momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force acting on it. For ideal fluids
92
(neglecting the shear forces), the momentum equation is known as Euler’s equation of
fluid dynamics.
The fluid element is subjected to body forces and surface forces. Body force is
defined as the one which acts directly on the interior particles of the body, rather
than on the boundary. A body force is distinct from a contact force in that the
force does not require contact for transmission. Typical examples of the body
forces are the forces due to gravity, electric fields and magnetic fields. It is often
convenient to talk about a body force in terms of the force per unit mass. Surface
force is the force that acts across an internal or external surface element in a material
body. Surface force can be decomposed into two perpendicular components: normal
forces and shear forces. A normal force acts normally over an area and a shear
force acts tangentially over an area.
Figure 4.6 shows an elementary fluid element of dimensions δx, δy & δz. This
fluid element, moves with acceleration ax, ay & az. It is subjected to pressure
forces and body forces per unit mass Fx, Fy & Fz in the directions x, y and z
respectively. For ideal fluid, the surface forces are only due to pressure.
Fig.4.6 Forces acting on an accelerated ideal fluid element

The application of momentum equation to this elementary volume yields:
𝜕𝑝
𝐹𝑥 (𝜌𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧) − 𝜕𝑥 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜌𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧𝑎𝑥 1 (4.19)
1 𝜕𝑝
Or 𝐹𝑥 − = 𝑎𝑥 (4.20)
𝜌 𝜕𝑥
93
1 𝜕𝑝
Similarly, 𝐹𝑦 − = 𝑎𝑦 (4.21)
𝜌 𝜕𝑦
1 𝜕𝑝
and 𝐹𝑧 − = 𝑔 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑎𝑠 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 (4.22)
𝜌 𝜕𝑧
Sometimes it is useful to use natural coordinates (s, t), where s is the distance
along a streamline, Fig. 4.7, then:
1 𝜕𝑝
𝑆− = 𝑎𝑠 (4.23)
𝜌 𝜕𝑠
Where S is the body forces per unit mass in the s-directions (along the stream
line), N/kg.
4.4. ENERGY CONSERVATION, BERNOULLI’s EQUATION
Energy conservation law (1st law of thermodynamics) states that, for a control
volume, the energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it changes from one
form to another. For ideal fluid, under certain simplifying assumptions, the
energy equation for fluid dynamics is known as Bernoulli’s equation. These
simplifying assumptions are:
➢ there are no shear forces, the fluid is ideal non viscous,
➢ the fluid is incompressible,
➢ the body forces are only due to gravity,
➢ the flow is steady,
➢ the equation is applied along a stream line.
Fig.4.7 Fluid element in natural coordinates (s,t)

In natural coordinates, along a streamline, Fig.4.7, the Euler’s equation could be
written as
94
1 𝜕𝑝
𝑆− = 𝑎𝑠 (4.24)
𝜌 𝜕𝑠
Considering the preceding assumptions, the Euler’s equation can be written as
follows:
1 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑣
−𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜗 − = 𝑣 (4.25)
𝜌 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑧
and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜗 = (4.26)
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑧 1 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑣
Then: −𝑔 − = 𝑣 (4.27)
𝑑𝑠 𝜌 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
1 𝑑𝑣 2
−𝑔𝑑𝑧 − 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = (4.28)
𝜌 2
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑣 2
+ + 𝑔𝑑𝑧 = 0 (4.29)
𝜌 2
The integration of Eq.4. 27 gives the Bernoulli’s equation (per unit mass).
𝑝 𝑣2
+ + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐾𝑚 (4.30)
𝜌 2
Where gz = Potential energy per unit mass, J/kg
Km= Total energy per unit mass, J/kg
p/ρ= Pressure energy per unit mass, J/kg
v2/2= Kinetic energy per unit mass, J/kg
z= Elevation relative to a reference level, m
Other forms of Bernoulli’s equation (B.E.), per unit volume or per unit weight
as:
𝜌𝑣 2
𝑝+ + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = 𝐾𝑣 (B.E. per unit volume) (4.31)
2
𝑝 𝑣2 (B.E per unit weight, or head-
+ +𝑧 = 𝐻 (4.32)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 form of B.E.)
Where hp = p/ρg = Pressure head; pressure energy per unit weight, m
hv = v2/2g = Velocity head; kinetic energy per unit weight, m
hz = z = Potential head; potential energy per unit weight, m
95
H = Total Head; total energy per unit weight, m

The Piezometric head, Hpiezo, is the sum of pressure and potential heads
𝑝
𝐻𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑧𝑜 = +𝑧 (4.33)
𝜌𝑔
4.5. APPLICATIONS OF BASIC EQUATIONS OF FLUID DYNAMICS
This section presents some applications of the basic conservation equations of
fluid mechanics; namely:
➢ the conservation of mass (continuity equations),
➢ the conservation of momentum, Newton’s 2nd law (Euler’s equation of
fluid dynamics),
➢ the conservation of energy (Bernoulli’s equation).
In this chapter, these equations are applied for ideal fluids and steady flow. The
fluid is assumed to be non-viscous and incompressible. For real fluids and real
flow conditions, these equations should be modified to take into consideration
different types of losses as well as the effects of fluid inertia and compressibility.
4.5.1. Applications on Continuity equation
Figure 4.8 shows a convergent pipe. The liquid is flowing in the direction from
section (1) to section (2). The application of continuity equation between (1) and
(2) yields:
ρ1 A1u1= ρ2 A2u2 (4.34)
Considering an incompressible fluid, the density is assumed to be constant;
(ρ1=ρ2=ρ). Then, Eq.4.34 is simplified to be:
A1u1= A2u2 = Constant (4.35)
Or The flow rate at section 1=The flow rate at section 2, (Q1 = Q2).
Fig.4.8 Convergent pipe
96
Example 4.2 For the pipe shown in Fig.4.9, the area A1=0.001 m2, A2 =0.003 m2
and the upstream mean velocity, u1=21 m/s, calculate the
downstream mean velocity u2.
𝐴1
𝑢2 = 𝑢1 = 7 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴2
Fig.4.9 Divergent pipe

Example 4.3 If the diameter at section 1, Fig.4.9, is d1 = 30 mm and the diameter
at section 2 is d2 = 40 mm. The mean velocity at section 2 is u2=3
m/s. Calculate the velocity of fluid entering the diffuser.
𝐴2 𝑑2 2 40 2
𝑢1 = 𝑢2 = 𝑢2 ( ) = ( ) × 3 = 5.333 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴1 𝑑1 30
Another typical application of the continuity principle is to determine the
velocities in branching pipes shown by Fig.4.10. For compressible flow;
ρ1Q1= ρ2Q2+ ρ3Q3 (4.35)
For incompressible flow;
Q1= Q2+ Q3 Or A1u1= A2u2+ A3u3 (4.37)
Example 4.4 The branching pipe shown in Fig.4.10 has the following
parameters:
Pipe 1: diameter = 50 mm, mean velocity = 2m/s,
Pipe 2: diameter = 40 mm, flow rate = 30% of that in pipe 1.
Pipe 3: diameter = 60 mm.
Calculate the discharge (flow rate) and mean velocity in each pipe.
97
Fig.4.10 Fluid flow in a branching pipe

Q1 = A1u1= 0.00393 m3/s
Q2 = 0.3Q1 = 0.3x0.00397=0.001178 m3
Q1 = Q2+ Q3
Q3 = Q1- Q2 = 0.002749 m3/s
Q2 = A2u2, u2 =Q2/A2= 0.9375 m/s
Q3 = A3u3, u3 = Q3/A3= 0.9722 m/s
4.5.2. Mass flow rate

The mass and volume flow rates are measured by numerous methods. A very
simple method is to collect the liquid flowing out of the pipe in a container over
a certain period. The mass flow rate is calculated by dividing the mass of the
collected liquid by the collection period.
Example 4.5 An empty container weighs 2 kg. After 8 seconds of collecting
water, the container weighs 8 kg.
➢ Calculate the mass flow rate.
➢ If the mass flow rate is 1.6 kg/s, calculate the time required to fill a
container with 8kg of fluid.
• 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 8−2
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑚 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 8
= 0.75𝑘𝑔/𝑠
Time = mass of collected liquid /mass flow rate = 8 /1.6 = 5 s
4.5.3. Volume flow rate (Discharge)
The volume flow rate is the volume of fluid crossing certain cross-section per
unit time. The volume flow rate is commonly known as discharge or flow rate.
The symbol normally used for discharge is q or Q. The mass flow rate is written
as:
98
•
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑄 (4.38)
Example 4.6 If the density of the fluid in example 4.5 is 900 kg/m3, calculate the
flow rate.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑/𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
Discharge Q = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
= = 0.75/900
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
= 8.33 × 10−4 𝑚3 /𝑠
4.5.4. Orifice Flow
The restrictors of fluid flow, such as the short tube orifices and sharp edged
orifices, are basic means for the control and measurement of the fluid flow rate.
This section is dedicated to study the fluid flow through these elements.
Assuming ideal fluid flow in an orifice, Fig. 4.11, the fluid particles are
accelerated from velocity v1 at section 1 to the jet velocity v2 at section 2. The
fluid flow from sections 1 to section 2 is assumed streamlined or potential flow.
In fluid dynamics, potential flow is an ideal frictionless streamlined irrotational
flow, which is a valid approximation for several applications. The application of
Bernoulli's equation between sections 1 and 2, gives:
𝑝1 𝑣1 2 𝑝2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 (4.39)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
2
Then 𝑣22 − 𝑣12 = (𝑝 − 𝑝2 ) (4.40)
𝜌 1
Fig.4.11 Flow through sharp edged orifice
99
Assuming incompressible fluid, then, the application of the continuity equation

between sections 1 and 2 yields:
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 (4.42)
The treatment of Eqs.4.40 thru 4.42 gives the following expression for the mean
velocity at the vena contracta v2.
1 2
𝑣2 = √ (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ) (4.43)
√1 − (𝐴2 /𝐴1 )2 𝜌
Actually, the jet velocity v2 is slightly less than that calculated by Eq.4.43, due
to hydraulic losses. This velocity reduction is considered by introducing the
velocity coefficient Cv, (ranging from 0.97 to 0.99 for flow through orifices),
where:
𝑅𝑒 𝑎 𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑛𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎
𝐶𝑣 = (4.44)
𝑣2
The real flow rate through orifice based Eqs. 4.43 and 4.44 is:
𝐶𝑣 𝐴2 2
𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝐶𝑣 𝑣2 = √ (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
√1 − (𝐴2 /𝐴1 )2 𝜌
(4.45)
𝐶𝑣 𝐶𝑐 2
= 𝐴𝑜 √ (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
√1 − (𝐴2 /𝐴1 )2 𝜌
If the area A2 is too small compared with A1 then the term (A2/A1)2 is negligible
and Eq. 4.45 becomes:
2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √ 𝛥𝑝 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ (4.46)
𝜌
where CC = =A2/Ao = Contraction coefficient

Cd = Discharge coefficient = Cv Cc.
CV = Velocity coefficient, typically = 0.97 to 0.99 for orifice flow
h= pressure head difference across the orifice = Δp/ρg, m
v= Average fluid velocity, m/s.
Δp = p1-p2= Pressure difference across the orifice, Pa
100
For a round edged orifice, the contraction coefficient can be calculated using the
following expression (Merritt, 1967).
1
𝐶𝑐 =
2 𝐷 𝐶𝑐 𝑑 𝐶𝑐 𝑑 (4.47)
1 + 𝜋 (𝐶 𝑑 − 𝐷 ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝐷 )
𝑐
where D = Pipe diameter, m

d = Orifice diameter, m
The variation of contraction coefficient with diameters ratio (d/D) is plotted in
Fig.4.12.
For sharp edged orifice, if the orifice diameter is too small; d<<D, then:
𝐷 𝐶𝑐 𝑑
tan-1(Ccd/D)= (Ccd/D) and ≫ (4.48)
𝐶𝑐 𝑑 𝐷
The contraction coefficient is given as: 𝐶𝐶 = 𝜋/(𝜋 + 2) = 0.611.
Fig.4.12 Contraction coefficient of round sharp-edged orifice

The pressure and power losses in sharp edged orifices are dominated by the fluid
inertia (vortex effect). The fluid viscosity has no significant effect on their
operation due to the very short path length in the sharp-edged orifice. Then, the
velocity coefficient is practically equal to 1 and the discharge coefficient
Cd = CC. Therefore, the sharp-edged orifices are preferred because of their
101
predictable characteristics. However, for economy, short tube orifices are widely
used, especially for fixed restrictors.
The fluid flow through short tube orifices is subjected to friction losses as well
as local losses at inlet and outlet. Therefore, these orifices are viscosity
dependent. The discharge coefficient depends on the Reynolds number
(𝑅𝑒 = 𝑣𝐷/𝜈) and orifice geometry. The following expressions could be used to
calculate the discharge coefficient for laminar and turbulent regions (Merritt,
1967).
𝐶𝑑 = {1.5 + 13.74(𝐿/𝐷𝑅𝑒)1/2 }−1/2 For 𝐷𝑅𝑒 /𝐿 > 50 (4.49)
64𝐿 −1/2
𝐶𝑑 = {2.28 + } For 𝐷𝑅𝑒 /𝐿 < 50 (4.50)
𝐷𝑅𝑒
The variation of discharge coefficient with (Re D/L), calculated using Eqs.4.49
& 4.50, is plotted in Fig.4.13, where L is the orifice length.
Fig.4.13 Discharge coefficient of a short tube orifice

4.5.5. Application of the Momentum Equation
In this section, the momentum equation is applied to calculate the resultant fluid
force on a control volume. The analysis is carried out according to the following
procedure:
1. Draw a control volume,
2. Choose a co-ordinate system,
102
3. Calculate the velocity at inlet and outlet of the control volume,

4. Calculate the momentum forces, the pressure forces, the body
forces and the resultant forces.
Fig.4.14 A perpendicular jet

Fig.4.15 Control volume
hitting a plane
Consider a free jet hitting a flat plate at an angle of 90o, as shown in Fig.4.14.
Step 1: Draw the define control volume, as shown in Fig.4.15,
Step 2: Define the coordinates,
Step 3: Calculate the velocity from energy and continuity equations ,
Step 4: Calculate the momentum force
𝐹𝑚𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄 (𝑢2𝑥 − 𝑢1𝑥 ) = −𝜌𝑄𝑢1𝑥 (4.51)
As the system is symmetrical w.r.t. the x-axis, the forces in the y-direction are
canceled; Fmy=0.
Step 5: Calculate the pressure force. The pressure force is zero as the pressure
at both the inlet and the outlets to the control volume are atmospheric.
Step 6: Calculate the body force. If the flow is steady, the only existing body
force is the gravity force. Then, as the control volume is too small, the
body force (weight) is negligible with respect to the momentum force.
Step 7: Calculate the resultant force acting on the fluid
𝐹𝑚𝑥 = −𝜌𝑄𝑢1𝑥 (4.52)
The total force on the plane is of the same magnitude as FTx, but it is opposite in
direction;
103
The total force on the plane is 𝑅 = −𝐹𝑚𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄𝑢1𝑥 (4.53)

In the case of an inclined velocity vector, consider a two-dimensional system,
Fig.4.16. At inlet, the velocity vector, u1, makes an angle,𝜗1 with the x-axis. The
outlet velocity vector u2 make an angle𝜗2 . Resolve the forces in the directions of
the co-ordinate axes.
Fig.4.16 Two-dimensional stream tube Fig. 4.17

The resultant force in this case the momentum force only. acting on the fluid is:
The momentum force is → → −→ • → → (4.54)

𝐹𝑚 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑢 2 𝑢1 ) = 𝑚(𝑢 2 − 𝑢1 )
The force in the x-direction is: 𝐹𝑚 𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜗2 − 𝑢1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜗1 ) (4.55)
The force in the y-direction is: 𝐹𝑚𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜗2 − 𝑢1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜗1 ) (4.56)
The resultant force: 2 + 𝐹2

𝐹𝑚𝑅 = √𝐹𝑚𝑥 (4.57)
𝑚𝑦
The resultant force acts on the fluid at an angle 𝜙 with the horizontal direction,
where:
The angle 𝜙 is 𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝐹𝑚𝑦 /𝐹𝑚𝑥 ) (4.58)
The force exerted by the fluid on the plane (R) is opposite to F R. So, the reaction
force is R.
The force exerted by the fluid on the →
𝑅 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑢
⃑1−𝑢
⃑⃗2 ) (4.59)
plane (R) is
104
4.5.6 Applications of Bernoulli’s equation

Bernoulli’s equation is usually used to calculate the pressure, velocity and
potential heads for a flow in a stream tube or along a streamline.
Free jet flow
Figure 4.18 shows a jet of liquid flow from a pipe with velocity u 1. One particle
of the liquid with mass m travels with the jet and falls from height z1 to z2. The
particle velocity changes from u1 to u2. The jet is traveling in air where the
pressure is everywhere atmospheric. Neglecting the air friction, the only acting
force is that due to gravity. The application of Bernoulli’s equation between
points 1 & 2 gives:
𝑝1 𝑢12 𝑝2 𝑢22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 (4.60)
p1 = p2 = patm (4.61)
Then,
1 2 1 2
𝑧1 + 𝑢1 = 𝑧2 + 𝑢 or 𝑢2 = √2𝑔(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) + 𝑢12 (4.62)
2𝑔 2𝑔 2
Fig.4.18 The Trajectory of a free jet of liquid

Flow from a reservoir
The hydraulic reservoirs are widely used in engineering applications. The
problems of reservoir emptying, pressure forces on the reservoir walls and inertia
forces due to reservoir motion (in tankers) are among the serious problems treated
by the fluid mechanics.
Consider an open, non-pressurized reservoir shown in Fig.4.19. The level of the
liquid in the reservoir is z1. At the surface, the velocity of liquid is too slow.
105
Therefore, the kinetic energy is neglected at point 1. The potential energy is mgz1.
A pipe is attached to the tank side wall. The liquid flows through this pipe out of
the tank at a level z2. The application of Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 &
2 gives:
𝑝1 𝑢12 𝑝2 𝑢22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 (4.63)
Where, 𝑝1 = 𝑝2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢1 = 0
𝑢22
then: 𝑧1 = + 𝑧2 or 𝑢2 = √2𝑔(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) (4.64)
2𝑔
Fig.4.19 An idealized reservoir

Example 4.7: A reservoir of water has the surface at 3.1 m above the outlet
nozzle of a pipe with diameter 15mm. Neglect all friction in the
nozzle and pipe and calculate:
(a) The velocity and the discharge out of the nozzle
(b) The mass flow rate
𝑢2 = √2𝑔(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) = √2 × 9.81 × 3.1 = 7.799 𝑚/𝑠

The flow rate equals the area of the nozzle multiplied by the
velocity.
𝜋
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑢2 = × 0.0152 × 7.799 = 1.378 × 10−3 𝑚3 /𝑠
4
If the density of water is 1000 kg/m3, so the mass flow rate is:
106
•
𝑚 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝜌𝑄 = 1000 × 1.378 ×
10−3 = 1.378 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
Flow in a conduit
The velocities and pressures at points in the fluid flow can be calculated by
applying the Bernoulli equation combined with the continuity equation. A typical
example of this practice is to apply the Bernoulli’s equation to determine pressure
and velocity within a contracting expanding pipe.
Example 4.8 A fluid of constant density ρ = 960 kg/m3 flows steadily through a
tube, Fig.4.20. The diameters at sections 1 and 2 are d 1=80 mm
and d2= 100 mm. The gauge pressure at section 1 is p1=200 kPa
and the velocity is u1=5 m/s. Calculate the gauge pressure at
section 2.
Fig.4.20 A contracting expanding pipe

Apply the Bernoulli equation along a streamline connecting
section 1 with section 2. The tube is horizontal, with z1 = z2, so
the Bernoulli equation gives:
𝑝1 𝑢12 𝑝2 𝑢22
+ = +
𝜌
Or 𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + (𝑢12 − 𝑢22 )
2
The velocity u2 is calculated by applying the continuity equation

between sections 1 & 2.
𝐴1 𝑢1 = 𝐴2 𝑢2
𝐴1 𝑢1 𝑑1 2 80 2
Thus, 𝑢2 = = 𝑢1 ( ) = 5 ( ) = 3.2 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴2 𝑑2 100
960 2
𝑝2 = 200000 + (5 − 3. 22 ) = 207100𝑃𝑎
2
= 207.1 𝑘𝑃𝑎
107
Notice how the velocity has decreased while the pressure has
increased. This phenomenon is, sometimes, very useful in
engineering. The carburetor works on this principle in many
vehicle engines. The pressure reduces in a contraction, forcing
fuel to enter into the carburetor.
Pressure head, velocity head, potential head and total head
This section illustrates the distribution of the different types of heads; pressure
head, velocity head, potential head and total head. Consider a reservoir feeding a
pipeline of constant diameter, Fig.4.21. Apply the Bernoulli equation along a
streamline from point 1 on the surface of the reservoir to point 2 at the outlet
nozzle of the pipe. If the losses are negligible, the total head H is constant along
a streamline.
𝑝1 𝑢12 𝑝2 𝑢22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 = 𝐻 (4.65)
Fig.4.21 Piezometer levels for flowing fluid in a constant diameter pipe

At point 1, on the reservoir surface, the pressure is atmospheric, p1=0. The surface
is moving very slowly compared to that in the pipe so u1= 0. Then, the total head
H = z1. Figure 4.21 shows the total energy line (TEL) drawn at distance z1 from
the horizontal datum line. The fluid levels in the piezometers are less than that at
the reservoir by a constant value. The hydraulic grade line (HG) is the line drawn
below the TEL by a distance equal to the velocity head (u2/2g), as long as the
108
losses are negligible. It indicates the pressure head distribution, measured from
the pipe center line.
What would happen if the pipe were not of constant diameter? Figure 4.22 shows
the case when the constant diameter pipe is replaced by another pipe of three
sections, 3, 4 & 5, with the middle section 4 of larger diameter. The velocity head
at each pipe section is different. This is because the velocity is different at each
section. The mid pipe section has greater diameter, smaller velocity and smaller
velocity head. Therefore, the hydraulic gradient line shows higher total pressure
head at this pipe section. This graphical representation shows clearly the
pressures in the system.
Fig.4.22 Piezometer levels and velocity heads for fluid flowing in varying
diameter pipes
Piezo-meter and Pitot tube
A stream of uniform velocity flows over a body causes frictional and pressure
drag. If the drag is dominated by a frictional component, the body is called a
streamlined body; whereas in the case of dominant pressure drag, the body is
called a blunt body. Figure 4.23 shows the flow over a blunt body. In the center,
the fluid goes to the tip of the blunt body and stops at a stagnation point 2. The
pressure at this point can be calculated by applying Bernoulli equation between
points 1 and 2, neglecting the friction losses in this zone.
109
𝑝1 𝑢12 𝑝2 𝑢22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 (4.66)
The velocity u2 = 0 and z1 = z2, then:
𝑝1 𝑢12 𝑝2 𝜌𝑢12
+ = or 𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + (4.67)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2
The pressure component (𝜌𝑢2 /2) is called the dynamic pressure, while the
pressure p1 is called the static pressure. The pressure p2 at which u2 = 0, is named
total pressure.
Fig.4.23 Stream lines around a blunt body

If the blunt body is replaced by a body, with an axial hole, connected to a
piezometer, the piezometer reads a height equal to the total head (h2), Fig.4.24.
The fluid at the inlet of axial hole has zero velocity. By using another piezometer,
fitted vertically to the tube, the static pressure could be measured (h 1). The fluid
velocity can be calculated by knowing the piezometers readings (h1 & h2) as
follows:
𝜌𝑢12
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + , p1=ρgh1 & p2=ρgh2 (4.68)
2
𝜌𝑢12
𝜌gh2 = 𝜌gh1 + (4.69)
2
𝜌𝑢12
Then, 𝜌𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) = and 𝑢1 = √2𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) (4.70)
2
The need for two piezometers and two head readings makes this arrangement
complicated, Fig.4.24. Connecting the piezometers to a manometer would
simplify the construction.
110
Fig.4.24 Piezometer (1) and Pitot tube (2)

The Pitot static tube combines the two tubes so that they can be easily connected
to a manometer, Fig.4.25. The holes on the side of the tube connect to one side
of a manometer and read the static head. The central hole connects to the other
side of the manometer to read the stagnation head. The flowing fluid density is
ρ, while the density of manometer fluid is ρm.
Fig.4.25 Pitot-static tube

The velocity of the stream can be obtained by applying of Bernoulli equation and
the theory of the manometer to the Pitot tube as follows;
𝑝𝐵 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑥 (4.71)
𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑔(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ, (4.72)
𝜌𝑢2
𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑝1 + and 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝𝐵 (4.73)
2
111
The treatment of Eq. 4.71 thru 4.73 yields:

𝜌𝑢2
𝑝1 + + 𝜌𝑔𝑥 = 𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑔(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ (4.74)
2
𝜌𝑢2
ℎ𝑔(𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌) = (4.75)
2
𝑢 = √2𝑔ℎ(𝜌𝑚 /𝜌 − 1) (4.76)
Venturi Meter
The Venturi meter (Convergent divergent nozzle) is a device for measuring the
flow rate (discharge) in a pipe, Fig.4.26. It consists of a converging section, which
increases the velocity of flow and hence reduces the pressure. It then returns to
the original dimensions of the pipe by a slightly diverging diffuser section. By
measuring the pressure differences, the discharge can be calculated. This is a
particularly accurate method of flow measurement since the energy losses are
very small. An expression for the flow rate through the Venturi meter can be
derived by applying the Bernoulli equation along the streamline from point 1 to
point 2 in the narrow throat of the Venturi meter.
𝑝1 𝑢12 𝑝2 𝑢22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 (4.77)
𝑄 = 𝑢1 𝐴1 = 𝑢2 𝐴2 (4.78)
𝑢1 𝐴1
𝑢2 = (4.79)
𝐴2
Substituting Eq. 4.79 into Eq. 4.77 yields:
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 𝑢12
+ 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = {(𝐴1 /𝐴2 )2 − 1} (4.80)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑝 −𝑝
2𝑔 { 1 𝜌𝑔 2 + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )} 𝐴2 𝑝1 − 𝑝2
𝑢1 = √ 2 = √ 2𝑔 { + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )} (4.81)
𝐴1 √𝐴2
− 𝐴2 𝜌𝑔
(𝐴 ) − 1 1 2
2
The theoretical discharge equals the product of this velocity by the area
(Qideal=u1A1). To get the actual discharge, the losses due to friction should be
considered. This is carried out by introducing a coefficient of discharge Cd.
112
𝐶𝑑 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝑝1 − 𝑝2
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = √2𝑔 { + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )} (4.82)
√𝐴21 − 𝐴22 𝜌𝑔
The flow rate can also be expressed in terms of the manometer readings as
follows.
𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ + 𝜌𝑔(𝑧2 − ℎ) (4.83)
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 𝜌𝑚
+ 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = ℎ ( − 1) (4.84)
𝜌𝑔 𝜌
Consequently, the discharge can be expressed in terms of the manometer reading:
𝜌 𝜌
2𝑔ℎ ( 𝜌𝑚 − 1) 2𝑔ℎ ( 𝜌𝑚 − 1)
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴1 𝐴2 √ = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2 √ (4.85)
𝐴21 − 𝐴22 1 − (𝐴2 /𝐴1 )2
Where ρm = Manometer fluid density, kg/m3

Notice how this expression does not include any terms for the elevation or
orientation (z1 or z2) of the Venturi-meter. This means that the meter can be at
any convenient angle.
Fig.4.26 Venturi meter
113
The purpose of the diffuser in a Venturi meter is to insure gradual and steady
deceleration after the throat. This design ensures that the pressure rises again to
some value near to the pressure level at the inlet of Venturi meter. The angle of
the diffuser is usually between 8o and 12o. Wider angles lead to flow separation
from the walls, resulting in increased pressure loss. For smaller value of angle,
the meter becomes very long and pressure losses again become significant.
Flow over notches and weirs
A notch is an opening in the side of a tank or reservoir, which extends above the
surface of the liquid. It is usually a device for controlling and measuring
discharge in open channels. A weir is a notch on a larger scale, usually found in
rivers. It may be sharp crested but also may have a substantial width in the
direction of flow.
The following assumptions are commonly considered for flow through weirs:
➢ The velocity of the fluid approaching the weir is small so that
kinetic energy is negligible.
➢ The velocity through any elemental strip depends only on the depth
below the free surface.
To determine the theoretical flow through a weir, consider a horizontal element
of width b and depth h below the free surface, as shown by Fig.4.27.
Fig.4.27 Elementary strip of flow through a weir

Velocity through the area element δA is:
𝑢 = √2𝑔ℎ (4.86)
The discharge through the element,𝛿𝐴,
𝛿𝑄 = 𝑢𝛿𝐴 = 𝑏𝛿ℎ√2𝑔ℎ (4.87)
114
Integrating from the free surface, h=0, to the weir crest, h=H, gives the total
theoretical discharge as:
𝐻
⁄
𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = √2𝑔 ∫ 𝑏ℎ1 2 𝑑ℎ (4.88)
0
For a rectangular weir, Fig.4.28, the width is constant, b=B.

𝐻
⁄ 2
𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐵√2𝑔ℎ ∫ ℎ1 2 𝑑ℎ = 𝐵√2𝑔𝐻 3⁄2 (4.89)
0 3
To calculate the actual discharge, the losses due to friction should be considered
by introducing the coefficient of discharge, Cd. This coefficient accounts for
losses at the edges of the weir as well as the contractions in the area flow.
2
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐵√2𝑔𝐻3⁄2 (4.90)
3
Fig.4.29 V-notch, or triangular, weir

Fig.4.28 A rectangular weir
For the V-notch weir, Fig.4.29, the relationship between width and depth is
dependent on the angle of the "V" shape.
If the angle of the V-notch is 𝜗, then the width, b, at depth h from the free surface
is:
𝜗
𝑏 = 2(𝐻 − ℎ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) (4.91)
2
Substitution for b in the general equation of weir, Eq.4.88, gives:
𝜗 𝐻 ⁄
𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 2√2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) ∫ (𝐻 − ℎ)ℎ1 2 𝑑ℎ (4.92)
2 0
𝜗 2 ⁄ 2 ⁄ 𝐻
𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 2√2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) [ 𝐻ℎ3 2 − ℎ5 2 ] (4.93)
2 3 5 0
115
8 5⁄2
𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = √2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜗⁄2) ℎ (4.94)
15
Again, the actual discharge is obtained by introducing a coefficient of discharge
8 5⁄2
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑑 √2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜗⁄2) ℎ (4.95)
15
Emptying of Tanks
The time required for tank empting can be estimated by considering the flow rate
at any time t, then calculating the volume of liquid during a time interval t.
Consequently, by integrating the volume equation, the required emptying time is
estimated.
Example 4.9 A rectangular swimming pool, Fig.4.30, is 1m deep at one end and
increases uniformly in depth to 2.6 m at the other end. The pool
is 8 m wide and 32 m long. it is emptied through an orifice of
area ao= 0.224 m2, at the lowest point in the side of the deep end.
Taking Cd for the orifice as 0.6, find, from the first principles,
a) The time for the water level to fall by 1m
b) The time to empty the pool completely
Fig.4.30
The flow rate through orifices at any time t can be calculated
by using the following equation:
2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √ 𝛥𝑝 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ
𝜌
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜 𝑣2 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ
116
= 0.6 × 0.224 × √2 × 9.807√ℎ = 0.595√ℎ

During a time interval t the emptied volume is:
𝑄𝑑𝑡 = −𝐴𝑑ℎ
Or
𝐴 𝐴
𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑑ℎ = − 𝑑ℎ
𝑄 0.595√ℎ
The total time for the liquid level to fall from h1 to h2 is
ℎ2
𝐴
𝑇 = −∫ 𝑑ℎ
ℎ1 0.595√ℎ
a) The time for the water level to fall by 1m
For the first 1m depth, A = 8 x 32 = 256, whatever the height
is.
So, for the first period:
ℎ2
1
𝑇 = −430.25 ∫ ℎ−0.5 𝑑ℎ = −430.25 × (ℎ0.5 0.5
2 − ℎ1 )
ℎ1 0.5
= 860.5(ℎ10.5 − ℎ0.52 )
= 860.5 × (2. 60.5 − 1. 60.5 ) = 299𝑠
b) The time to empty the pool completely;
It is necessary to find an expression for the area A in terms of h
A=8L
𝐿 ℎ
=
32 1.6
then 𝐴 = 160ℎ
ℎ2 0
160ℎ
𝑇 = −∫ 𝑑ℎ = −268.9 ∫ ℎ0.5 𝑑ℎ
ℎ1 0.595√ℎ ℎ1
2 0
= −268.9 × × ℎ1.5 |ℎ = 179.27 × 1. 61.5
3 1
= 362.81 𝑠
Total time for emptying is, T = 362.81 + 299 = 661.81 s
117
4.6 EXERCISE
1. In a vertical pipe carrying water, pressure gauges are inserted at points
A and B where the pipe diameters are 0.15m and 0.075m respectively.
The point B is 2.5m below A. When the flow rate down the pipe is 0.02
m3/s, the pressure at B is 14715 N/m2 greater than that at A. Assuming
the losses in the pipe between A and B can be expressed as 𝑘(𝑣 2 /2𝑔)
where v is the velocity at A, find the value of k. If the gauges at A and B
are replaced by tubes filled with water and connected to a U-tube
containing mercury of relative density 13.6, give a sketch showing how
the levels in the two limbs of the U-tube differ and calculate the value of
this difference in meters.
[k = 0.319, 0.0794m]
2. A Venturi meter with an entrance diameter of 0.3m and a throat diameter
of 0.2m is used to measure the volume of gas flowing through a pipe.
The discharge coefficient of the meter is 0.96. Assuming the specific
weight of the gas to be constant at 19.62 N/m3, calculate the volume
flowing when the pressure difference between the entrance and the throat
is measured as 0.06m on a water U-tube manometer.
[0.816 m3/s]
3. A Venturi meter is used for measuring flow of water in a pipe. The
diameter of the Venturi throat is two fifths the diameter of the pipe. The
inlet and throat are connected, by water-filled tubes, to a mercury U-tube
manometer. The velocity of flow along the pipe is found to be 2.5√ℎ m/s,
where h is the manometer reading in meters of mercury. Determine the
loss of head between inlet and throat of the Venturi when H is 0.49m.
(the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6).
[0.23m of water]
4. A closed tank has an orifice 0.025m diameter in one of its vertical sides.
The tank contains oil to a depth of 0.61m above the center of the orifice
and the pressure in the air space above the oil is maintained at 13780 Pa.
Determine the discharge from the orifice. (Coefficient of discharge of the
orifice is 0.61, the specific gravity of oil is 0.9).
[0.00195 m3/s]
118
5. Water is discharging from a tank through a convergent-divergent

mouthpiece. The exit from the tank is rounded so that losses there may
be neglected and the minimum diameter is 0.05m. The head in the tank
above the mouthpiece centerline is 1.83m.
a) What is the discharge?
b) What must be the diameter at the exit, if the absolute pressure at the
minimum area is to be 2.44m of water?
c) What would the discharge be if the divergent part of the mouthpiece
were removed? (Assume atmospheric pressure is 10m of water).
[0.0752m, 0.0266m3/s, 0.0118m3/s]
6. The discharge coefficient of a Venturi meter was found to be constant
for rates of flow exceeding certain value. Show that, for this condition,
the loss of head due to friction in the convergent parts of the meter can
be expressed as KQ2 m. Where K is a constant and Q is the rate of flow
in m3/s. Obtain the value of K if the inlet and throat diameter of the
Venturi meter are 0.102m and 0.05m respectively and the discharge
coefficient is 0.96.
[K=1060]
7. A Venturi meter is fitted in a horizontal pipe of 0.15m diameter to
measure a flow of water up to 240m3/hour. The pressure head at the inlet
for this flow is 18m and the pressure head at the throat must not be lower
-7m. Between the inlet and the throat, there is an estimated frictional loss
of 10% of the difference in pressure head between these points. Calculate
the minimum allowable diameter for the throat.
[0.063m]
8. A Venturi meter of throat diameter 0.076m is fitted in a 0.152m diameter
vertical pipe in which liquid of specific gravity 0.8 flows downwards.
Pressure gauges are fitted to the inlet and to the throat sections. The
throat is at 0.914m below the inlet. Taking the coefficient of discharge
as 0.97 find the discharge:
a) when the pressure gauges read the same
b) when the inlet gauge reads 15170 Pa higher than the throat gauge.
[0.0192m3/s, 0.034m3/s]
119
9. Deduce an expression for the discharge of water over a right-angled

sharp edged V-notch, given that the coefficient of discharge is 0.61. A
rectangular tank 16m by 6m has the same notch in one of its short vertical
sides. Determine the time taken for the head, measured from the bottom
of the notch, to fall from 15cm to 7.5cm.
[1399 seconds]
10. Derive an expression for the discharge over a sharp edged rectangular
weir. A sharp edged weir is to be constructed across a stream in which
the normal flow is 200 liters/s. If the maximum flow likely to occur in
the stream is 5 times the normal flow, determine the width of weir
necessary to limit the rise in water level to 38.4cm above that for normal
flow. Cd=0.61.
[1.24m]
11. Show that the rate of flow across a triangular notch is 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐾𝐻 5⁄2
m3/s, where Cd is an experimental coefficient, K depends on the angle of
the notch, and H is the height of the undisturbed water level above the
bottom of the notch in meters. State the reasons for the introduction of
the coefficient.
The water from a tank having a surface area of 10m2 flows over a 90o
notch. It is found that the time taken to lower the level from 8cm to 7cm
above the bottom of the notch is 43.5 seconds. Determine the coefficient
Cd assuming that it remains constant during this period.
[0.635]
2
12. A reservoir with vertical sides has a plan area of 56000m . Discharge
from the reservoir takes place over a rectangular weir, the flow
characteristic of which is 𝑄 = 1.77𝐵𝐻 3⁄2 m3/s. At times of maximum
rainfall, water flows into the reservoir at the rate of 9m3/s. Find:
a) the width of weir required to discharge this quantity if head must
not exceed 0.6m.
b) the time necessary for the head to drop from 60 cm to 30 cm, if
the inflow is suddenly stopped.
[10.94m, 3093seconds]
120
13. Develop a formula for the discharge over a 90o V-notch weir in terms of
head above the bottom of the notch. A channel conveys 300 liters/s of
water. At the outlet end there is a 90o V-notch weir for which the
coefficient of discharge is 0.58. At what distance above the bottom of the
channel should the weir be placed in order to make the depth in the
channel 1.30m? With the weir in this position what is the depth of water
in the channel when the flow is 200 liters/s?
[0.755m, 1.218m]
14. A horizontal boiler shell (a horizontal cylinder) 2 m diameter and 10m
long is half-full of water. Find the time of emptying the shell through a
short pipe, of 0.08 m diameter, attached to the bottom of the shell. Take
the coefficient of discharge to be 0.8.
[1370 seconds]
15. The force exerted by a 25mm diameter jet against a flat plate normal to
the axis of the jet is 650N. What is the flow rate in m3/s?
[0.018 m3/s]
16. A reservoir of circular cross-section has sides sloping at an angle of
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 1/5) to the horizontal. When the reservoir is full, the diameter
of the water surface is 50m. Discharge from the reservoir takes place
through a pipe of diameter 0.65m, the outlet being 4m below top water
level. Determine the time for the water level to fall 2 m assuming the
discharge to be(0.75𝑎√2𝑔ℎ), where a is the cross sectional area of the
pipe in m2 and H is the head of water above the outlet in m.
121
[1325 s]
17. A vertical cylindrical tank 2m diameter has, at the bottom, a 5mm
diameter sharp edged orifice for which the discharge coefficient is 0.6.
a) If water enters the tank at a constant rate of 0.0095 m3/s find the depth
of water above the orifice when the level in the tank becomes stable.
b) Find the time for the level to fall from 3m to 1m above the orifice
when the inflow is turned off.
c) If water now flows into the tank at 0.02 m3/s, the orifice remains open,
find the rate of rise in water level when the level has reached a depth
of 1.7m above the orifice.
[a) 3.314m, b) 881 seconds, c) 0.252m/min]
122
18. Two upright cylinders contain liquid are connected by a submerged

orifice. The diameters of the cylinders are 1.75m and 1.0m and of the
orifice, 0.08m. The difference in levels of the liquid is initially 1.35m.
Find how long it will take this difference to be reduced to 0.66 m, if the
coefficient of discharge for the orifice is 0.605. (Start from first
principles.)
[30.7 s]
19. A rectangular reservoir with vertical walls has a plan area of 60000m 2.
Discharge from the reservoir take place over a rectangular weir. The
flow characteristics of the weir is Q = 0.678 H3/2 m3/s, where H is the
depth of water above the weir crest. The sill of the weir is 3.4m above
the bottom of the reservoir. Starting with a depth of water of 4m in the
reservoir and no inflow, what will be the depth of water after one hour?
[3.98 m]
123
Chapter 5
Steady State
Incompressible Fluid Flow
in Hydraulic Conduits
5.1. INTRODUCTION
For incompressible real (viscous) flow; the following basic concepts should be
considered:
➢ Viscous forces (shear forces) are not negligible,
➢ There is no slip between fluid and boundaries (no-slip
assumption).
These concepts result in non-uniform velocity distribution near the flow
boundaries. The boundary layer, firstly defined by Prandtl at 1904, is defined as
the fluid layer near the boundary at which the velocity gradient≠ 0, Fig. 5.1.
Fig.5.1 Boundary layer (BL)

The main shear stress exists inside the boundary layer (B.L) due to existence of
velocity gradient.
5.2. REAL FLOW IN CONDUITS
Hydraulic conduits are used to transmit fluids in hydraulic systems. Generally,
these conduits are either rigid tubing (pipes) or flexible (hoses). Regardless to
their simple design, the hydraulic conduits have an important effect on the steady
state and transient behavior of the system. The transmission lines affect the
system performance due to:
(a) hydraulic friction losses in pipes. (energy losses due to shear effect);
(b) hydraulic local, or secondary losses, (energy losses due to vortices)
124
(c) hydraulic capacitance of line, due to the effect of oil compressibility

and elasticity of pipe wall material;
(d) hydraulic inertia of line due to the effect of oil inertia;.
In conduit flow, and due to boundary layer, the velocity distribution across the
conduit is not uniform. The flow velocity is usually assumed to enter the conduit
uniformly. The length at which the B.L. is established, fully developed, is known
as the entrance length (Le), (Fig. 5.2).
Fig.5.2 Entrance length for flow in a pipe

At lengths greater than the entrance length Le, the flow velocity reaches its final
form and the flow becomes fully developed.
5.3. HYDRAULIC LOSSES IN PIPES
For real flow in conduits, hydraulic losses (energy losses) occur due to both shear
forces and vortices. In this case Bernoulli’s equation, for a stream flow between
two points 1 & 2, will be modified by adding the hydraulic losses term h L12;
𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝐿12 (5.1)
Equation 5.1 is known as the energy equation. The hydraulic losses hL12 between
the two points 1 &2 are due to:
➢ friction losses hLF, due to friction along the conduit
➢ local losses hLL(secondary or minor losses),
5.4. FRICTION LOSSES IN PIPELINES
The pressure losses in the pipelines are mainly due to the following:
➢ Hydraulic friction between fluid layers and boundaries (dynamic
viscosity effect),
➢ Momentum exchange between fluid layers (eddy viscosity effect),
➢ Vortex effect (geometry and surface roughness effect)
125
The pressure losses would be expressed in terms of the following parameters.

➢ Pipe geometry (length L, diameter D, shape and surface roughness ɛ),
➢ Fluid properties (viscosity μ and density ρ),
➢ Flow properties (velocity v and Reynolds number, Re = ρDv/μ, which
measures the ratio inertia/shear forces].
The friction losses in a pipeline can be calculated by the following equation;
called Darcy equation.
𝐿 𝑣2 𝐿 𝜌𝑣 2
ℎ𝐿𝐹 = 𝜆 𝐷 2𝑔 Or 𝛥𝑝𝐿𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐿𝐹 = 𝜆 𝐷 (5.2)
2
where D =Pipe diameter (m)

hLF =Hydraulic friction losses, (m)
L =Pipe length (m)
ΔpLF=Pressure losses, Pa
ƛ =Friction loss coefficient, depends on Re and surface roughness.
v =Fluid velocity, m/s
5.4.1. Laminar Flow in Pipelines
Fig.5.3 Cylindrical fluid element Fig.5.4 Shear stress distribution

moving at the pipe center
The friction losses are mainly due to the shear stress, resulting from the viscosity
effect. In general, it is difficult to measure the shear stress distribution𝜏. For
laminar flow it is possible to derive mathematical expressions for the shear force,
velocity distribution and friction loss coefficient 𝜆.
In the case of steady laminar flow, the flow is looked at as laminates sliding
relative to each other. In pipes, laminar flow can considered as a series of
concentric cylinders sliding over each other, like the cylinders of a collapsible
pocket telescope. Consider a cylindrical fluid element of length dx, radius r,
flowing steadily in the center of a pipe, Fig.5.3. The forces acting on the fluid
126
element are in equilibrium, so the shearing forces on the cylinder are equal to the
pressure forces.
2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑥𝜏 = 𝑑𝑝𝐴 = 𝑑𝑝𝜋𝑟 2 (5.3)
Or:
1 𝑑𝑝
𝜏= 𝑟 (5.4)
2 𝑑𝑥
The term (dp/dx) is the pressure gradient along the pipe. It varies from point to
point along the x-axis. However, for steady laminar flow, it does not change
across the pipe. Meanwhile, the shear stress (𝜏) is linearly dependent on the radial
distance r, Fig.5.4.
Fig. 5.5 Velocity distribution across the pipe

An expression for the velocity distribution can be deduced as follows:
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇 (5.5)
𝑑𝑦
𝑦=𝑅−𝑟 (5.6)
Then:
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
=− and 𝜏 = −𝜇 (5.7)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑢
𝜏= 𝑟 = −𝜇 (5.8)
2𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑟
Or:
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑝
=− 𝑟 (5.9)
𝑑𝑟 2𝜇 𝑑𝑥
By integration, the following expression for the velocity (u) at a point of distance
r from the center is obtained.
127
1 𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑝 2
𝑢=− ∫ 𝑟𝑑𝑟 = − 𝑟 +𝑐 (5.10)
2𝜇 𝑑𝑥 4𝜇 𝑑𝑥
At the center of the pipe, r = 0, u = umax, while, at the pipe wall, r = R, u = 0. The
integration constant c is then
1 𝑑𝑝 2
𝑐= 𝑅 (5.11)
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥
Then, for laminar flow, the velocity at a point at distance r from the pipe center
is:
1 𝑑𝑝 2
𝑢= (𝑅 − 𝑟 2 ) (5.12)
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥
The maximum velocity is at the pipe axis, r=0;
1 𝑑𝑝2 1 𝑑𝑝2
𝑢 (5.13)
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥 16𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Note that the velocity distribution is parabolic (of the form y = ax2 + b), Eq.5.12.
Figure 5.5 shows this velocity distribution.
The flow rate in pipe is calculated as follows:
𝜋 𝑑𝑝 2
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑢𝑑𝐴 = 𝑢(2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟) = (𝑅 − 𝑟 2 )𝑟𝑑𝑟 (5.14)
2𝜇 𝑑𝑥
For a pipe of length L, the pressure gradient can be written as:
𝑑𝑝 𝛥𝑝
= (5.15)
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
then
𝜋𝛥𝑝 𝑅 2 2)
𝜋𝛥𝑝 𝑅4 𝑅4
𝑄= ∫ ( 𝑅 − 𝑟 𝑟𝑑𝑟 = ( − ) (5.16)
2𝜇𝐿 0 2𝜇𝐿 2 4
Or:
𝜋𝛥𝑝 4 𝜋𝛥𝑝 4
𝑄= 𝑅 = 𝐷 (5.17)
8𝜇𝐿 128𝜇𝐿
For a pipeline of length L, the pressure difference p is:
128𝜇𝐿
𝛥𝑝 = 𝑄 = 𝑅 𝑄 (5.18)
𝜋𝐷4
128
The term R expresses the resistance of hydraulic transmission line, and equation
5.18 is the Hagen-Poiseuille equation for laminar flow in a pipes. It shows that
the pressure loss is directly proportional to the flow rate. This equation is applied
only for laminar flow.
The mean velocity u is:
4 𝜋
𝑢 = 𝜋𝐷2 𝑄, or 𝑄 = 4 𝐷2 𝑢 (5.19)
Then:
32𝜇𝐿 64 𝐿 𝜌𝑢2
𝛥𝑝 = 𝑢 = (5.20)
𝐷2 𝜌𝑢𝐷/𝜇 𝐷 2
Since:
𝐿 𝜌𝑢 2 𝑢𝐷 𝜌𝑢𝐷
𝛥𝑝 = 𝜆 𝐷 and 𝑅𝑒 = = (5.21)
2 𝜈 𝜇
then:
64
𝜆= == friction coefficient (5.22)
𝑅𝑒
In the case of laminar flow, the mean fluid velocity u in a circular pipe is:
𝑄 𝛥𝑝 2
𝑢= = 𝐷 = 0.5𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 (5.23)
𝜋𝐷2 /4 32𝜇𝐿
Thus, in the case of laminar flow in pipe, the flow has the following properties:
➢ The shear stress is linearly function of radius r,
➢ The velocity distribution is parabolic,
➢ The velocity is maximum of pipe axis and zero in the vicinity of pipe wall,
➢ The average, mean, velocity is half of the maximum value.
In turbulent flow, the local liquid velocity and pressure fluctuate irregularly, in
random manner. The type of flow (laminar or turbulent) is determined by
calculating Reynolds number Re.
𝑢𝐷 𝜌𝑢𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = = (5.24)
𝜈 𝜇
where u = Mean fluid velocity = 4𝑄/𝜋𝐷2 , m/s
The transition from the laminar flow into the turbulent one takes place at a critical
value of Reynolds number. However, flow is assumed turbulent for Re > 2300.
The uncertainty of the critical value is because even minute disturbance effects,
129
such as noise of pump, can easily destabilize the processes near their stability
limits.
Example 5.1 The distribution of velocity, u (in m/s) with radius r (in meters) in
a smooth tube of 0.025 m diameter follows the equation, 𝑢 =
2.5 − 𝑘𝑟 2 , where k is a constant. The flow is laminar and the
velocity at the pipe surface is zero. The fluid has a coefficient of
viscosity of 0.00027 Pa s. Calculate the flow rate (in m3/s) and the
shearing force between the fluid and pipe wall per unit length.
The value of k can be found from the boundary conditions, where,
at r = 0.0125, u = 0.
Then 0.0 = 2.5 – 0.01252 k or k = 16000
and u = 2.5 - 16000 r2.
The flow dQ through a small annulus (dr) can be calculated as
follows;
𝑑𝑄 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑢(𝑟) = 2𝜋(2.5 − 16000𝑟 2 )𝑟𝑑𝑟
0.0125
𝑄 = 2𝜋 ∫ (2.5𝑟 − 16000𝑟 3 )𝑑𝑟
0
0.0125
2.5𝑟 2 16000𝑟 4
= 2𝜋 { − } = 6.14 × 10−4 𝑚3 /𝑠
2 4 0
Or umax= 2.5 m/s and um=1.25 m/s

𝑄 = 𝜋𝑅2 𝑢𝑚 = 6.14 × 10−4 𝑚3 /𝑠
The shear force per unit length is given by
𝑑𝑢
𝐹 = 2𝜋𝑟𝜏 = −2𝜋𝑟𝜇
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑢
= −32000𝑟
𝑑𝑟
Or
𝐹 = 2𝜋 × 0.0125 × 0.00027 × (−32000 × 0.0125)
= −8.48 × 10−3 𝑁
Example 5.2 A liquid, of coefficient of viscosity μ, flows below the critical
velocity for laminar flow in a circular pipe of diameter d and with
mean velocity u. Show that the pressure loss per unit length of pipe
is 32μu/d2.
130
Oil of viscosity 0.05 kg/ms flows through a pipe of diameter 0.1 m

with a velocity of 0.6 m/s. Calculate the loss of pressure in a length
of 120 m.
Referring to Eq.5.20, the pressure losses per unit length is:
𝛥𝑝 32𝜇𝑢
=
𝐿 𝑑2
The pressure losses, for the 120m length pipe are calculated by
direct substitution in Eq. 5.20.
32𝜇𝑢𝐿 32 × 0.05 × 0.6 × 120
𝛥𝑝 = = = 11.520𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑑2 0. 12
5.4.2 Flow between two parallel plates
The flow between two parallel surfaces widely exists in bearings and hydraulic
system clearances. Following the same procedure as laminar flow in pipes, the
following results can be obtained assuming:
➢ 2-D problem in x,y coordinate, Fig.5.6(a),
➢ The plates are too near to each other,
➢ The plates are of infinite width and the flow rate is calculated for unit
width,
➢ The x-axis is located at the mid plane between the two plates,
➢ The inlet and outlet losses are negligible and the flow is assumed fully
developed everywhere between the two fixed plates.
Fig. 5.6(a) Fluid flow between two fixed parallel plates

Considering a fluid element moving by constant velocity at mid-distance between
the two plates, the element is subjected to pressure forces and friction forces,
which are in equilibrium. The equilibrium of the forces per unit width of the
element yields:
131
𝑑𝑝
2𝑦𝑑𝑝 = 2𝜏𝑑𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝜏 = 𝑦( ) (5.25)
𝑑𝑥
The following expression for the velocity distribution can be systematically
deduced by substituting Eq. 5.5 in Eq. 5.25, integrating and considering the
boundary conditions; u=0 at y=c/2.
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑝
𝜏 = 𝑦 =𝜇 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑦𝑑𝑦 (5.26)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜇 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑝 2 𝑐 2
𝑢= (𝑦 − ) (5.27)
2𝜇 𝑑𝑥 4
The flow rate per unit width q is:
𝑐/2
𝑐 3 𝑑𝑝
𝑞=∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = − (5.28)
−𝑐/2 12𝜇 𝑑𝑥
The negative sign indicated that the direction of flow is determined by the sign
of (dp/dx). For negative (dp/dx) the pressure at the left side is greater and the
flow is positive, to the right. If the pressure gradient (dp/dx) is constant then the
following expressions for the net flow rate Q between the two parallel plates is:
𝑑𝑝 𝛥𝑝 𝑤𝑐 3
= and 𝑄 = 𝑤𝑞 = 12𝜇𝐿 𝛥𝑝 (5.29)
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
The maximum velocity is at the mid-distance between the two plates, y=0, then:
→
𝑐 2 𝑑𝑝 𝑐 2
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 (5.30)
8𝜇 𝑑𝑥 8𝜇𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑐2 2
𝑢𝑚 = 𝛥𝑝 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 (5.31)
12𝜇𝐿 3
where c= clearance between the plates, m
L= Length of leakage path, m
q= Flow rate per unit width, m3/s
Q= Total flow rate between the plates, m3/s
u= Axial oil speed in the clearance, m/s
w= Plates width, m
Δp = Pressure difference across the radial clearance, Pa
5.4.3 INTERNAL LEAKAGE IN HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS
The internal leakage in hydraulic elements is one of the problems resulting from
the operation at high-pressure levels and the increased clearances due to wear.
132
Figure 5.6(b) shows the internal leakage through a radial clearance between two
concentric cylindrical bodies, a spool and sleeve for example. The flow is
identical to the flow between two parallel plates of width (W=πD), where D is
the diameter of cylindrical surface;
𝜋𝐷𝑐 3
𝑄= 𝛥𝑝 (5.32)
12𝜇𝐿
Fig.5.6(b) Leakage fluid flow through a radial clearance

It is important to note that the leakage is inversely proportional to the viscosity
μ, and directly proportional to the cube of radial clearance. If the radial clearance
is doubled, due to wear, the internal leakage increases eight times.
Example 5.11 Shown is a part of spool valve; if the pressures in lines P and T are
250 and 0 bars respectively, calculate the leakage flow rate. Check if the leakage
flow is laminar. Given: D =10 mm, c =10 μm, L1= 12 mm, μ = 0.01 kg/ms and ρ
= 900 kg/m3.
𝜋𝐷𝑐 3 𝜋 × 0.01 × (1𝑒 − 5)3

𝑄𝐿 = 𝛥𝑝 = × 250 × 105
12𝜇𝐿 12 × 0.01 × 0.012
= 5.454 × 10−7 𝑚3 /𝑠
Hydraulic Diameter: (see equation 5.34).
133
4 × 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 4 × 𝜋𝐷𝑐
𝐷ℎ = = = 2𝑐 = 2 × 10−5 𝑚
𝑊𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 2𝜋𝐷
𝑄𝐿 5.454 × 10−7
𝑣= = = 1.736 𝑚/𝑠
𝜋𝐷𝑐 𝜋 × 0.01 × 10−5
𝜌𝑣𝐷ℎ 900×1.736×2×10−5
𝑅𝑒 = = = 3.125,
𝜇 0.01
The leakage flow is laminar.

5.4.4. Friction Losses due to Turbulent Flow in Pipelines
The friction loss coefficient (ƛ) can be determined experimentally or analytically.
It depends mainly on the Reynolds number (Re) and the relative roughness (ɛ/D):
ƛ = f(Re , ɛ/D) (5.33)
In the case of turbulent flow, the loss coefficient (ƛ) is given by experimental
charts or by empirical relations. It can’t be determined analytically. Figure 5.7
shows the variation of the friction loss coefficient (ƛ) with the relative surface
roughness and Reynolds number for different working zones. It is known as the
Moody diagram.
Noncircular Ducts
Noncircular ducts are commonly used in heating, ventilating and air conditioning
systems due to ease of manufacture, assembly and fitting to construction space
in walls and ceilings. Designers determine the pressure drop in noncircular ducts
by using the hydraulic diameter Dh, defined as:
4 × 𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐷ℎ = (5.34)
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
The Reynolds number is calculated based on the hydraulic diameter Dh and the
mean flow velocity.
Empirical Formulae for the friction coefficient for turbulent Flow
The pressure drop in a pipe is would be calculated if the pipe dimensions, the
mean fluid velocity and the friction coefficients λ are known. For turbulent flow,
the random motions close to the wall are strongly damped. The turbulent pipe
flow becomes laminar in the vicinity of the pipe wall; within what is called the
laminar sub-layer. This layer is responsible for the slight dependence of λ on the
fluid viscosity and consequently on the Reynolds number. Few pipes have very
smooth walls (such that the thickness of boundary sub layer is greater than the
134
surface roughness), and their friction coefficient is either obtained from the
Moody’s diagram, Fig.5.7, or calculated using the following empirical relations.
0.3164
4 2300<Re<105
𝜆={ √𝑅𝑒 (5.35)
0.0053 + 0.394(𝑅𝑒)−0.3 5
10 <Re<0.2 × 10 6
In rough pipes, the surface roughness distorts the laminar sub-layer and generates
additional turbulence. The turbulent flow in a rough-wall pipe has a higher
friction factor than flow in smooth-wall pipe at the same Reynolds number. The
friction coefficient was evaluated experimentally using pipes, lined with sand-
paper-like roughness of physical height ε, known as the sand roughness.
Colebrook and White (1939) published the empirical relation, Eq.5.36, relating
the Reynolds number Re and the ratio ε/D.
1 𝜀/𝐷 2.51
= −2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + ) (5.36)
√𝜆 3.7 𝑅𝑒 √𝜆
This formula agrees with the Moody diagram with good precision for the whole
range of Reynolds number and surface roughness. But, this formula requires
iteration process, therefore it is preferred whenever the iteration process is
acceptable. Table 5.1 gives the different formulae used to calculate the friction
coefficients for the whole range of Reynolds number and relative surface
roughness. The equivalent wall roughness ε for commercial pipes has been
determined from flow tests. The average values of surface roughness of pipes
produced from different materials are listed in Table 5.2.
Table 5.1 Formulae used to calculate the friction coefficient
Hagen-
64
Laminar flow 𝜆= Re<2300 Poissell's
𝑅𝑒 low, 1856
0.3164 Blasiu's law,
𝜆= 4 2300<Re<105
Turbulent flow, √𝑅𝑒 1915
smooth pipe Herman's
𝜆 = 0.0053 + 0.394 (𝑅𝑒()−0.3 ) 105<Re<0.2x106
law, 1930
1 𝜀/𝐷 2.51 For the whole range of Colebrook

Turbulent flow, = −2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + ) and White
√𝜆 3.7 𝑅𝑒 √𝜆 turbulent flow
rough pipe (1939)
Use Moody Diagram, Fig.5.17
135
Fig.5.7. Moody's diagram
136
Table 5.2 Average surface roughness of pipes produced from different materials
Material Surface roughness ε Material Surface roughness ε
Concrete 0.3 to 3 mm Commercial steel 5x10-5 m
Cast iron 0.3 mm Drawn tubing 1.5x10-6 m
Galvanized iron 0.15 mm Glass–Plastic 0
5.5 LOCAL LOSSES IN HYDRAULIC CONDUITS

The local losses in hydraulic systems are due to local vortices created by steep
variation of magnitude or direction of fluid velocity. The local hydraulic
(pressure) losses can be calculated by the following formula:
𝑣2 𝜌𝑣 2
ℎ𝐿𝐿 = 𝜉 or 𝛥𝑝𝐿𝐿 = 𝜉 (5.37)
2𝑔 2
where hLL = Hydraulic local loss head, (m)

𝜉 = Local loss coefficient depends mainly on the flow geometry.
In laminar flow, the local disturbances are usually insignificant as compared with
the friction losses. In the case of turbulent flow, the local loss coefficient is
determined by the geometry of the local feature. It changes very little with the
Reynolds number. Table 5.3 gives the values of the local loss coefficient for
typical local loss elements and the following are some of the local features
existing in the hydraulic systems.
1- Channel expansion, gradual or abrupt.
2- Channel contraction, gradual or abrupt.
3- Channel bend, smooth or sharp (elbow).
4- Branching junctions.
5- Control valves, fittings, filters, ….
Table 5.3 Local loss coefficient for typical local loss elements
Local feature ξ Local feature ξ
1. Flexible pipe connection 0.3 4. Pipe sudden inlet 0.5
2. Standard 90o elbow 1.2-1.3 5. Pipe sudden outlet 1
3. Tee junction 3.5 6. Screen filter 1.5-2.5
137
Local loss coefficient for sudden expansion
Fig.5.8 Sudden Expansion

Sudden expansion, Fig.5.8, is one of the basic configurations of local losses in
conduits. The energy equation, momentum equation and the continuity equation
are applied to derive an expression for the local loss coefficient for sudden
expansion from area A1 to area A2.
Energy equation between points 1 & 2 is:
𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝐿12 (5.38)
Since z1=z2, then:
𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ = + + ℎ𝐿12 (5.39)
or
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 𝑣12 − 𝑣22
ℎ𝐿12 = + (5.40)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
The application of continuity equation between points 1 & 2 yields:
•
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝑚 (5.41)
For incompressible fluid:
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 (5.42)
Then:
𝐴1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 /𝑣1 (5.43)
In addition, the application of momentum equation over the control volume
shown by Fig.5.8 yields:
•
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )𝐴2 = 𝑚(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 ) (5.44)
The treatment of Eqs.5.42 thru 5.44 gives:
138
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )𝐴2 = 𝜌𝐴1 𝑣12 − 𝜌𝐴2 𝑣22 (5.45)

(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ) = 𝜌𝑣2 𝑣1 − 𝜌𝑣22 (5.46)
Subtitling in energy equation Eq.5.40 gives:
ℎ𝐿12 = (𝑣12 − 2𝑣1 𝑣2 + 𝑣22 )/2𝑔 (5.47)
(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )2 𝑣12 𝐴1 2 𝑣12
ℎ𝐿12 = = (1 − ) = 𝜉 (5.48)
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐴2 2𝑔
Then, the local loss coefficient is:
𝐴1 2
𝜉 = (1 − ) (5.49)
𝐴2
If A2 is too high compared with A1, such as the tank inlet, the coefficient 𝜉 =1.
Local loss coefficient for sudden contraction
In sudden contraction, the flow is initially contracted to a diameter Dc (known
as Vena contraction) < D2, and then expands to D2. Usually, the losses (and
vortices) occur due to this expansion. The local losses can be written (similar to
sudden expansion) as follows:
Fig.5.9 Sudden contraction

𝜌𝑣22 𝐷2 2
ℎ𝐿12 = 𝜉 , 𝜉 = 𝑓( ) (5.50)
2𝑔 𝐷1
The values of ξ are given In table 5.4.
Table 5.3 Local loss coefficient for sudden contraction pipe
(𝐷2
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
/𝐷1 )2
ξ 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.36 0.33 0.28 0.22 0.15 0.06 0.00
139
5.6. APPLICATIONS ON PIPES HYDRAULIC LOSSES

5.6.1 Head Loss for a Given Flow Rate
Given the volumetric flow rate Q through a given pipe, calculate the head loss
and pressure drop in the pipe.
Calculation procedures:
➢ Calculate the Reynolds number 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑣𝐷/𝜈 = 4𝑄/𝜋𝐷𝜈.
➢ Depending upon whether the Reynolds number is greater or less than
2300, calculate λ from the turbulent or laminar form of equation.
➢ Using this value of λ, calculate the head loss and pressure drop.
Example 5.3 A steel pipe of diameter D=0.1524 m carries water at a volume
flow rate of 0.1262 m3/s. (The surface roughness ε = 5x10-5 and
the kinematic viscosity of water at this temperature is 1 cSt).
(a) Is the flow turbulent?
(b) Calculate the pressure drop in a length L=1.0 km
(c) Calculate the power losses in pipeline.
(d) Recalculate this problem for smooth pipe.
(a) Calculation of the velocity v and Reynolds number:
4𝑄 4 × 0.1262
𝑣= = = 6.918 𝑚/𝑠
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 × 0.15242
𝑣𝐷 6.918 × 0.1524
𝑅𝑒 = = = 1.054 × 106
𝜈 1 × 10−6
the flow is turbulent.
(b) By substituting in Colebrook formula then iterating:
1 5 × 10−5 /0.1524 2.51
= −2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + )
√𝜆 3.71 1.054 × 106 √𝜆
Or by using Moody diagram; λ = 0.01588.
𝐿 𝜌𝑣 2 1000 1000𝑥6.9182
𝛥𝑝 = 𝜆 = 0.01588
𝐷 2 0.1524 2
6
= 2.493𝑥10 𝑃𝑎
(c) 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑁 = 𝑄𝛥𝑝 = 0.1262𝑥2.493𝑥106 =
314.5𝑥103 𝑊
(d) For smooth pipe; 𝜆 = 0.01, 𝛥𝑝 = 1.55 × 106 𝑃𝑎 &𝑁 =
195.7 𝑘𝑊
140
Example 5.4 A 203.2 mm diameter steel pipe carries water from a storage tank
outlet (elevation 100 m) to a town water distribution system
(elevation 22 m) at a distance L=2 km from the storage tank. If the
flow rate is 0.06303 m3/s. Calculate the friction loss coefficient,
the head loss and the static pressure change between the pipe inlet
and outlet, (The surface roughness ε = 5x10-5 and the kinematic
viscosity of water at this temperature is 1 cSt). Neglect the local losses.
First, calculate v and Re.
4𝑄 4 × 0.06303
𝑣= = = 1.944 𝑚/𝑠
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 × 0.20322
𝑣𝐷 1.944 × 0.2032
𝑅𝑒 = = = 3.95 × 105
𝜈 1 × 10−6
The flow is turbulent since Re exceeds 2300. Selecting 𝜀 =
5 × 10−5 𝑚, the friction coefficient can be calculated as follows:
1 5 × 10−5 /0.2032 2.51
= −2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + )
√𝜆 3.71 3.95 × 105 √𝜆
Then, by iteration or by using Moody diagram, λ = 0.01616.
The head loss coefficient is defined as: 𝐾𝑓 = 𝜆𝐿/𝐷.
2000
𝐾𝑓 = 0.01616𝑥 = 0.0159
0.2032
The head loss is defined as:
𝐿 𝜌𝑣 2
𝛥𝑝𝑓 𝜆 𝐷 2 𝑣2
𝛥ℎ𝑓 = = = 𝐾𝑓
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
1.9442
𝛥ℎ𝑓 = 0.0159 = 30.64𝑚
2 × 9.807
The static pressure difference is calculated by using energy
equation (Bernoulli equation).
𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝛥ℎ𝑓
The velocity v1=v2, then:
141
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = {𝛥ℎ𝑓 − (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )}𝜌𝑔

= {30.64 − (100 − 22)} × 1000 × 9.807
= −4.645 × 105 𝑃𝑎
Note that there is a static pressure increase, (p2>p1), despite the
head losses because the exit is at sufficiently lower elevation, that
(z1-z2) exceeds Δhf.
5.6.2 Flow Rate for a Given Head Loss
For a given pressure drop in a pipe, it is required to calculate the corresponding
flow rate. The procedure for calculating the flow rate Q given the pressure drop
or the head loss Δhf available to overcome the hydraulic losses depends upon
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
➢ Start by assuming that the flow is laminar, an expression for the average
velocity v in terms of known quantities will be derived as follows.
64 𝑣𝐷 𝛥𝑝𝑓 𝐿 𝑣2
𝜆 = 𝑅𝑒, 𝑅𝑒 = and 𝛥ℎ𝑓 = = 𝜆 𝐷 2𝑔 (5.51)
𝜈 𝜌𝑔
Or:
𝑔𝐷2
𝑣= 𝛥ℎ (5.52)
32𝜈𝐿 𝑓
and,
𝜋 2
𝑄= 𝐷 𝑣 (5.53)
4
Then:
𝜋𝑔𝐷4 𝜋𝐷4
𝑄= 𝛥ℎ𝑓 = 𝛥𝑝 (5.54)
128𝜈𝐿 128𝜇𝐿 𝑓
➢ Then verify if the flow is actually laminar, by calculating Re. If the flow is
turbulent; Re > 2300, proceed as follows to deduce an expression for the
average velocity and flow rate.
a) Referring to table 5.1, for smooth pipe and Reynolds number ;
𝜆 = 0.3164/ 𝑅𝑒 0.25 for 2300 < Re < 105 (5.55)
𝐿 𝜌𝑣 2 𝜌𝑣𝐷 −0.25 𝐿 𝜌𝑣 2
𝛥𝑝 = 𝜆 = 0.3164 ( ) (5.56)
𝐷 2 𝜇 𝐷 2
142
1/1.75
𝐷1.25
𝑣=( 𝛥𝑝) (5.57)
0.1582𝜇 0.25 𝜌0.75 𝐿
b) For smooth or rough pipe and for the whole range of turbulent flow,
Colebrook formula is used.
1 𝜀/𝐷 2.51
= −2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + )
√𝜆 3.7 𝑅𝑒 √𝜆
𝑣𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜈
And
𝛥𝑝𝑓 𝐿 𝑣2
𝛥ℎ𝑓 = =𝜆
𝜌𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔
Then
2𝑔𝐷𝛥ℎ𝑓 𝜀/𝐷 𝐿𝜈 2
𝑣 = −2√ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + 2.51√ ) (5.58)
𝐿 3.707 2𝑔𝐷3 𝛥ℎ𝑓
The friction coefficient can be initially determined from the Moody’s

diagram, followed by an iteration process.
Example 5.5 For the pipe flow system of example 5.4, calculate the volume flow
rate Q when the static pressure drop (p1-p2) is zero.
𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝛥ℎ𝑓
p1=p2 and v1=v2
Then Δhf = z1 –z2 =100-22=78 m
D = 0.2032 m, L = 2000m, ε = 5x10-5 m, 𝜈 =10-6 m2/s
2𝑔𝐷𝛥ℎ𝑓 𝜀/𝐷 𝐿𝜈 2
𝑣 = −2 √ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + 2.51√ )
𝐿 3.707 2𝑔𝐷3 𝛥ℎ𝑓
= 3.162 m/s
𝑣𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = = 6.42x105
𝜈
143
𝜋
𝑄 = 4 𝐷2 𝑣 = 0.1025 m3/s
5.6.3 Selecting a Pipe Diameter

Given the maximum flow rate and the maximum allowable pressure drop in a
pipe, calculate pipe diameter that will allow this flow without exceeding the
limiting pressure drop.
Pipes are manufactured in standard thicknesses and diameters. For a given pipe
diameter, a thicker pipe will withstand higher pressure. The cost per unit length
of pipe will increase in proportional to the pipe diameter and thickness. The
designer will choose the smallest diameter that will meet the flow requirements
and the lowest wall thickness which will withstand the highest operating
pressure, to minimize the cost of the piping.
Example 5.6 A factory is to be supplied with city water from a large main of
6.895x105 Pa gauge pressure. A horizontal pipeline 100 m long,
connecting the city main with the factory, must supply a
maximum of 0.1261 m3/s of water for firefighting process with
zero gauge pressure at the end of the pipe. Commercial steel pipe
of even diameters in inches is available (2, 4, 6 inches; 1 inch =
25.4 mm). What is the minimum diameter pipe that meets these
requirements? (water kinematic viscosity is 1 cSt.)
Start by choosing 4 inch pipe to be used.
D = 4 in = 0.1016 m
4𝑄 4 × 0.1261
𝑣= 2
= = 15.55 𝑚/𝑠
𝜋𝐷 𝜋 × 0.10162
𝑣𝐷 15.55 × 0.1016
𝑅𝑒 = = = 1.58 × 106
𝜈 10−6
Choosing ε = 50 μm, the friction coefficient can be calculated
by iterative process as follows;
1 𝜀/𝐷 2.51
= −2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + )
√𝜆 3.7 𝑅𝑒 √𝜆
1 5 × 10−5 /0.1016 2.51
= −2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + )
√𝜆 3.707 1.58 × 106 × √𝜆
Or λ=0.01697
144
𝐿 𝜌𝑣 2 100 1000𝑥15.552
𝛥𝑝𝑓 = 𝜆 = 0.01697
𝐷 2 0.1016 2
= 2.019𝑥106 𝑃𝑎
The pressure losses ( 2.019𝑥106 𝑃𝑎 ) is greater than the
allowable losses (6.895x105 Pa). Then try the next size, 6 in, to
calculate v=6.913 m/s, Re=1.053x106, λ=0.0153 and
Δpf= 2.5x105 Pa. This pressure loss is smaller than the allowable
head, so that 6 in diameter pipe is acceptable. If this size does
not give satisfactory results, repeat the calculation, using the
larger pipe size.
5.6.4 Total Head Loss
For flow through a pipe or duct, the total head loss ΔHT will be the sum of the
loss ΔHf due to wall friction plus the local losses due to the pipe entrance and
exit and losses due to the valves and fittings ΔHL, Fig.5.10. For any pipe or duct
section of length Li, hydraulic diameter Dh and mean velocity v, the total head
loss (ΔHT)i would then be:
𝐿𝑖 𝑣𝑖2
(𝛥𝐻𝑇 )𝑖 = {𝜆𝑖 + ∑(𝜉𝑗 )𝑖 } ( ) (5.59)
𝐷𝑖 2𝑔
𝑗
Where (𝜉𝑗 )i is the local loss coefficient for each loss element j in the pipe i. The
pressure drop is given by:
(𝛥𝑝𝑇 )𝑖 = 𝜌𝑔(𝛥𝐻𝑇 )𝑖 (5.60)
Example 5.7 A heat collecting circuit for a solar panel consists of a 1cm diameter
drawn copper tube of length L=22 m. The water flow in the circuit
Q = 4 Lit/min, is supplied from a header of much larger diameter
than the tube and collected by another header of equal size.
Assuming that the local loss coefficient of the 180o turns is 1.
Calculate the total pressure loss head between the supply and
collector headers. (Assume 𝜈 = 1𝑐𝑆𝑡.).
Q = 6.667x10-5 m3/s
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋
𝐴= = × 0.012 = 7.854 × 10−5 𝑚2
4 4
v=Q/A=0.8489 m/s
145
𝑣𝐷 0.8489 × 0.01
𝑅𝑒 = = = 8489
𝜈 10−6
The flow is turbulent, choosing ε=10-6 m, the friction coefficient
is calculated as follows.
1 10−6 /0.01 2.51
= −2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + )
√𝜆 3.7 8489 × √𝜆
λ = 0.032 (calculated by iteration or by using Moody diagram)
𝐿 22
𝐾𝑓 = 𝜆 = 0.03205 × = 70.52
𝐷 0.01
The total loss coefficient for 10 turns sum to 10, while the inlet
and exit loss coefficients add an additional 1.5 for a total loss
coefficient of 11.5. The total head loss ΔHT becomes:
𝐿 𝑣2 0.84892
𝛥𝐻𝑇 = (𝜆 + ∑ 𝐾) = (70.53 + 11.5) = 3.01 𝑚
𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔
5.6.5 Fluid Pumping
The centrifugal pumps, air ventilating fans and air compressors usually operate
at a fixed speed, providing the head-flow rate (H-Q) relation shown in Fig. 5.11.
The pipeline characteristics are given by the following expression:
Hpipe =∆z + ∑ hL (5.61)
Fig.5.10 Pipeline characteristics

The working point of the pump-pipeline system is the intersection between their
characteristics lines. The ideal power delivered to the fluid stream passing
through a pump or fan is the product (ρg Q Hp or QΔpP). The power required to
turn the pump is larger than this by the factor (1/ηP), where ηP is the pump
efficiency; (ηP ≤ 1).
146
Figure 5.11 Head versus flow rate curves for a pump and piping system
Figure 5.11 shows a pump HP versus Q curve and a corresponding HT versus Q
curve for the head loss in a piping system supplied by the pump. The flow rate
through the system will be that at which these two curves intersect. The line
HT(Q) is shifted vertically depending on the static head Δz.
Example 5.8 A pump delivers water to an elevated building tank whose surface
is 80 m above the reservoir. The commercial steel pipe, 150 m
length, is 6 in (152.4 mm) in diameter. Calculate the flow rate
through the system if the pumping head HP is related to the flow
rate Q by the following relation.
𝑄 2
𝐻𝑝 = 150 × {1 − ( ) } = 150 − 10.47𝑄2
3.785
147
The pump head must supply the pipeline with fluid of pressure
head HL=80+Δhf. The loss head Δhf is:
𝐿 𝑣2 1500 𝑣2
𝛥ℎ𝑓 = 𝜆 =𝜆
𝐷 2𝑔 0.1524 2 × 9.807
Where
1 10−6 /0.1524 2.51
= −2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + )
√𝜆 3.707 𝑅𝑒× √𝜆
The pumping head Hp should equal the required line head HL (for
working point)
𝑄 2
𝐻𝑝 = 150 × {1 − ( ) } = 80 + 𝛥ℎ𝑓
3.785
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑄= 𝐷 𝑣 = 0.15242 𝑣
4 4
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑣𝐷/𝜈
The solution of these equations yields:
λ=0.0173, v=1.816 m/s, Re= 2.77x105 and Q=0.0331 m3/s
5.6.6 Complex Networks
Pipes or ducts without branches or divisions of the flow are discussed in the
preceding sections. But, many piping systems, such as those that deliver potable
water to homes and offices in towns, contain pipes of different sizes and lengths
connected to each other in a network. Pipes are connected in series or in parallel.
Fig.5.13 Two different pipes arranged (a) in series and (b) in parallel.
As a starting point, consider two pipes, A and B, arranged in series as in Fig.5.13.
The volume flow rate Q is the same in each pipe, i.e., Q=QA=QB. If Q is known,
then the head losses ΔHA and ΔHB may be separately calculated and added
together to obtain the overall head loss. On the other hand, if the overall head loss
148
ΔHf is known and if the volume flow rate Q is desired, an iterative solution is
needed.
Example 5.9 Two garden hoses of 15.24 m length each, one 19.05 mm in
diameter (A) and the other 12.7 mm in diameter (B), are attached
in series to a water tank pressurized to 276 kPa. Calculate the flow
rate through the hoses, which discharge to atmosphere at the same
level as the tank. (Assume ε=0 and neglect the local losses).
The following are the equations describing the system operating
point:
𝑝 276000
𝛥ℎ = = = 28.143 𝑚
𝜌𝑔 1000 × 9.807
1 𝑅𝑒1 √𝜆1
= 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
√𝜆1 2.51
𝑣1 𝐷1 0.01905
𝑅𝑒1 = = 𝑣
𝜈 10−6 1
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝐿1 𝑣12 15.24
ℎ𝑓1 = 𝜆1 = 𝜆 𝑣
𝐷1 2𝑔 0.01905 × 2 × 9,807 1 1
𝜋
𝐴1 = 𝐷12 = 2.8502 × 10−4 𝑚2
4
1 𝑅𝑒2 √𝜆2
= 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
√𝜆2 2.51
𝑣2 𝐷2 0.0127
𝑅𝑒2 = = 𝑣
𝜈 10−6 2
𝐿2 𝑣22 15.24
ℎ𝑓2 = 𝜆2 = 𝜆 𝑣
𝐷2 2𝑔 0.0127 × 2 × 9,807 2 2
𝜋
𝐴2 = 𝐷22 = 1.2668 × 10−4 𝑚2
4
𝛥ℎ = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2
149
The solution of above equations yields:

h= 28.14 m v1 = 1.976 m/s
Re1 = 37644 v2 = 4.446 m/s
Re2 = 56466 hf1 = 3.54 m
λ1 = 0.0223 hf2 = 24.6 m
λ2 = 0.0203 Q= 5.6323x10-4 m3/s
Example 5.10: Solve example 5.7, if the two hoses are connected in parallel.
The following are the equations describing the system operating
point:
𝑝 276000
𝛥ℎ = = = 28.143 𝑚
𝜌𝑔 1000 × 9.807
1 𝑅𝑒1 √𝜆1
= 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
√𝜆1 2.51
𝑣1 𝐷1 0.01905
𝑅𝑒1 = = 𝑣
𝜈 10−6 1
𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑣1
𝐿1 𝑣12 15.24
ℎ = 𝜆1 = 𝜆 𝑣 = 28.143,
𝐷1 2𝑔 0.01905 × 2 × 9,807 1 1
𝜋
𝐴1 = 𝐷12 = 2.8502 × 10−4 𝑚 2
4
1 𝑅𝑒2 √𝜆2
= 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
√𝜆2 2.51
𝑣2 𝐷2 0.0127
𝑅𝑒2 = = 𝑣
𝜈 10−6 2
𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝐿2 𝑣22 15.24
ℎ = 𝜆2 = 𝜆 𝑣 = 28.143,
𝐷2 2𝑔 0.0127 × 2 × 9,807 2 2
𝜋
𝐴2 = 4 𝐷22 = 1.2668 × 10−4 𝑚 2, 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
The solution of these equations yields:

h= 28.14 m v1 = 6.312 m/s
Re1 = 120252 v2 = 4.796 m/s
Re2 = 60906 Q1 = 1.8 x10-3 m3/s
150
λ1 = 0.0173 Q2 = 6.07 x10-4 m3/s

λ2 = 0.02 Q= 2.407 x10-3 m3/s
5.7 EXERCISE
1. Derive an expression for the velocity distribution in laminar flow
between two parallel plates, neglecting the edge effect.
2. The distribution of velocity, u, in m/s with radius r in meters in a smooth

bore tube of 0.02 m bore follows the law, u = 2 – k r2. Where k is a
constant. The flow is laminar and the velocity at the pipe surface is zero.
The fluid has a coefficient of viscosity of 0.022 kg/m s. Determine (a) the
rate of flow in m3/s (b) the shearing force between the fluid and the pipe
wall per meter length of pipe.
3. A pipeline of diameter 0.5 m carries oil of density 708 kg/m3. At one

point the measured pressure is 137 kPa. At a second point at an elevation
249 m lower and 1000 m further along the pipe, the measured pressure is
154 kPa. What are the wall shear losses of the flowing fluid?
[214 N/m2]
4. For the conditions of previous problem, assume that the Reynolds number
is 1,862. Find the viscosity of the fluid and the maximum and average
velocities in the pipeline.
[1.59 kg/ms]
o
5. Glycerin at a temperature of 20 C (at this temperature the viscosity is
1.491 Pa-s) is pumped through a 4 cm diameter pipe at the rate of 0.004
m3/s. What is the pressure drop in 100 m of pipe?
[30.2 Pa]
6. Find an expression for the maximum flow rate in pipe if the flow is
laminar and calculate the flow rate given: L=5m, D=1 cm, µ 0.02 kg/ms
and ρ= 920 kg/m3.
7. What diameter of smooth pipe will carry 4 m3/s of water with a pressure
gradient of 0.03 (i.e., a pressure drop of 3 m in each 100 m of pipe)?
[0.773 m]
151
8. A pipe of 0.3 m diameter has a head loss of 3.32 m in a length of 100 m

while carrying a flow of 0.22 m3/s of water. What is the pipe roughness?
[0.3 mm]
9. If the pipe of previous problem is to be replaced by a new, smooth pipe
that carries the same flow at the same head loss, what is the required
diameter?
[0.268 m]
10. Calculate the radial clearance
leakage in the given spool valve,
given:
D =12 mm, c =7 μm, L1= 20 mm,
μ = 0.018 kg/ms, PP=21 MPa,
PT=0
11. Neglecting the local losses, calculate the pressure losses in the given pipe
line, given: Flow rate Q=10 Lit/min, Oil density ρ=850 kg/m3, L1= L2=
20 m, D1=13 mm D2= 8 mm, Fluid kinematic viscosity 𝜈 = 20 cSt.
12. Calculate the pressure losses in problem 11 if the two pipes are connected
in parallel.
152
Chapter 6
Dimensional Analysis
and Similarity
6.1. INTRODUCTION
Many important engineering problems cannot be solved completely by
theoretical or mathematical methods. One method of attacking a problem for
which no mathematical equation can be derived is that of empirical
experimentations. For example, the pressure loss from friction in a long, round,
straight, smooth pipe depends on: the length and diameter of the pipe, the flow
rate of the liquid, and the density and viscosity of the liquid. If any one of these
variables is changed, the pressure drop also changes. The empirical method of
obtaining an equation relating these factors to pressure drop requires that the
effect of each separate variable be determined in turn by systematically varying
that variable while keeping all other variables constant. The procedure is difficult
to organize or to correlate the results so obtained into a useful relationship for
calculations.
There exists a method intermediate between formal mathematical development
and a completely empirical study. It is because if a theoretical equation does exist
among the variables affecting a physical process, that equation must be
dimensionally homogeneous. Because of this requirement, it is possible to group
many factors into a smaller number of dimensionless groups of variables. The
groups themselves (rather than the separate factors) appear in the final equation.
Dimensional analysis does not yield a numerical equation, and experiments are
required to complete the solution of the problem. The results of dimensional
analysis are valuable in pointing a way to correlations of experimental data
suitable for engineering use. Moreover, dimensional analysis simplifies the task
of fitting experimental data to design equations where a completely mathematical
treatment is not possible; it is also useful in checking the consistency of the units
in equations, in converting units, and in the scale-up of data obtained in physical
models to predict the performance of full-scale model. The method is based on
the concept of dimension and the use of dimensional formulae.
Briefly, the reasons for using dimensional analysis are:
1- Reducing the number of variables, and hence:
153
➢ Reducing the number of equations,

➢ Reducing the experimental effort sharply
2- Scale up/down of experimental results
➢ No need to fully understand the physics
➢ Suitable (dimensionless) scaling relationships
3- Deduction of laws; physics demands dimensional consistency in
equations. We can reduce the number of variables by writing them in
dimensionless form.
4- Order of magnitude analysis, to find the relative weight of different
terms of the controlling variables
6.2. BASIC PRINCIPLES
Dimensional homogeneity in any equation expresses a fundamental relationship
between different physical quantities, each term in the equation must have the
same dimensions.
All physical quantities (variables) can be expressed in terms of seven
fundamental dimensions (According to the SI system of units), Table 6.1:
Table 6.1 Fundamental dimensions
Fundamental dimension Symbol SI unit Symbol for unit
Length L meter m
Mass M kilogram kg
Time T second s
Temperature T0 Kelvin K
Amount of substance  mole mol
Electric current i ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd
For problems with fluid mechanics, only three fundamental dimensions are
required; mass (M), length (L) and time (T). When dealing with problems of heat
transfer, the temperature is added as a fourth dimension.
Table 6.2 shows the dimensions of some derived quantities usually used in fluid
mechanics.
154
A fundamental question that must be answered is: how many dimensionless

products are required to replace the original list of variables?
Table 6.2 Dimensions of Derived quantities,
expressed in terms of the fundamental dimensions
Quantity Symbol Dimensions
Angular velocity T-1
Area A L2
Density ρ M/L3
Force F ML/T2
Dynamic viscosity μ M/LT
Kinematic viscosity n L2/T
Linear velocity v L/T
Linear acceleration a L/T2
Mass flow rate m. M/T
Power P ML2/T3
Pressure p M/LT2
Velocity v L/T
Shear stress τ M/LT2
Surface tension σ M/T2
Viscosity μ M/LT
Volume V L3
6.3. BUCKINGHAM PI () THEOREM

The procedure most commonly used to identify both the number and form of the
appropriate non-dimensional parameters is referred to as the Buckingham -
Theorem. The theorem uses the following definitions:
n = number of variables relevant to the problem.
j = number of independent dimensions found in the n variables
155
k = number of independent dimensionless groups (π groups) that can be

identified to describe the problem, k = n - j
Summary of Steps:
1. List and count the n variables involved in the problem.
2. List the dimensions of each variable.
3. Find the number of basic dimensions j.
4. Select j scaling, repeating variables contain the basic used dimensions, which
do not form a π product.
5. Form a π term by adding one additional variable and form a power product.
Algebraically find the values of the exponents, which make the product
dimensionless. Repeat the process with each of the remaining variables.
6. Write the combination of dimensionless terms in functional form:
πk = f( π1, π2, …πi)
Example: Application of π Theorem for viscous pipe flow
Consider the following example for hydraulic losses in pipes. The relevant
variables for this problem are summarized as follows:
∆p = pressure drop d = diameter v = velocity
L = length μ= viscosity ρ = density
ɛ = roughness
There are seven pipe flow variables: one dependent (ΔP) and six independent
( , v, D, , , L;)
The application of the Buckingham π-Theorem proceeds as follows:

1. Number of variables: n = 7
2. List the dimensions of each variable:
variables ∆p ρ v D μ ɛ L
dimensions ML-1T-2 ML-3 Lt-1 L ML-1T-1 L L
The number of basic dimensions is j = 3; (M, L, T).
3. Choose j = 3 with the repeating variables being ρ, v, and D (for example).
They contain the basic dimensions (M, L, T). and do not form a dimensionless
π term.
4. For repeating variables ρ, v, and D, the independent π groups k = n – j =
7–3=4
156
5. Form the π groups , chooses arbitrary power of (μ) equals -1, then:
π 1 = ρa vb Dcμ-1= (ML-3)A ( LT-1)B LC ( ML-1T-1 )-1
In order for the π term to be dimensionless, the exponents of each dimension
should be equal to zero. Therefore:
Mass: a-1=0, a=1
Time: - b + 1 = 0, b=1
Length: - 3a + b + c + 1 = 0, c=3–1–1=1
Then: π1 = ρ v D/μ=Re = Reynolds number
Note: Changing the initial exponent for M to 1 (from -1) would result in the
reciprocal of the same non-dimensional groups. Thus, some experience is useful
in obtaining π groups, consistent with existing theorems.
Repeating the process with the roughness, ɛ
π2 = ρa vb Dc ɛ-1= (ML-3)A ( LT-1)B LC ( L )-
Solving:
Mass: a=0, a=0
Time: - b = 0, b=0
Length: - 3a + b + c + 1 = 0, c=–1
π 2 = ɛ / D Roughness ratio
Repeat the process with the length L.
π 3 = ρa vb Dc L1= (ML-3)A ( LT-1)B LC (L) 1
Solving:
Mass: a = 0, a=0
Time: - b = 0, b=0
Length: - 3a + b + c + 1 = 0, c=–1
π 3 = L / D length-to-diameter ratio
Now obtain the dependent π term by adding ∆P
π 4 = ρa vb Dc ∆p1= (ML-3)A ( LT-1)B LC (ML-1 T-2) 1
157
Solving:
Mass: a+1=0, a = -1
Time: - b - 2 = 0, b = -2
Length: - 3a + b + c - 1 = 0, c=0
Pressure coefficient π 4 = ∆P / ρv2
Application of the Buckingham π-Theorem to the previous list of variables yields
the following non-dimensional combinations:
𝛥𝑝 𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝐿 𝜀
= 𝑓 { , 𝐷 , 𝐷}
𝜌𝑣 2 𝜇
𝛥𝑝
Or 𝐶𝑃 = 𝜌𝑣 2 = 𝑓{𝑅𝑒, 𝐿 , 𝜀}
Thus, a non-dimensional pressure loss coefficient for viscous pipe flow would be
expected to be a function of:
➢ The Reynolds number,
➢ A non-dimensional pipe length, and
➢ A non-dimensional pipe roughness
A list of typical dimensionless groups important in fluid mechanics is given in
the table 6.3.
From these results, we would now use a planned experiment with data analysis
techniques to get the relationship between these non - dimensional groups.
NB:
➢ Other dependent π-groups can be obtained by combination of the
independent π-groups.
➢ Other form of π-groups can be obtained by applying mathematical
operations, similar to that valid for the number (1).
6.4 SIMILARITY AND NON-DIMENSIONAL SCALING
The major step is concerned with the design and organization of the experimental
test program. Two key elements in the test program are:
➢ Design of the model (similar to required element)
➢ Specification of the test conditions, particularly when the test must be
performed at conditions similar to, but not the same as the conditions of
interest.
158
Table 6.3 Typical dimensionless groups

Parameter Definition Qualitative ratio of effects Importance
Inertia
Reynolds number Always
Viscosity
Flow speed
Mach number Compressible flow
Sound speed
U2 Inertia
Froude number Fr = Free-surface flow
gL Gravity
 U2 L Inertia
Weber number We = Free-surface flow
 Surface tension
Cavitation p - pv Pressure
number Ca = Cavitation
U 2 Inertia
(Euler number)
C p Dissipation
Prandtl number Pr = Heat convection
k Conduction
U2 Kinetic energy
Eckert number Ec = Dissipation
c p To Enthalpy
c Enthalpy
Specific-heat ratio  = p Compressible flow
cv Internal energy
L Oscillation
Strouhal number St = Oscillating flow
U Mean speed
 Wall roughness Turbulent, rough
Roughness ratio
L Body length walls
 TgL  3 2
Buoyancy
Grashof number Gr = Natural convection
 2
Viscosity
Tw Wall temperature
Temperature ratio Heat transfer
To Stream temperature
Pressure p − p Static pressure Aerodynamics,
Cp =
1/ 2  U
2
coefficient Dynamic pressure hydrodynamics
L Lift force Aerodynamics
Lift coefficient CL =
1/ 2  U A
2
Dynamic force hydrodynamics
D Lift force Aerodynamics,
Drag coefficient C D =
1/ 2 U A
2
Dynamic force hydrodynamics
The basic requirement in this process is to achieve similarity between the

'experimental model and its test conditions' and the 'prototype and its test
conditions' in the experiment. In this context, “similarity” is defined as (All
159
relevant independent dimensionless parameters have the same values for the
model and the prototype).
Similarity generally includes the following three basic classifications in fluid
mechanics:
➢ Geometric similarity
➢ Kinematic similarity
➢ Dynamic similarity
6.4.1. Geometric Similarity
In fluid mechanics, geometric similarity is defined as follows: (All linear
dimensions of the model are related to the corresponding dimensions of the
prototype by a constant scale factor SFG ).
Fig. 6.1 Geometric Similarity in Model Testing

Consider the following airfoil section, Fig. 6.1. For this case, geometric similarity
requires the following:
𝑟𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝑊𝑚
𝑆𝐹𝐺 = − = =⋅⋅⋅⋅
𝑟𝑃 𝐿𝑃 𝑊𝑃
In addition, in geometric similarity:

➢ All angles are preserved,
➢ Orientation with respect to the surroundings must be same for the model and the
prototype, i.e. (Angle of attack)m = (angle of attack)p
6.4.2. Kinematic Similarity

In fluid mechanics, kinematic similarity is defined as follows: (The velocities at
'corresponding' points on the model & prototype are in the same direction and
differ by a constant scale factor SFk). Therefore, the flows must have similar
streamline patterns. Flow regimes must be the same. These conditions are
160
demonstrated for two flow conditions, as shown in the following kinematically

similar flows, Fig. 6.2.
The conditions of kinematic similarity are generally met automatically when
geometric and dynamic similarity conditions are satisfied.
Fig. 6.2a Kinematically Similar Low Speed Flows
Fig. 6.2b Kinematically Similar Free Surface Flows

6.4.3. Dynamic Similarity
In fluid mechanics, dynamic similarity is typically defined as follows: (This is
basically met if model and prototype forces differ by a constant scale factor at
similar points). This is illustrated in the following figure for flow through a sluice
gate, Fig. 6.3. This is generally met for the following conditions:
1. For compressible flow: the model & prototype have the same Re, Ma;
161
Rem = Rep, Mam= Map

2. For incompressible flow:
a. without free surface; Rem = Rep
b. with a free surface; Rem = Rep , Frm = Frp
Note: The parameters being considered (such as the velocity, density, viscosity,
diameter, length, etc.) are generally related to the flow, geometry, and
fluid characteristics of the problem and are considered independent
variables for the subject problem.
Fig. 6.3 Dynamic Similarity for Flow through a Sluice Gate

The result of achieving similarity by the above means is that relevant non -
dimensional dependent variables, e.g. CD, Cp, Cf, or Nu, etc., are then equal for
both the model and prototype. This result would then indicate how the relevant
dependent results, e.g. drag force, pressure forces, viscous forces, are to be scaled
for the model to the prototype.
Equality of the relevant non-dimensional independent variables, Re, Ma, x/L,
etc., indicates how the various independent variables of importance should be
scaled.
An example of this scaling is shown as follows:
Example 6.1 The drag on a sonar transducer prototype is to be predicted based
on the following wind tunnel model data and prototype data
requirements. Determine the model test-velocity vm necessary to
achieve similarity and the expected prototype force Fp based on
the model wind tunnel test results.
162
Parameter Prototype (sphere) Model (sphere)

D 0.3048 m 0.1524 m
v 2.572 m/s Unknown?
F ? 24.821 N
ρ 1020.4 kg/m3 1.267 kg/m3
6 5
ν 1.3x10- m2/s 1.4493x10- m2/s
From dimensional analysis:

𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓{𝑅𝑒{}}
𝐹 v𝐷
= 𝑓{ 𝜈 }
𝜌𝑣 2 𝐷2
For the prototype, the actual operating velocity and Reynolds number are
Prototype: vP= 2.572 m/s
𝑣𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝑃 = = 6.03 × 105
𝜈
Equality of Reynolds number then yields the required model test velocity of:
𝑣𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝑚 = 𝑅𝑒𝑃 = = 6.03 × 105
𝜈
Then vm = 57.3 m/s

Based on actual test results for the model, i.e. measured Fm, equality of model
and prototype drag coefficients yields:
𝐶𝐷𝑃 = 𝐶𝐷𝑚
𝜌 𝑣 2 𝐷2
then 𝐹𝑃 = 𝐹𝑚 𝜌 𝑃 𝑣 2𝑃 𝐷2𝑃 = 166.36 𝑁
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
N.B.
The drag coefficient for bluff bodies with a fixed point of separation; e.g. radar
antennae, generally have a constant, fixed number for CD which is not a function
of Re; CD=Constant ≠ f(Re).
Example 6.2 Show that the drag force on a ship of length L traveling at velocity
U through a fluid can be correlated by an expression of the type
CD = f(Re, Fr), where CD = F/U2L2,
163
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜌𝑈𝐿/𝜇 and Froude number, 𝐹𝑟 = 𝑈/√𝑔𝐿 . Why is g relevant?

A ship is 200m long is to operate at a velocity of 10 m/s in sea water
(density = 1028 kg/m3, viscosity= 1.2 x 10-3 Ns/m2). In order to estimate
the engine requirements, it is recommended to conduct tests, by towing a
scale model of 3 m long through a suitable liquid. At what velocity should
the model be towed and what kinematic viscosity (/) would be required
for the liquid? Given that the absolute viscosity of most liquids is in the
range 10-4 to 10-2 Ns/m2, what would be the practical difficulties of this
experiment?
F = f (U,L,,,g)
Need g , thus production of waves is important that influence the motion.
For 5 variables, 3 dimensions, thus 3 dimensionless groups.
By inspection, choose Re = UL/
Check the others:
𝐹 𝑀𝐿 𝐿3 𝑇 2 1
: =1
𝜌𝑈 2 𝐿2 𝑇 2 𝑀 𝐿2 𝐿2
𝑈2 𝐿2 𝑇 2 1
: =1
𝑔𝐿 𝑇2 𝐿 𝐿
For dynamic similarity; equate Froude number for the ship and model
(1&2):
𝑈1 2 𝑈 2 𝐿
= 𝑔𝐿2 , 𝑈2 = 𝑈1 √𝐿2
𝑔𝐿1 2 1
3
𝑈2 = 10√200 = 1.225 m/s
and Reynolds number Res= Rem

𝑈1 𝐿1 𝑈2 𝐿 2
=
𝜈1 𝜈2
𝑈2 𝐿2
𝜈2 = 𝜈1
𝑈1 𝐿1
1.2𝑥10−3 1.225 3
𝜈2 = . . 200= 2.145 x 10 –9 m2/s
1028 10
 
164
6.5. EXERCISE
1. A water turbine of power P, diameter D, flow rate Q, working head H,
rotates at a speed n. Using dimensional analysis, derive the relation:
𝑃 𝑔𝐻 𝑄
= 𝑓 ( , )
𝜌𝑛3 𝐷5 𝑛2 𝐷2 𝑛𝐷3
Where ρ is the water density and g is the gravitational acceleration.
2. Oil, of kinematic viscosity 1.39x10-5 m2/s, flows through a pipe of 0.762
m diameter, at an average velocity of 2.438 m/s. At what velocity should
water flow in a pipe of 0.0762 m diameter for dynamically similar flow?
Water viscosity is 9.29x10-7 m2/s.
(1.625 m/s)
3. A river model is built to a scale if (1/80). What surface velocity in the
prototype river is represented by a corresponding surface velocity of
0.183 m/s in the river model?
(1.634 m/s)
4. A maximum flow rate of 0.2 m3/s is available for a river model. This
corresponds to 945 m3/s for the prototype river. What is the largest size
model which may be used.
(1/29.5)
5. The flow in a river is 1500 m3/s. A distorted model with horizontal scale
0f (1/60) and vertical scale of (1/16) is built for laboratory testing. What
is the flow rate in the model?

‫نهاية الطبعة الثانية واحلمد هلل‬
165

Fluid Mechanics For Engineers, Ibrahim Saleh and M Galal Rabie - May - 2023

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Fluid Mechanics

Ibrahim Saleh M. Galal Rabie

2011/5464 :‫رقم اإليداع بدار الكتب المصرية‬

Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Saleh Mostafa

Prof. Dr. Mahmoud Galal El-Din Mohamed RABIE

Awarded by: Military Technical College, Cairo, Jan.,1977

CHAPTER 1: PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 1

CHAPTER 3: FLUID KINEMATICS 66

Flow from a reservoir 105

Fluid Statics is the study of fluids at rest or in equilibrium; Σ𝐹⃗ = 0.

where g= Gravitational force per unit mass = 9.807 m/s2

Table 1.1 Density of some fluids

Then 𝑉 𝑛 𝑑𝑝 + 𝑛𝑉 𝑛−1 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = 0 (1.12)

The relative equivalent Bulk modulus of elasticity 𝐵𝑒 can be written as:

The speed of sound in fluids (speed of pressure wave) is calculated by the

For liquids: 𝑐 = √𝐵/𝜌 (1.20)

For gases: 𝑐 = √𝐵𝑔 /𝜌 = √𝑛𝑝/𝜌 (1.21)

Fig.1.2 Velocity profile of viscous fluid between two parallel plates.

Fig.1.3 Viscous behavior of fluids

by 400 bar. Generally, the effect of pressure is of little importance, compared to

Fig.1.4 Variation of dynamic viscosity of typical fluids with temperature

Fig.1.5 Velocity distribution in the radial clearance of a sliding spool

Fig.1.6 Velocity distribution in the radial clearance of a rotating spool.

Fig.1.7 Surface tension due to cohesive forces between liquid molecules

Fig.1.8 Surface tension forces in a soap bubble.

Fig.1.9 Capillary rise in a tube

Table 1.4 Surface tension of some liquids

Fig.1.10 Capillary in clean circular glass tube, published by Daugherty, 1937

Cavitation is not desirable for the following reasons:

Fig.1.11 Variation of the saturated vapor pressure of pure water with

Table 1.6 Physical properties of water

flows along a smooth surface with a velocity profile given by;

24. A fluid of viscosity μ = 0.0012 Pa s flows along a surface with a velocity

29. Calculate the pressure in a soap bubble in the atmosphere, assuming

Fig.2.3 Triangular prismatic element of fluid

Fig.2.4 Forces acting on a fluid element

x, y, z respectively. The considered fluid element is at rest, then, the forces

The pressure difference between two points, can be calculated as follows:

Then: (p2 – p1) = − ρ g (z2 – z1) (2.24)

Fig.2.5 Fluid pressure in gravity field

Fig.2.6 Gauge and absolute pressures

The pressure p, calculated by Eq.2.25, is the absolute pressure pabs, measured

Fig.2.7 Mercury Barometer

Fig.2.8 Simple Piezometer (glass tube manometer)

Fig.2.9 U-Tube manometer

For the U-tube, pB = pC

Fig.2.10 U-Tube manometer, measuring pressure difference

pA + ρgha - ρm gh - ρg(hb – h) = pB (2.38)

Special U-tube manometer

Fig.2.11 U-tube manometer with different diameters

Fig.2.12 Inclined-tube manometer

h2 = x sin θ = 0.05 sin (15) = 0.01294 m

The error induced by neglecting h1 is:

Forces on Plane Areas

Fig.2.13 Pressure forces on inclined submerged plane surface

𝐹𝑃 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑦𝑐 𝐴 (2.51)

𝑦𝐶 = (1/𝐴) ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴 (2.52)

The area center is at distance yc from the line ox

𝑦𝑃 𝐹𝑝 = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝐼𝑂 (2.56)

𝜌𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝐼𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝐼𝑂 𝐼𝑂

𝐼𝑂 = 𝐼𝑐 + (𝐶𝑂)2 𝐴 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝑦𝑐2 𝐴 (2.58)

where XP = Lateral distance of Pressure center of area from a selected y

2nd moment of area, about the