W86

Building Pathology

BUILDING PATHOLOGY
A STATE-OF-THE-ART REPORT

CIB Report Publication 155

June 1993

0 CIB 1993
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Preface

CIB Working Commission W86 - Building Pathology. comprising about 45 experts

from several countries, is essentially concerned with the methodology of investiga-
tion of defects and failures of buildings. Its tasks are:to produce and exchange infor-
mation, to consider technical aspects of defects and failures. and to promulgate im-
proved practices.
Building pathology has many Merent aspects. all of which could merit being
subjects of study on their own. This Report was W e d with the aim of giving state-of-
the-art information concerning those aspects, including their interrelationships. It
is hoped that experts involved with the investigation and prevention of building
defects will profit from the views, opinions and methods described.

The Report is the joint effort of W86s Members. Special thanks are due to the follo-
wing Members who contributed by delivering substantial Information and/or by
drafting parts of the Report: Mr. Brotherson, Mr. Castrillo Canda. Mr. Groce, Mr.
Gross, Mr. Henshell, Mr. Moroni, Ms. Pinterr.Mr.Tolstoy and Mr. Wintz. Assistance
in the final editing, from W86's former Coordinator. Mr. I.L. Freeman, is gratefully
acknowledged.

At the date of issuing the Report W86 consisted of the following Members:

Australia: RF. Warner Belgium: J. Ratht; Canada: M. Lincourt, M.Z. Rousseau;

Flnlpnd:T. Sne& France: F. Derrien; Hungary: J. Pint& Ireland K. Spencer; Italy:
S. Groce. F. Lembo. M. Moroni, G. Tortorid, G. TurchM; Mozambique: J. Almeida
Fernandes; New Zealand G. Robertson; Netherlands: A van den Beukel, P.Chr. €?aab;
Portugal: A. Canha da Piedade, J. Ferry Borges, A Ravara; Romania: L. Groll;
Singapore: C. B s e t t ; South Africa: J.A.P. Laurie; Spain: A. Castrillo Canda, F.
Hostalet Alba; Sweden: N. Tolstoy; United Kingdom: D. Bishop, G.K. Cook, H. Gow.
K.H. Murta, W.G. Sparksman. P. Trotman; US& D.E. Brotherson. C.G. Cash. C.T.
Grimm, J.G. Gross. J. Henshell. S.D. Kaplan, J. LQSS.T. Nadel, J.A. Wintz; USSR:B A
Kosicin.

June 1993 A van den Beukel

Delft. The Netherlands Coordinator W86
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Building pathology is defined as the systematic treatment of building defects, its

causes, its consequences and its remedies. Elements and notions of the building pa-
thology 'domain' are reviewed firstly in Chapter l: 'Introduction'. A systematic
approach to cause determination is the focal point in Chapter 2: 'Methodology of
Investigation'. Such an approach is important in minimising the risk that Merent
investjgators into some given defect arrive at different conclusions. Special attention
is paid to the kind of information on causes of defects. Information should not just
cover technical or liability aspects, but also aspects that can be used for the improve-
ment of quality management systems. Furthermore. the concept of risk is dealt with
along the three lines of a mathematical concept, a management tool and a psychologi-
cal concept.
The advantages and disadvantages of databanks on building defects are discussed jn
Chapter 3: 'Databanks'. They are mostly seen as necessary to get a grip on the preven-
tion of building defects. But certain conditions, as for instance, a sound financial
basis and a clear vlew on input, processing and output of defect information have to be
met in order to make a database successful. It is questioned, nevertheless. whether
useful infoxmation produced on building defects really reaches those people who may
'build in' a defect
Chapter 4: 'Costs' describes cost categories related to building defects. 'Quality costs'.
'costs of defects' and other types of costs are presented as an interrelated framework.
Also, some data on costs arc given. They indicate that roughly 2% to 5% of total buil-
ding costs can be considered as building defect costs. Extreme losses due to collapses
or structural failures are not taken into account. Financial losses due to imperfect
control ofthe building process amount to roughly the same percentages.
Some diagnostic tools are dealt with in Chapter 5: 'Diagnostic Aids'. Diagnostic charts
and matrices may link anomalies (signs or symptoms). causes, defects and tests in a
-
structural way. The fault tree known from reliabilily analysis of structural systems
- may be useful as a diagrammauc outline of possible errors aEecting the performance
of a building element. The diagnostic tree is presented as a guide to the process of diag-
nosis. The basics of expert systems, which are attracttng more and more attention in
the building field, arc discussed but without going into details of expert system tech-
nology.
Next Chapter 6: 'Cases of Failures'presents a few cases to illustrate the systematics in
handling a building defect.
Finally, Chapter 7: 'Information Dissemination' contains a selected bibliography.
Only those boob and a ~ W e which
s W86 Members thought to be useful are listed.
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Contents

PREFACE 1

SUMMARY 2

1 INTRODUCTION 5

2 METHODOLOGY OF INVESTIGATION 9
2.1 Investigation process 9
2.2 Cause determination 13
2.3 Origins of causes 14
2.4 The decay process and maintenance 15
2.5 Risk 16
2.6 Terminology 21

3 DATABANKS 23
3.1 Introductory 23
3.2 Advantages and disadvantage 23
3.3 Experiences 24
3.4 Conditions 24

4 COSTS 27
4.1 Introductory 27
4.2 Cost categories 27
4.3 Data on quality costs 29
4.4 Data on costs of defects 30
4.5 What can be learned from data on costs? 31

5 DIAGNOSTIC AIDS 33
5.1 General 33
5.2 Diagostic charts and matrices 33
5.3 Fault trees 36
5 . 4 Diagnostic trees 39
5 . 5 Expert systems 41

6 CASES OF FAILURES 47
6 . 1 Introductory 47
6 . 2 Defects Information Sheets 48
6 . 3 Review of failures and defects 61
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Contents (Cont. ' d)

7 INFORMATION DISSEMINATION 71
7.1 Bibliography - Books 71
7.2 Journals, proceedings, technical notes, etc. 73

REFERENCES 77

APPENDIX A. Example of a check list 79

APPENDIX B. Building defects result from procedural inadequacies 81
APPENDIX C . Quality cost categories and types of costs 83
APPENDIX D. Causes of defects in Hungarian buildings 85
APPENDIX E. Building defects in The Netherlands 87
APPENDIX F. Building pathology related terms 89

WHAT'S A DEFECT ?
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1 Introduction

Though 'building pathology' may sound new, the treatment of building defects
is surely not a new phenomenon. As early as the year 2200 BC, Hammurabi's
Building Code testifies to rather rigorous punishment in case of building
failures (Figure 1). This illustrates that building pathology is not only
related to defects, but also to matters of liability.

A I f a builder build a house for a man and do

not make its construction firm and the house
he has built collapse and cause the death of
the owner of the house - that builder shall
be put to death.
B If it cause the death of the son of the
owner of the house - they shall put to death
a son of that builder.
C If it cause the the death of a slave of the
owner of the house - he shall give to the
owner of the house a slave of equal value.
D I f it destroy property, he shall restore
whatever it destroyed, and because he did
not make the house which he built firm and
and it collapsed, he shall rebuild the house
which collapsed at his own expens.
E I f a builder build a house for a man and do
not make its construction meet the
requirements and a wall fall in, that
builder shall strengthen the wall at his own
expense.
Translated by R.F. Harper
88Codeof Hamnurabi81 p.83-seq.
Jacob Feld 1922

Figure 1. Laws of Hammurabi (from the book Vonstruction Failure" by Jacob Feld, publ. J. Uiley
& Sons Inc.. New York)

Today's defect investigation is more complicated due to the increasing

complexity of buildings, materials and systems and to an increasing rate of
developments in our societies. Furthermore, there is a growing need for more
effective handling, more ready access to available knowledge and more
feedback.

Some major definitions have to be given firstly:

- B u i l d i n g Pathology ( ' B P ' ) = t h e systematic treatment of b u i l d i n g d e f e c t s ,

t h e i r c a u s e s , t h e i r consequences and t h e i r remedies.
- Defect - a s i t u a t i o n where one or more elements do n o t perform i t s / t h e i r
intended f u n c t i o n ( s ) .
- F a i l u r e = t h e termination of t h e a b i l i t y o f an i t e m t o perform a required
function.
- Anomaly = an i n d i c a t i o n of a p o s s i b l e d e f e c t .
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Though the definitions of 'defect' and 'failure' seem almost identical, they
do not have the same meaning. The term defect implies a shortcoming in respect
of some normative or even perceived standard. But the defect may lead - by
some means - to a situation in which a specific required function cannot be
fullfilled any longer.
A crack in a partition wall can be considered as a defect. It depends on the
functions of the wall and o n , for instance, crack-width whether the wall fails
in performing its required functions.

The type of defect may vary widely; from a minor crack to a major collaps.
Obviously, the latter implies a failure, i.e. the termination of required use.
Also; BP is more than just a science that studies the influencing factors and
the mechanisms of degradation processes in building materials and structures.
Many aspects may be the subject of BP and several relations exist with other
activities in the building field.

Normally, a manifested or supposed defect requires action from a 'building

pathologist'. And, in fact, there are building pathologists who make a living
out of defects. But on a more macro-economic scale, losses due to building
defects are a matter for concern.
From the point of view of interests - i.e. the building pathologist on one
hand and society on the other hand - a distinction between the treatment of
a single case (Figure 2) and the treatment of several types of defects (Figure
3 ) can be made. Figures 2 and 3 together represent the main elements of the
'BP domain'.

jI FAILURE DESCRIPTION OF
i I I
!
!
Y Y
SEARCH FOR METHODOLOGY
! DEFECT OF INVESTIGATION
!
!
!
!
!
!
i
1 METHODOLOGY
! CAUSE OF INVESTIGATION
!
!
!
! outputto: -
!

j
!
MEASURESOF
IMPROVEMENT
REMEDIAL MEAS.
PREVENTlAL MEAS.
*
( _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

COSTS

Figure 2 . Elements of the 'BP domain' for a single

case
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For the sake of completeness, Figure 2 starts with a failure as the possible
consequence of one or more defects. But a s outlined before, defects may occur
without leading to failure.
Assuming that a defect is confirmed by objective signs, the next stage is to
search for cause(s) and for measures that prevent or cure the defect. The way
of handling may vary from a simple observation plus statement to a
consultation of an expert system (if available), or to a more elaborate
investigation.
Whatever the way of handling may be, two matters are important. Firstly a
clear and accurate description of the defect. Secondly a suitable method of
investigation that leads to the most probable cause(s). A suitable methodology
requires relevant expertise and a deducing mechanism. The methodology depends
on the 'case'. The most simple mechanism could be a brief checklist; the most
elaborated one could be the inference mechanism of an expert system. In
between, the use of fault tree analysis can be mentioned.

Building pathology should not only offer information to direct involved

parties - on some specific defect - but also information for matters like
liability and insurance, costs of defects, quality assurance, regulations and
the building community in general. This latest kind of information is
generally given by way of publications, articles, information sheets,
seminars, etc. But it is questionable whether such output is always effective
in preventing defects.

!
METHODOLOGY
!
! 3.
I
!
REGISTRATION ! i
METHOD !

1Figure 3 . Elements of the 'BP domain for several types

of defects

It may be stated that a general need for more systematic feedback from
experiences and knowledge exists. Such feedback should preferably be an
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element of a broader system that encounters several types of defects (Figure

3 ) . This leads to the necessity of collecting, recording and evaluating data,
to cost/benefit analysis and to providing information to involved bodies like:
regulations and code makers, designers, contractors, implementers of quality
assurance systems, insurance companies, planners, etc. Such output can be
quite different for different users of the information. It mainly comprises:
number and/or frequency of several specific defects, actual causes,
characteristics of the degradation process, losses or costs involved and
appropriate remedial and/or preventive measures.
The basis of such a system is formed by a databank. And in fact, several
countries have one or more databanks which records cases of defects. But very
often these banks have limitations with respect to accessability and the
amount and types of recorded cases.