GROUP 2

HOMEWORK 1 : FLY ASH

1. Definition of Fly Ash

Fly ash is the by product from the combustion of pulverized coal and is transported
from the combustion chamber by exhaust or flue gases. Fly ash get its name because it is a
product in the form of fine ash that is transported by the flue gases and flew into the air. The
usage of fly ash as additional cementitious material in concrete have been known in the early-
1900s, but in the mid-1900s the usage of fly ash in concrete begin to rise significantly
(Thomas 2007). According to ACAA 2006 the use of fly ash in concrete until the year of
2005 is close to 15 million tons.

Back in the 1900 coal was the main fuel in energy and cement production. The
combustion of coal in the energy production produce a residual ash that cause massive air
pollution and in concrete production especially in cement production produce a massive
carbon dioxide that contribute in greenhouse gas emission (Joshi 2010). With a growing
concern of people need in infrastructure and the environment impact of concrete, the need of
developing a sustainable concrete is substantial. Sustainable concrete is defined as the use of
by-products such in concrete to reduce the environmental impact while considering it’s
structural and durability requirements. One of the by-products that be used in concrete are fly
ash (Solis et al 2010).

Fly ash is a pozzolanic material. It is a finely-divided amorphous alumino-silicate

with various amounts of calcium, which when mixed with portland cement and water, will
react with the calcium hydroxide released by the hydration of portland cement to produce
various calcium-silicate hydrates (C-S-H) and calcium-aluminate hydrates. Fly ash with
higher calcium content will display a cementitious behaviour by reacting with water to
produce hydrate without calcium hydroxide. These pozzolanic reactions are beneficial to the
concrete in that they increase the quantity of the cementitious binder phase (C-S-H) and
calcium-aluminate hydrates, improving the long-term strength and reducing the permeability
of the system. Both mechanisms enhance the durability of the concrete. This detailed
information is based on ACI committee 232 report on Fly Ash in Concrete and other source
(Helmut 1987).

2. Production of Fly Ash

 Fly ash is the by-product of coal in an electrical generating station. Figure 2.
Schematic layout of a coal-fired electrical generating station (Sear 2001). In the production of
fly ash, coal is first pulverized in grinding mills before being blown with air into the burning
zone of the boiler. In this zone the coal combusts producing heat with temperatures reaching
approximately 1500°C (2700°F). At this temperature the non-combustible inorganic minerals
(such as quartz, calcite, gypsum, pyrite, feldspar and clay minerals) melt in the furnace and
fuse together as tiny molten droplets. These droplets are carried from the combustion
chamber of a furnace by exhaust or flue gases. Once free of the burning zone, the droplets
cool to form spherical glassy particles called fly ash. The fly ash is collected from the exhaust
gases by mechanical and electrostatic precipitators.

Figure 1. Production of Fly Ash

The performance of fly ash is depending in the physical, mineralogical and chemical
properties. According to ASTM C618 the specification for fly ash is divided into 2 class.
These class is explained from the table 1:

Table 1. The Spesification of Fly Ash (ASTM)

3. Fly Ash Benefit Usage

According to Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), Fly ash has many benefit in
reducing the usage of cement. Not only that, it also can increase the portland cement concrete
(PCC) performance. Fly ash can improve workability of plastic concrete, and strength
durability of hardened concrete. Fly ash can increase the cost saving due to low cement
dosage. The benefit usage of fly ash consist of two condition : Fresh concrete and hardened
condition.

Benefit usage of FA on fresh concrete : Using fly ash in concrete construction, especially in
fresh consrete can reduce the mixing water requirement and improving the paste flow
behavior.

1. Improved workability. 
Fly ash applied in the concrete mix has spherical shaped particles, here it acts as a
miniature ball bearings inside the concrete mix. Thus it provides the lubricant effect
for the mix. Fly ash also can improve concrete pumpability by reducing frictional
losses during the pumping work.
2. Decreased water demand. 
Fly ash can act as a subtitute for cement, it means fly ash reduces the water demand
for a certain slump value. When fly ash is used in concrete mix about 20 % it will
reduce the use of water about 10%. It means higher fly ash content in concrete lower
the water demand in concrete. The decreased water in concrete has a little effect or
even it has no effect on drying shrinkage/cracking.
3. Reduced heat of hydration. 
Replacing cement with the same amount of fly ash can reduce the heat of hydration of
concrete. This reduction in the heat of hydration does not sacrifice long-term strength
 gain or durability. The reduced heat of hydration lessens heat rise problems in mass
concrete placements.

Benefit usage of FA on hardened concrete :

The benefit usage of fly ash on hardened concrete happened because its reaction with lime
and alkali inside the concrete. The reaction will produce additional cementitious compounds.

Figure 2. Fly ash reaction inside the concrete.

1. Increased ultimate strength. 

The additional subtance that act as binder produced by fly ash reaction allows fly ash
concrete to continue to gaon strength over time. The subtance designed to produce
equivalent strength at early ages ( < 90 days) will exceed the strength of straight
cement concrete mix.

Figure 3. Typical strength gain of fly ash concrete over time.

2. Reduced permeability. 
Adding the fly ash will result in decrasing the water content combined with the
production os additional binder subtance, thus it will reduce the pores inside the
concrete. Reduced pores will result in low permeability.
 Figure 4. Permeability of fly ash concrete.
3. Improved durability. 
Low permeability and pores will improve the long-term durability and resistance to
various forms of deterioration. The durability will afford several benefits, there are :
 Improved resistance to ASR (Alkali-Silica-Reaction). Fly ash reacts with available
alkali in the concrete, which makes them less available to react with certain silica
minerals contained in the aggregates.
 Improved resistance to sulfate attack. Fly ash induces three phenomena that
improve sulfate resistance:
o Fly ash consumes the free lime making it unavailable to react with sulfate
o The reduced permeability prevents sulfate penetration into the concrete
o Replacement of cement reduces the amount of reactive aluminates
available
 Improved resistance to corrosion. The reduction in permeability increases the
resistance to corrosion.

4. Environmental Effect of Fly Ash

Coal production is a two-side business that have a huge impact depending on which
side you’re on, producing coal could disrupt environment as we know it by accelerating
the climate change pace, but it also boost the productivity towards humanity’s
triumphant. Green House Gases (GHGs) is spread into the atmosphere in an alarming
amount causing climate change, but with Fly ash introduced as a potential material to
curb the GHGs emissions in concrete works seems to be a win-win solution, because the
material is an industrial by-product, remain worthless after their production, alongside its
main product as coal with low calories. Annual GHGs emissions reported by UN
Environment in 2018 shown a record high of 53.5 Gt of carbon di oxide – equivalent.
With the world that is expanding, cement demand all over the world keep rising and
contributing to a limitless demand by mankind. Global production of concrete is reaching
15 billion tones (Gartner, 2004). This matter is addressed by developing some
admixtures that could be used to reducing GHGs emissions by using supplementary
cementing material (SCMs) such as fly ash, silica fume, blast furnace slag, etc., (Demirel
et al., 2018; Juenger and Siddique, 2015; Panesar et al., 2017). SCM is not only reduces
producing cost, but also solves the disposal activities that come along with it. We all
know that concrete waste is a huge problem to the environment.

Fly ash is one of the SCM that is being made by derivates in coal production.
Producing coal does affect environmental in its production by producing its carbon
footprint into the world, fly ash particularly could be applied in geopolymer in order to
emphasize its impact towards environmental cause. Life cycle analysis (LCA) will be
applied to see and observe those impacts, according to Curran in 1996, life cycle analysis
is a method of analyzing environmental consequences of a plan, policy or program prior
to the decision to move forward with the proposed action, implemented with those
definition into current case is to justify the adoption of geopolymer concrete as a
environmental-friendly choice over the normal concrete, added fly ash surely benefited
this matter also. Salas et al. (2018) concluded that the environmental impacts of
geopolymer consisting natural zeolites, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and sodium silicate
(Na2SiO3) is lesser than cement concrete. Habert et al. (2011) considered various amount
of categories that this concrete need to be tested, and it turned out that geopolymer
concrete performed better in terms of reducing global warming impact but lack of those
abilities in other categories due to the use of sodium silicate (Na2SiO3).

Several importance research significance indicated with reduction of alkali silicate,

thereby improving the environmental performance that been vouched to this material.
Emission caused by Transportation also aimed to be reduced, and waste management
from coal production that possess desired quality to be proper fly ash will trigger mass
production of this material, hence this will be environmentally and economically
feasible. The research regarding those problem started by determining mix proportions
with paste volume and ratio of paste aggregate remain similar in all four concrete mixes
(Bajpai et al., 2019). Four concrete models are prepared, cement; geopolymer with fly ash
as precursor, NaOH and Na2SiO3 as alkaline activators; geopolymer with a blend of fly
 ash and silica fume as precursor, NaOH and Na2SiO3 as alkaline activators; and
geopolymer with a blend of fly ash and silica fume as precursor, only NaOH as alkaline
activator. The results indicated that alkali activated fly ash is better than normal concrete
without fly ash or any SCMs for that matter,

5. Pro and Cons of Fly Ash Usage

1. Silica fume
Silica fume is believed to improve and increase the compressive strength, flexural
strength, pozzolanic activity, ultimate load bearing capacity, durability, impact
resistance, and the other properties such as multi-range macropososity (Papa et al. 2016
; Saraya 2014 ; Tamimi et al. 2016 ; Li et al. 2015 ; Sobhani and Najimi 2013 ; Cakir
and Sofyanli 2015 ; Choi et al. 2016 ; Jalal et al. 2015 ; Mastali and Dalvand 2016 ;
Zhang et al. 2016). The production of high-porosity cement foams and multi-strength
lightweight concrete can be produced because of the increasing multi-range
macroporosity properties.

The optimum content for using silica fume with the combination of steel fibres, nano-
silica and recycled aggregate is between 10 – 14 % (Cakir and Sofyanli 2015 ; Jalal et
al. 2015 ; Mastali and Dalvand 2016).

The disadvantages of using silica fume can be seen in the reduction of workability
(Khatri et al. 1995) and long term compressive strength (De Larrad and Bostvironnois
1991). Creep reduction is found not to be an effective tools if silica fume is used (Buil
and Acker 1985).

2. Fly ash
The use of fly ash can increase and improve the compressive strength, bulk density and
linear shrinkage, porosity reduction, bending toughness and ductility (Chen et al. 2016 ;
Chousidis et al. 2016 ; Tian et al. 2015).

The construction of fly ash concrete need to be considered carefully. Some researches
said that curing time, curing temperature and type of materials are the factors need to be
considered (Khan et al. 2016 ; Noushini et al. 2016). The exposure conditions need to
be considered in order to get optimum production conditions in fly ash concrete (Fan et
al. 2015 ; Khan et al. 2016 ; Aliabdo et al. 2016 ; Parl et al. 2016).
The disadvantages of using fly ash are time-setting consuming, low early-age strength,
construction delay, susceptible to decier-salt scaling carbonation and hard to be used in
cold weather (Madhavi et al. 2014).

 Ground granulated blast furnace slag

The advantages of using GGBFS are the increasing and improving the durability and
long-term compressive strength in concrete (Cakir and Akoz 2008 ; Ozbay et al. 2016).
It is believed that GGBFS is durable against aggressive natural environment (Bijen
1992 ; Wiebenga 1980).

But the use of GGBFS may increase the rate of corrosion (Bijen 1992 ; Wiebenga
1980).

Resistance to chloride penetration : GGBFS > SF > FA

ASR (alkali silica reaction) mitigation : SF > FA > GGBFS

Compressive strength performance at elevated temperature : FA > GGBFS > SF

Resistance to sulphate attack : SF > GGBFS > FA

Some said that fly ash as the partial replacement of cement will result in lower
compressive strength in the early ages, then it result in higher strength compared with
full use of cement within 6 months. This is caused by the increasing amount of C-S-H
and reduction of Ca(OH)2. The strength of using fly ash as the partial replacement of
cement depends on several factors such as amount, reactivity and fineness, water to
solid ratio and curing conditions.

The increasing amount of fly ash may result in lower compressive strength at the early
ages (Crow and Dunstan ; Samarin et al. 1983 ; Teoranu and Nicolescu 1982 ; Lamond
1983 ; Brown 1982 ; Costa and Massazza 1983 ; Wesche and Schubert 1981 ; Raba et
al. 1981 ; Ramakrishnan et al. 1981 ; Dodson 1981 ; Schubert et al. 1977). Reducing
water content (Crow and Dustan ; Teoreanu and Nicolescu 1982 ; Samarin et al. 1983 ;
Lamond 1983 ; Costa and Massazza 1983 ; Brink and Halstead 1957 ; Hoobs 1983 ;
Warris 1983 ; Brown 1982 ; Karpinski 1958 ; Oates and Buckingham) and raising
curing temperature (Cain 1981 ; Brown 1982 ; Ravina 1981 ; Goldschmidt et al. 1979 ;
Dhir et al. 1979 ; Dalziel 1980 ; Feldman 1981 ; Ostrowski 1976 ; Owens and Buttler
1980 ; Michihiro 1982 ; Ravina) may be a way to increase the early strength of the
 concrete. Wet curing and high temperature curing is believed to increase the early
strength for the fly ash concrete (Matthews and Gutt 1978 ; Ravina ; Kasai 1983).
Below we will discuss the effect of cement replaced by fly ash to the early compressive
strength and the effect of replacement of aggregate without replacing the cement
content to the early compressive strength.

From the graph, we can see that the higher amount of fly ash used as replacement of Portland
Cement will result in lower compressive strength at the early ages. As day goes on, the
compressive strength tends to have a increase significantly compared to the use of full
Portland Cement.
From the result, it can be seen that lower water content result in higher compressive strength
at the early ages by using water reducer or superplasticizer (Samarin and Ryan 1975 ; Lane
and Best 1979 ; Malhotra 1981 ; Brooks et al. 1982 ; Mukherjee et al. 1982 ; Mailvaganam et
al. 1983). But at the late age, it shows that there is less or no improvement on the
compressive strength because the negative charge on the fly ash particle surface won’t be
affected by negative charge of the water reducer or superplasticizer (Nagataki et al. 1984).

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