LUCRĂRI ŞI RAPOARTE DE CERCETARE

VOL. III
UNIVERSITATEA DIN BUCUREŞTI
FACULTATEA DE GEOGRAFIE
CENTRUL DE CERCETARE DEGRADAREA TERENURILOR
ŞI DINAMICĂ GEOMORFOLOGICĂ

DE C ERC
UL E
R
T

TA
N
CE

RE
LUCRĂRI ŞI RAPOARTE DE CERCETARE
VOL. III

WORKSHOP
Hydro-Geomorphological Systems

Orşova, 8-10 octombrie, 2011

Editor: FLORINA GRECU

2012
Referenţi ştiinţifici: Prof. univ. dr. Liliana ZAHARIA
Conf. univ. dr. Laura COMĂNESCU

Colectivul editorial: Prof. univ. dr. Florina GRECU

Dr. Cristina GHIȚĂ
Dr. Sorin CARABLAISĂ
Drd. Daniel IOSIF

Şos. Panduri, 90-92, Bucureşti – 050663, România,

Telefon/Fax: (0040) 021.410.23.84, E-mail: editura_unibuc@yahoo.com
Librărie online: http://librarie-unibuc.ro
Centru de vânzare: Bd. Regina Elisabeta, nr. 4-12, București
tel. (0040) 021.314.35.08/2125
Web: www.editura.unibuc.ro

Tehnoredactare computerizată: Meri Pogonariu

ISSN: 1844-7260
 CUPRINS/CONTENTS

FLORINA GRECU – The Hydrogeomorphological System in the Concepts of Geomorphometry

and of Modern Morphological Theories. Applications to Hazard and Risk Diagnosis
in Areas of the Romanian Plain (CNCSIS PROJECT PN II – IDEI code 1954/2009) .. 7

MARIA ALBU (DINU) – The Fluvial Geomorphology of the Călmăţui River in the
Teleorman County............................................................................................................. 11
C. GHIȚĂ, C.-A. GHERGHINA, P. MOLIN, F. GRECU – Analiza morfometrică a
crovurilor din Câmpia Română de est / Morphometric Analysis of Microdepressions
in Areas From Eastern Romanian Plain .......................................................................... 19
ABDELLAOUI ABDELKADER – Nouveaux schémas de l’agriculture saharienne en
Algérie : imagerie satellitale et bases de données géographique comme outils
d’analyse et de suivi ......................................................................................................... 29
DANIELA VLAD – The Correlation Between Drainage Density and Relief Energy Within
the Eşelniţa Basin ............................................................................................................ 37
DANIEL IOSIF – Empirical Study Concerning the Main Danube Defile Geosites: Some
Tourists’ Reflections ......................................................................................................... 43
K. HACHEMI, F. GRECU, A. OZER, M. JURCHESCU, M. VISAN – Comparaison entre
deux Modèles Numériques d’Altitudes (MNA) réalisés par interférométrie radar RSO
(INSAR) pour étudier les mouvements de terrain (glissements de terrain et coulées de
boue) dans la région de Buzau (Roumanie)...................................................................... 49
ANCA MUNTEANU, LAURA COMĂNESCU, ALEXANDRU NEDELEA – Note
regarding the factors causing snow avalanches............................................................... 71
RALUCA ALEXANDRU, MARIUS-MIHAI PAISA, GEORGIAN CĂTESCU –
Morphometric Aspects in Săsăuș River Basin .................................................................. 77
GEORGIAN CĂTESCU, RALUCA ALEXANDRU, MARIUS PAISA – The Influence of
Geological Structure and Lithology in the Topography of Mislea Basin ........................ 83
MARIUS MIHAI PAISA, RALUCA ALEXANDRU, GEORGIAN CĂTESCU – Aspects
Regarding to Ecological Reconstruction at Copşa Mică Area......................................... 89
MARIA ALBU (DINU), DANIELA VLAD, GEORGIAN CĂTESCU – The
Geomorphometry Analysis. Case Studies in Drainage Basins Representative as Relief.. 95
REMUS PRĂVĂLIE – Amenajările hidrotehnice de pe râul Argeș: între necesitate
energetică și impact asupra reliefului .............................................................................. 107

WORKSHOP FIELDTRIP .......................................................................................................... 119

DANUBE DEFILE (Sinteză de Carablaisă Sorin, Chiță Cristina) ............................................... 121
 EA RC H C THE HYDROGEOMORPHOLOGICAL SYSTEM
ES E
R
IN THE CONCEPTS OF GEOMORPHOMETRY

N
TR
E

AND OF MODERN MORPHOLOGICAL THEORIES.

TH

E
APPLICATIONS TO HAZARD AND RISK
DIAGNOSIS IN AREAS OF THE ROMANIAN PLAIN
AN S (CNCSIS PROJECT Code 1954/2009)
D
GE
L O

IC
MOD DEG N AN M
O
RP H RADATI DY N A
L OGIC AL Florina GRECU

Summary. The project aims at identifying factors that cause changes with negative effects on the human
habitat, using modern concepts and methods having wide applicability in different konwledge fields,
including in the dynamic of hydrogeomorphic systems (riverbeds and interfluves belonging to one
drainage basin). Micromorphometry of the different fluvial, slope and drainage basin forms will be used
(index of completion of drainage basins, index of riverbed and interfluvial microforms morphometry (e.g.
saucers, dunes). From this analysis the present dynamic state and the evolution trend of microforms as
effect of hazard phenomena will result.
If morphometry has a precise quantitative content, the modern morphological theories have a
qualitative content which allows the identification of points and critical values in the development of
geomorphic phenomena with hazard effect: catastrophe theory – with significance on discontinuities,
thresholds; theory of dissipative structures – with importance in pointing out the balance-state; chaos theory –
with significance for evolution and complexity; fractal theory – with the help of which fractal dimension
is computed.
Based on morphological and geomorphometrical theories and concepts, we aim at diagnosing hazards
and risks in the romanian plain, considering the national and european scientific and economic
importance of this one, an area little studied by means of the presented methodology. In this regard,
natural (geomorphic, climatic, hydrologic) and anthropic variables which cause severe unbalances to
riverbeds and interfluve dynamics in allohtone (ialomita inluding prahova, vedea including teleorman) or
autohton drainage basins (calmatui, neajlov). Depending on the diagnosis, vulnerability maps will be
created, especially in areas of big river confluences and great population density, but also on interfluves
with high frequency of microforms and settlements.

Importance and Relevance of the Scientific attention. The notion of hydrogeomorphology

Content
The complex and interdisciplinary character of
research lies in the problematic surrounding the
project’s title, a title ment to respond to
objectives of thesis which have to be elaborated
within the doctorate by the PhD students
members in the research team. In this respect,
the actual presentation refers to: 1.
geomorphometry of hidrogeomorphic systems;
2. morphological theories and their application
for relief knowledge; 3.river beds dynamic,
hazards and risks, general problems and
practical aspects related to hydrogeomorphic
risks; 4. geographical knowledge of river bed
dynamic in the Romanian Plain.
In the present context of global climatic
changes and extremely active relief dynamics,
relations between environmental conditions,
relief and human society are given much
(frecquently met at French geomorphologists,
particularly at the Aix en Provence groupe – J.
L. Ballais) includes the complex relief – water
system, being partially synonime to
morphohidrography, which, in our concept,
aims only at the 4-5 order systems, as transition
systems between unballanced torrential systems
and the fluvial ones, with forms and subsystems
in a ballanced state (Grecu, 2003, 2004, 2007).
The morphohydrographic systems, being
open systems respond directly and in a concrete
way to the global changes of the environment
(Goudie, 2006). Along rivers settlements
developed since early times, therefore a
research on the living environment aims both at
past and at prospective aspects regarding
management of rivers and of associated risks.
On an international level, the hydro-
geomorphic study of rivers and their settling
8 Florina GRECU
potential is to be found in synthetic studies as
well as in regional researches. Within the
International Association of Geomorphologists
there are Working-Groups specialized on
geomorphologic studies of rivers (Large rivers,
Hydrology and geomorphology of bedrock
rivers), of hazards (IAGGEOMHAZ) and of
geoarcheology (Geoarcheology). Concerning
hazards, these past years the European Centre
on Geomorphological Hazards (CERG) settled,
holding every two years symposiums and
extensive lectures dedicated to young
geographers. Also at European level, within
EGU (European Geosciences Union) there is a
department located in Vienna that holds
sessions on risks (Natural Hazards Division). A
conclusive example is the VI-th International
Conference of Geomorphology, Zaragoza–
Spain (September 2005) where five sections
dealt with issues on rivers of different
dimensions, in different environments and with
different risk orders (6th International
Conference on Geomorphology, Zaragoza,
September 7-11, 2005, Abstracts volume,
Planetearth, Deposito legal: Z-2.162/2005, 510
p.). The same thematic will be debated with the
occasion of the “OL’MAN RIVER” Geo-
Archaeological Aspects Of Rivers And River
Plains International Colloquium Ghent,
Belgium, 22-24 September 2006.
River bed dynamic, and its impact on the
environment and different ways of socio-
economic activity in view of their risk
assessment and management was little
approached in the geographic literature to this
extent and complex research. For the
theoretical studies on river beds dynamics as
well as the practical analysis, on sediments, the
School of Stejarul Research Station from Piatra
Neamt is acknowledged, especially I.Ichim,
Maria Radoane and N.Radoane, Dan Dumitriu
(see volumes dedicated to the symposiums
Provenienta si efluenta aluviunilor, the work
Dinamica sedimentelor, 1998, the paper Dams,
sediment sources and reservoir silting in
Romania (Geomorphology, 71/2005), Dimitriu’s
paper The alluvia’s system in the Trotuş
drainage basin, 2007, Applied Geomorphology
(Maria și N. Radoane, 2007). The evidentiation
of the relief – water synergism and of its effect
on riverbed dynamics are reflected in
morphometry (Grecu, 1985, 1992, 2003, 2007
etc.) or, more correctly, in geomorphometry (a
known notion, introduced by Morisawa) in
order to underline precisely the role of the
landform morphometry. Vintilă Mihăilescu
(1968) pointed out upon the significance of
morphometry for geomorphology. Returning to
morphometry of drainage basins, it drew
specialists attention particularly in the second
half of the last century, as a consequence of the
application of Horton’s laws (1945) to the river
network, of the interest in organizing the
phenomena in nature, at the same time with the
systemic explanations of nature.
The laws have been applied, developed and
completed in Romania too, both as method
(Zavoianu, 1978), and as geomorphic
interpretations (Grecu, 1980, 1992, 2003, Ichim,
1988, Ichim et al, 1989, Sandu, 1981, 1998,
Bojoi et al, 1998, Armas, 1999, Radoane, 2002,
etc.), entering even as laboratory’s thematic
(Master of Dynamic Geomorfology and
terrestrial environmental protection, Faculty of
Geography, University of Bucharest). Referring
to the international literature, where papers
appear making use of the method for
geomorphic interpretations (particulary at the
school formed by Schumm – fluvial
geomorphology, by Strahler – ierarhization of
river network and others) it can be said that the
experience obtained by the Romanian
geographical school is remarcable (for history
Grecu, Zavoianu, 1997, N. Radoane). Although
less applied to the river network of plain units,
except for some PhD papers, we appreciate that
the method will allow the establishing of some
correlations between river length and deposits,
between river segments and riverbed sizing,
and thererefore age of different river sectors
etc. These data will be also correlated with the
results of other morphometric and
morphographic analyses, among which fractal
dimension, according to exercises and
examples presented by Turcotte, (1992, Fractals
and Chaos in Geology and Geophysics) used
also in the Romanian literature (Grecu, 1998,
2003, Zavoianu, 2007 etc). Numerous websites
exist, much of them extremely mathematicised
(for the list of addresses see also Dubois,
 The Hydrogeomorphological System in the Concepts of Geomorphometry and of Modern Morphological Theories
Chaline, 2006, Le monde des fractales). To
compute the fractal dimension, Korvin (1992,
Fractal Models in the Earth Sciences) uses the
existent literature from the beginning of fractals
in 1930 until the 9th decade. The modern
scientific explanation and argumentation of
some notions deriving from the concept of
dynamic, as are threshold, limit, complexity,
discontinuity, ballance, unballance etc. know an
explosive approach in the professional
literature, especially after the appearance of the
theories of catastrophe, chaos and dissipative
structures in the 7th/8th decades and the
recognition of GST. In this respect, in Romania
some PhD thesis are elaborated (Petrea D.,
Praguri de substanta, energie si informatie in
sistemele geomorfologice, 1998, Haidu),
lectures (Mac, 1989, 1996, 2000, Josan, 2000,
2004, Grecu, 2000, 2003 Geomorfologie
dinamica, Radoane et al., Geomorfologie;
Ianos, 2000, Sisteme teritoriale; Petrea, 2005,
Obiect, metodă și cunoaștere geografică etc.),
papers in professional journals etc. (Revue
roumaine de geographie, Studii și cercetări de
geografie – Ungureanu, Ianos, Ielenicz, Grecu,
Groza, Muntele etc.). Concerning risk
phenomena in the Romanian Plain, these were
extensively studied, especially within studies of
climatic phenomena (e.g. Bogdan), sequential
studies approaching mostly a certain type of
hazard with regional effect (Patroescu et al,
numerous studies; Dumitrascu, 2006, Zaharia et
al; Diaconu, 2007 etc.). A general synthesis of
research is realized in Geografia României, vol.
V, The Romanian Plain, 2005, Academy
Publishing House .
On international level, risk phenomena are
also approached in the framework of some
interdisciplinary programs of risk assessment
and management. The risks are integrated
within environmental impact studies of applied
relevance. Therefore the characterization of
risk in order to diminish its effects and for the
society to accurately establish different levels
of supportability is an essential step in
assessing and risk managing of the
phenomenon that produces the risk. This is in
fact an applied and integrated geomorphology
to achieve society’s demands. Dynamic and
applied geomorphology coexist in the majority
9
of vast international studies. To this purpose we
quote a few volumes:
- Applied Geomorphology. Theory and
Practice, ed. John Wiley from Great Britain,
2002;
- Les cours d’eau, Dynamique du système
fluvial, Jean Bravard, Fr. Petit, Ed. Armand
Colin, 2000 and republished;
- Geomorfologia applicata, M. Panizza, Ed.
La Nuova Italia Scientifica, Roma, 2000 and
republished;
- The Human Impact on the Natural
Environment, A. Goudie, Ed. Blackwel,
Oxford, UK, 1999, 2006;
- The VI-th International Conference on
Geomorphology, Zaragoza – Spain (7-11
september 2005);
- Rapid evaluation of sediment budgets, L.
Reid, T. Dumme, Catena Verlag, 1996 (a reanl
manual for sediment assessment).
On international level a special attention is
conferred to natural and anthropic hazards and
risks, to research methods and means folded on
the geographic and geologic particularities of
some regions (Dauphine, Risques et
catastrophes, 2001; Sellan, Inondations en
France: 1910-2004, 2004; Alberto Mariano
Caivano, Rischio idrologico e idrogeologico,
2005, etc.). Numerous papers were published in
professional journals which treated hazards
over entire issues (Geomorphology vol.
10/1994, Géomorphologie relief, processus,
environnement, nr. 1, 2/2002, Annales de
Geographie 2004, etc.), as well as in magazines
dedicated to this phenomena: Natural Hazards
Review (vol. 8/may 2007) (edited by American
Society of Civil Engineers), Riscuri si
catastrofe, editor V. Sorocovschi etc. With this
impressive investigation field realized until
present, the impact of extreme phenomena on
population and the iminent risk to which this
one is subject are still disputed research
themes, oriented towards present. From here
also derives the oportunity for development and
application of various concepts, theories and
work methods in view of a global synthesis
with practical applications.
Several sites also host papers on natural risk
and hazards (www.earthobservatory. nasa.gov/
Natural Hazards;
10 Florina GRECU

www.unisdr.org; www.risk.net; www.riskworld.com ).

www.actionaid.org; In Romania: www.hazardero.com; www.
www.colorado.edu/hazards, inundatii.go.ro
www.landslides.usgs.gov; Most of them are meant to inform and not
www.disaster-info.net/SUMA; for research. They are useful though in
www.disaster.ceos.org; establishing the global impact on the population
www.landslide.dpri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ICL.htm; over certain periods in some territories.
www.oas.org/usde/publications;

Faculty of Geography, University of Bucarest

 EA RC H C
ES E
R

N
TR
E

THE FLUVIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY

TH

E
OF THE CĂLMĂŢUI RIVER
IN THE TELEORMAN PLAIN
AN D S
GE
L O

IC
MOD DEG N AN M MARIA ALBU (DINU)
O
RP H RADATI DY N A
L OGIC AL

Key words: fluvial geomorphology, meanders, Romanian Plain, Călmăţui River

Abstract The purpose of this study consists in describing the minor river bed of Călmăţui River in the
Teleorman County, including also a morphometric analysis of meanders.
Regarding their morphometry, the meanders have been characterized by parameters such as: length of
meander loop, string of loop, height of loop, radius of loop, extension or flattening of loop, sinuous length
of meander, sinuosity index, deviation angle, wave length and amplitude of meander.
The measurements have been made using 1:25000 scale topographic maps. Subsequent to measuring of
meander loops and calculation of indexes, we have performed their statistic analysis and we have noticed
that their values vary along the river within rather large limits. The factors causing these variations are:
river inclinations, surface deposits the river got deeper into, liquid and solid flow rate, anthropical
intervention, etc.

Introduction positive neo-tectonic movements of the

In the current phase, the major role for
modelling the relief is played by flowing water
(fluviatile erosion) (Coteţ, 1959). The essence
of fluviatile processes consists in erosion
processes, transport and storage, having as
result relief form and river storage (Grecu and
Palmentola, 2003). In this study, taking into
consideration the morphographical,
morphometrical and morphogenetic
characteristics of minor river bed, we will
establish the river bed types existing along
Călmăţui River and we will analyze the
morphometry of meandered segments.
The basin of Călmăţui River is an
autochthon drainage basin located in the
Western part of Olt-Argeş segment of
Romanian Plain, more precisely in Boianu
Plain. It springs from an altitude of only 158 m
and it discharges into Suhaia Lake, an old
abandoned arm of Danube.
Călmăţui River is sculpted in loess and loess
deposits of medium-superior Pleistocene age,
having as basis “Frăteşti Layers” gravel of St.
Prestian age (Liteanu, 1961; Enciu, 2007). The
particularly friable rocks wherein the basin is
developed, the lowering of basis level and the
Southern part of the basin have had a major
influence in establishing the form of minor
river bed.
Within this study, we make a research
regarding the meandered river segments and the
relation between the morphometrical
parameters of meanders and the neo-tectonic
movements affecting the surface of the basin,
as the fluvial geomorphology must emphasize
the way the climatic changes and tectonic
activity have influenced on a long term the
aspect of the valley (Thorndycraft, Benito,
Gregory, 2008).
Study Area and Work Method
Călmăţui River is 139 km long and has a basin
with a surface of 1375 km². It is a typical
system for plain area, having inside Iminog
plain a rather high inclination (1–2 m/km), so
that the water is not allowed to stagnate on
wider surfaces. On the contrary, along the
middle and inferior course the inclination is
slightly reduced, reaching values of only 0.6
m/km in the inferior course and along the wide
corridor, there are numerous ponds which are
12 Maria ALBU (DINU)
mainly used as stock ponds. The hydrological
regime belongs to Southern Peri-Carpathian
type (nivo-pluvial) and is rather uniform. It has
been noticed a major supply resulting from
snow as well as underground supply (12–18%
from the total of the year). The highest volume
of drainage is noticed during spring period,
then in winter and summer.
The maximum discharge is noticed in
March and the minimum discharge in
September-October (Ujvari, 1972). The most
important changes in micro-morphology of
minor river bed take place during maximum
discharge (February-March) and during
occasional floods (Loghin; 2002, Grecu,
Săcrieru, 2009), as the ones from: May 1970,
October 1972, July 1975, April 2003, August
2005, when the flow reached values of 53.3
m³/s in comparison to average flow of 1.2 m³/s
and the level was 103 cm above de flood quota.
The measurements for this cartographic
analysis based on topographical maps 1:25000,
geo-referentiated, using ArcGis-ArcMap
software in stereographic projection 1970.
For characterizing the river bed we have
used the proposed typology Birce (1974),
quoted by Bravard and Petit (2000), based on
sinuosity criterion, which classifies the water
courses in three categories:
 rectilinear channels with sinuosity index Is
>1.05.
 sinuous channels 1.05< Is <1.50.
 meandered channels Is >1.50.
The morphometrical channels are extremely
useful regarding the regions that were not yet
studied for which the geomorphological proofs
supposed to explain the evolution of relief are
missing. Through true and correct rendering of
the current aspect of Earth’s surface, the
morphometrical analysis leads us to
paleoevolutive or genetic intuitions (Grecu,
1992).
Starting from the methodology exposed by
Ichim and collab. (1989) and Grecu, Comănescu
(1998) concerning the analysis of meanders, we
have taken into consideration the following
parameters:
 Sinuous length (L, m) – represents the
length of meanders measured along the
line of thalweg;
 Wave length (λ, m) – represents the
distance measured in straight line
between the extreme heads of the two
loops forming the meander;
 Sinuosity index (Is) – represents the ratio
between the sinuous length and the wave
length of meander;
 Amplitude of meander (A, m) – represents
the distance between the two loops
forming the meander, perpendicularly
measured on its wave length.
Analysis of obtained data and results
The minor river bed of Călmăţui River is well
developed along its entire course, although
presenting certain particularities in the three
segments superior, middle and inferior,
imposed by the relief characteristics,
hydrological regime, presence of neo-tectonic
movements and anthropical intervention.
The superior segment is the beginning
segment, has a length of approximately 65 km
and spreads from springs to confluence of
Călmăţui River with Călmăţui Sec River; the
average inclination of the river is 1.12 m/km
and the predominant flowing direction is North-
South. In this segment, it predominates the
temporary flow, lineal erosion and gully
erosion, the banks are 10–15 m high and the
transversal profile of the value is opened V
shaped.
Within the superior course there have been
identified two sinuous segments and two
meandered segments.
- the first meandered segment runs in N–S
direction and is 20 km long; within it
there has been identified a number of 9
meanders (fig.1).
- the second meandered segment runs in
NW–SE direction, has an inclination of
only 0,4m/km and is approximately 18
km long; within it there has been
identified a number of 4 meanders (fig. 1).
 The average value of the sinuous
length of meanders belonging to this
segment is 2.9 km;
 The value of the wave length is 1.5 km;
 The sinuosity index has the average
value of 1.90;
The average value of the amplitude of
meanders belonging to this sector is 0.86 km.
The fluvial geomorphology of the Călmăţui river in the Teleorman county 13

Fig. 1 Two meandered sectors in the upper course of Călmăţui

14 Maria ALBU (DINU)
The middle segment is located between the
confluence of Călmăţui River with Călmăţui
Sec River and its confluence with Urlui River
and is 57 km long. The average inclination of
the river within this segment is slightly reduced
reaching the value of 0,9 m/km, the flowing
direction is NW–SE, the meadow is widening
reaching a width of 3-4 km, presenting
numerous meanders, changes of directions,
hills, local terraces and the valley is going deep;
the banks are 30–40 m high. Within the middle
course, we have identified a meandered
segment and a sinuous segment.
The meandered segment is over 44 km long
(fig. 2) and consists in a succession of 6
compound meanders, each meander loop
having other smaller meanders. In this
particularly complex segment, there are both
valley type restrained meanders (which are
inborn meanders from the genetic point of
view) as well as free meanders (Rădoane and
collab., 2008). There are also a large number of
tracks of changing the position of free
meanders – abandoned meanders.
In this segment, the values of calculated
parameters have the highest values, as follows:
 Average value of sinuous length of
meanders belonging to this segments is
7.4 km;
 The value of the wave length is 4.1 km;
 The sinuosity index has the average
value of 1.84;
 The amplitude average value of meanders
belonging to this segment is 1.5 km.
The inferior segment represents the sector
located between the confluence of Călmăţui
River with Urlui River and the discharge in
Suhaia Lake. Below the confluence with Urlui,
the river is headed directly towards South.
The meadow gets narrows reaching a width
of only 1 km, the both series of terraces, kept
only on the left side of river, has oblique
surfaces offering the impression that during
their formation the river was getting down
rather fast towards the current base level.
In this segment, the river significantly
deepened, as the character emphasizing it
among all rivers of the plain is the more
significant deepening as in case of any other
river located on the left side of Olt River. In
neither part of this plain, there may not be seen
banks of 70 m on both sides of a water course
(G. Vâlsan, 1915).
Because of the relief it crosses and the very
small inclination, the river has currently a
reduced power of vertical erosion.
The process predominating in this segment
beside transport is the depositing, the
accumulation in form of isles, causing the
multiplication of thalwegs after the confluence
with Urlui and the presence of an anastomozed
river bed segment. At the discharge point in
Suhaia Lake, Călmăţui River forms an major
alluvial fan.
Besides the above mentioned segment
having an anastomozed river bed, within the
inferior course of Călmăţui River, there may be
identified a meandered segment having a length
of only 5 km and two sinuous segments (fig.3).
The average inclination of the river within
this segment is only 1,12 m/km and the main
flow direction is WNW–ESE. Within this
meandered segment there has been identified a
number of 6 simple meanders of small
dimensions.
 The average value of the sinuous length
of meanders belonging to this segment
is 0.6 km;
 The value of wave length is 0.4 km;
 The sinuosity index has the average
value of 1.84;
 The average value of the amplitude of
meanders belonging to this segment is
1.5 km.
From the point of view of sinuosity (Ichim
and collab., 1989), the river bed of Călmăţui
River is meandered, as the sinuosity index at
the level of the entire river is 1.8. The minor
river bed has generally the form of a canyon
with vertical walls, 0.5 – 1.5 m high and 3 –
10 m wide.
It may be stated that the river did not reach
yet the equilibrium profile because of neo-
tectonic movements which have had a higher
amplitude within the inferior segment and
because of reduced flows of river.
We may notice a strong correlation between
the length and the amplitude of meanders along
Călmăţui River (fig. 4).
 The fluvial geomorphology of the Călmăţui river in the Teleorman county 15

Călmățui Valley – morphometry of the meanders

in the middle sector

Fig. 2 The middle course of Călmăţui, the longest meandered sector

16 Maria ALBU (DINU)

Călmățui Valley – morphometry of the

meanders in the lower sector

Fig. 3 A little meandered sector on the lower course of the Călmăţui river
 The fluvial geomorphology of the Călmăţui river in the Teleorman county 17

Fig. 4 Corelation between the length and amplitude of the meanders

Conclusion Within the superior segment, the sinuous

Within the inferior segment, because of positive
neo-tectonic movements, the meanders are
slightly developed and their parameters (wave
length and amplitude) have small values.
Within the middle segment, the one located
as a continuation of Câlniştea tectonic line,
wherein there have been subsidence movements
within a certain time of evolution, there are
compounded large meanders.
segments alternate with the meandered ones
and the morphometric parameters of meanders
are average parameters.
Acknowledgments. This work was
supported by project: POSDRU/88/1.5/S/61150
“Doctoral Studies in the field of life and earth
sciences”, project co-financed through Sectorial
Operational Program for the Development of
Human Resources 2007-2013 from European
Social Fund.

REFERENCES

BRAVARD J. P., PETIT F. (2000), Les cours d’eau. Dinamique du systeme fluvial, Armand Colin, Paris.
COTEŢ P. (1959), Contribution à l’étude morphologique de la Roumanie (L’histoire du relief – les étapes
morphogénétiques), Izdanie na Balgarskata Akademia na Naukite, Sofia p.81- 97.
ENCIU P. (2007), Pliocenul şi cuaternarul din vestul Bazinului Dacic. Stratigrafie şi evoluţie paleogeografică, Ed.
Academiei, Bucureşti.
GRECU FLORINA (1992), Bazinul Hârtibaciului. Elemente de morfohidrografie, Editura Academiei, Bucureşti.
GRECU FLORINA, COMĂNESCU LAURA (1998), Studiul reliefului. Îndrumator pentru lucrări practice, Editura
Universităţii din Bucureşti.
GRECU, FLORINA, PALMENTOLA, G. (2003), Geomorfologie dinamică, Ed. Tehnică, Bucureşti.
GRECU F., SĂCRIERU R. (2009), Morphostructure and morphodynamical processes in the Milcov
Morphohydrographic Basin, Revista de geomorfologie, vol.11.
GRECU F., GHIŢĂ C., SĂCRIERU R. (2010), Relation between tectonics and meandering of river channels in the
Romanian Plain. Preliminary observation, Revista de geomorfologie, vol.12.
ICHIM I., BĂTUCĂ D. RĂDOANE M. ŞI DUMA D. (1989), Morfologia şi dinamica albiilor de râuiri, Editura
Tehnică, Bucureşti.
LITEANU E. (1961), Aspecte generale ale stratigrafiei Pleistocenului şi ale geneticei reliefului din Câmpia Română,
Studii tehnice şi economice, Seria E, nr.3, Bucureşti.
LOGHIN V. (2002), Modelarea actuală a reliefului şi degradarea terenurilor în bazinul Ialomiţei, Ed. Cetatea de
Scaun, Târgovişte.
18 Maria ALBU (DINU)

RĂDOANE M., RĂDOANE N., CRISTEA I., GANCEVICI OPREA DINU (2008), Evaluarea modificărilor
contemporane ale albiei râului Prut pe graniţa românescă, Revista de geomorfologie, vol.10.
THORNDYCRAFT V.R., BENITO G., GREGORY K.J. (2008), Fluvial geomorphology: A perspective on current
status and methods, Geomorphology, Nr.98.
UJVARI I. (1972), Geografia apelor României, Ed. Ştiinţifică, Bucureşti.
VÂLSAN G. (1915), Câmpia Română: contribuţiuni de geografie fizică, extras din Buletinul Societăţii Regale de
Geografie XXXVI, Bucureşti.

University of Bucares
albu-maria@yahoo.com
 EA RC H C ANALIZA MORFOMETRICĂ A CROVURILOR
ES E
R DIN CÂMPIA ROMÂNĂ DE EST

N
TR
E
TH

MORPHOMETRIC ANALYSIS

E
OF MICRODEPRESSIONS IN AREAS FROM
EASTERN ROMANIAN PLAIN
AN
S
D
GE
L O

IC
MOD DEG N AN M
I O
RP H RADAT DY N
L OGIC AL
A C. GHIŢĂ (1), C.-A. GHERGHINA (2 ), P. MOLIN (3)
,
F. GRECU (1)

Keywords: Mostistea Plain, Central Baragan Plain, loess, microdepressions, morphometry

Abstract. In the Eastern part of Romanian Plain, covered with loess or loess deposits, negative
microforms (microdepressions) are developing, known in literature as “crovuri”, but they also have local
given names like “gavane” or “padine”. From geomorphological point of view, “crovurile” are
depressions (ease subsidences) in loess or loess deposits covered plains, having circular or ellipsoidal
shape, with diameters from few meters to 1-2 km, and a depth of 1-3 m.
The main objective of the study is to decipher the dynamics of these microdepressions (from Mostistea
and Central Baragan Plains) using some morphometric parameters: Surface (S), Perimeter (P), Length
(L), Width (l) as well as microdepression`s alignment and different coefficients (indicators of shape). The
investigation shown big differences between the microdepressions in the two areas of study and,
especially, on desposits type: Holocene sands areas and loess or loess deposits.

1. Introducere Florea (1970) afirma că aceste

Relieful dezvoltat pe loess şi depozite
loessoide caracterizează sectoarele central şi
oriental ale Câmpiei Române. Depozitele
cuaternare – loess şi depozite loessoide – au
favorizat apariţia unor forme de relief specifice
de tasare şi sufoziune, la care se adaugă
acţiunea vântului şi a apei.
Primele referiri la aceste forme de relief în
literatura românească aparțin lui Murgoci
(1907), Protopopescu-Pache (1923) și Morariu
(1946). După aceștia, microdepresiunile ar
reprezenta ecoul morfologiei vechilor zone de
dune și cursuri de apă, iar Vâlsan (1915-1916)
descrie morfologia crovurilor din Câmpia
Română ca nişte uşoare denivelări, cu diametre
de la câţiva metri la 2-3 km, adâncimi de 5-6
metri, cu originea datorată proceselor de tasare,
a căror orientare și formă sunt modificate de
directia vântului dominant.
Un rol important în studiul crovurilor l-a
avut și Morariu (1945), care a susținut că
apariţia crovurilor se datorează proceselor de
tasare şi eoliene, la care se adaugă existenţa
unui relief preloessian şi activităţile antropice
ulterioare (Surdeanu, 2003).
microdepresiuni apar ca nişte usoare denivelări
în câmpiile acoperite cu loess, de formă
circulară sau ovală, cu diametru de la câţiva
metri la 1-2 km şi adâncimi de 1-3 m.
Andrei (1971) considera că geneza
crovurilor este influențată de caracteristicile
depozitelor (natura, grosimea, compoziția
granulometrică). Tasarea prin umezire a
depozitelor macroporice se produce atunci când
presiunea verticală (generată de greutatea
specifică sau de o încărcare exterioară)
depășește rezistența structurală a depozitului
(Ciornei, Răileanu, 2000).
În prezent, mai mulţi autori consideră că
geneza crovurilor este legată de acumularea şi
stagnarea apei din precipitaţii, de dizolvarea
sărurilor din loess şi de reaşezarea particulelor,
rezultând micşorarea volumului sedimentului şi
apariţia unei denivelări perceptibile a
suprafeţei. Pe măsură ce denivelarea se
accentuează, se infiltrează tot mai multă apă,
intensificându-se procesele de solubilizare şi
îndepărtare a carbonaţilor şi de îndesare a
materialelor, iar crovul se dezvoltă în adâncime
şi în suprafaţă.
20 C. GHIȚĂ, C.-A. GHERGHINA , P. MOLIN, F. GRECU
2. Arealul de studiu
Câmpia Bărăganului Central, denumită şi
Câmpia Călmăţuiului sau Bărăganul Ialomiţei,
este parte integrantă a Câmpiei Bărăganului,
considerată în literatura geografică cea mai
tipică câmpie tabulară, de origine lacustră sau
lacustro-fluviatilă. Câmpia Bărăganului Central
este situată în sud-estul ţării, în partea de est a
Câmpiei Române de Est şi se suprapune
interfluviului Ialomiţa-Călmăţui ocupând o
suprafaţă de 3370 km2 (fig. 1). Luncile celor
două râuri reprezintă limitele de sud şi, respectiv
nord, ale câmpiei. Celelalte două limite sunt
Valea Săratei, în vest, şi lunca Dunării, în est.
Conform datelor existente în literatură (Ana
Conea, Nadia Ghitulescu, P. Vasilescu, 1963),
în Câmpia Bărăganului Central se succed, de la
nord la sud, urmatoarele tipuri de depozite
superficiale: nisipuri lutoase în care se
intercalează areale de nisipuri fine şi mobile, în
Fig. 1 Poziția geografică a arealelor de studiu în cadrul Câmpiei Române de Est
partea de nord a interfluviului; depozite luto-
nisipoase cu diferite procente de nisip grosier,
în jumătatea nordică a interfluviului şi în est, pe
treapta de terasă; depozite lutoase cu diferite
procente de nisip grosier, în jumătatea sudică a
câmpului.
Bazinul Mostistea are un aspect insular, în
sudul ţării, în jumătatea estică a Câmpiei
Române, având o poziţie tranzitorie între
câmpiile Bărăganului în est şi Vlăsiei spre
nord-est cu care se leagă direct pe o mică
porţiune şi ocupă suprafaţă de 1780 km2 (fig. 1).
În nordul şi nord-estul bazinului, spre lunca
Ialomiţei, pe o linie Bărcăneşti-Vlăiculeşti-
Horia-Raşi predomină, pe o suprafaţă de 146
km2, depozitele eoliene, nisipuri de dune
(holocen superior) (nisip şi depozite loessoide)
sub forma unei benzi continue tot mai lată către
est. Datorită faptului că aceste depozite sunt
stabilizate, deflaţia are un caracter secundar.
 Analiza morfometrică a crovurilor din Câmpia Română de Est 21

3. Metodologie Pentru fiecare microdepresiune au fost

Pentru analiza detaliată a microformelor de
câmp (crovuri, găvane, padine) s-a folosit ca
bază topografică harţile la scara 1:50 000 din
anul 1970-1971 şi ortofotoplanurile scara 1:5 000
din anul 2005. Acestea au fost georeferenţiate
folosind componenta programului ArcGis-
ArcMap în proiecţia Stereografică 70, datum
S_42 ROMANIA şi digitizate cu ajutorul
programului ArcMap. Pentru spaţiile
neacoperite de ortofotoplanuri s-a utilizat
programul Google Earth, iar pentru unele
regiuni au fost folosite observaţiile din teren din
perioada 2003-2009. Reprezentările grafice au
fost realizate în programul Office Excel
(Gherghina și colab., 2008).
măsuraţi următorii parametri: suprafaţa,
perimetrul, lungimea, lăţimea au fost calculaţi
mai mulţi coeficienţi, indicatori ai formei
microdepresiunilor, ale căror formule sunt
redate în tabelul nr. 1. Formulele rapoartelor de
circularitate şi de alungire, care fac referire la
forma cercului, precum şi cea a factorului de
formă, raportat la forma pătratului, au fost
preluate din analiza morfometrică a bazinelor
hidrografice, iar coeficientul de sinuozitate a
fost calculat ca raportul dintre perimetrul
cercului de aceeaşi suprafaţă cu cea a
depresiunii şi perimetrul depresiunii, având
valoare de referinţă 1, corespunzătoare formei
cercului (Gherghina și colab., 2008, Ghiță,
2010).

Tabelul 1. Coeficienţi calculaţi

Coeficient Formula
R = L/l
Raportul L/l
raportul dintre lungimile axei majore şi axei minore ale depresiunii
Rc = Sd/Sc,
raportul dintre suprafaţa depresiunii şi suprafaţa cercului cu diametrul egal cu
Raportul de circularitate
lungimea axei majore a depresiunii;
se raportează la valoarea 1, corespunzătoare cercului
Ra = Dc/Ld,
raportul dintre diametrul cercului de aceeaşi suprafaţă cu cea a bazinului şi
Raportul de alungire lungimea axei majore a depresiunii;
are valori cuprinse între 0,67 şi 1,27 pentru depresiunile alungite şi peste 1,27
pentru cele rotunde
Rf = Sd/L²),
raportul dintre suprafaţa depresiunii şi pătratul lungimii axei majore, raportat la
Factorul de formă
forma pătratului;
raportaţ la forma pătratului, pentru care valoarea reper este 1
Ks = Pc/Pd,
Coeficientul de raportul dintre perimetrul cercului cu aceeaşi suprafaţă ca cea a depresiunii şi
sinuozitate perimetrul depresiunii;
raportaţ la forma cercului, cu valoare de referinţă 1.

4. Rezultate Densităţile cele mai mari se regăsesc în

Microdepresiunile din Câmpia Bărăganului
Central ocupă o suprafată de cca 170 km2,
respectiv 5% din suprafaţa câmpiei. Au fost
cartate 387 microdepresiuni, cu o suprafată
medie de 0,43 kmp, rezultând o densitate de
0,11 depr./km2 (Gherghina și colab., 2008).
Microdepresiunile sunt distribuite, marea
majoritate, în părțile nordică şi centrală ale
câmpiei, şi pe terasa Dunării, şi au frecvenţă
mai redusă în extremităţile vestică şi sudică.
arealele Ulmu-Zăvoaia şi Pogoanele-Căldărăşti,
legate de depunerile de nisip holocene.
Se disting mai multe areale în care
microdepresiunile au dimensiuni şi orientări
asemănătoare: terasa Dunării, Ulmu-Zăvoaia-
Însurăţei, Pogoanele-Brădeanu-Scutelnici, Padina-
Cocora-Reviga şi Ciocile-Bărăganu-Chioibăşeşti.
În bazinul Mostiştei crovurile ocupă o
suprafaţă de 22,33 km2, respectiv 1,23% din
suprafaţa bazinului. Au fost cartate 191 de
microdepresiuni, cu o suprafată medie de 0,153
22 C. GHIȚĂ, C.-A. GHERGHINA , P. MOLIN, F. GRECU

km2 (sau 153 m2), rezultând o densitate de
0,116 depr./km2 (Ghiță, 2010).
Microdepresiunile sunt distribuite marea
majoritate pe interfluviul Mostiştea-Argeş şi pe
stânga văii principale, până la aliniamentul
format de râurile Argova şi Vânăta. Această
regiune se suprapune Câmpiei Mostiştei,
respectiv Câmpului Ciornuleasa, Câmpului
Solacolu şi Câmpiei Argovei. În cadrul
Câmpiei Vlăsiei, în partea superioară a
bazinului şi pe interfluviul Ialomiţa-Argova-
Vânăta (Bărăganul Sudic), frecvenţa crovurilor
este mai redusă, în strânsă legătură cu condiţiile
hidrogeologice (adâncime mai mică a pânzei
freatice şi grosimea redusă a depozitului
loessoid).

Tabelul 2. Valori medii, maxime şi minime ale parametriclor analizaţi

S P L l
Indicator Rc Ra Ff Ks L/l
(kmp) (km) (m) (m)
Bărăgan 0,34 2,45 935,98 384,32 0,60 0,61 0,31 0,76 2,87
media
Mostiştea 0,117 1,32 456,85 226,45 0,71 0,73 0,44 0,83 1,99
Bărăgan 2,82 12,47 3652,31 1762,03 0,96 0,95 0,71 0,98 12,95
max
Mostiştea 2,78 12,1 3339,88 940,6 0,96 2,37 4,41 0,98 5,56
Bărăgan 0,01 0,38 148,91 67,10 0,01 0,25 0,05 0,1 0,96
min Mostiştea 0,0012 0,13 44,29 42,45 0,18 0,39 0,12 0,43 0,99

4.1 Analiza parametrilor intervalul 1-5 km (65%), urmate de cele cu

Suprafaţa medie a microdepresiunilor din
Bărăganul Central este de 0,34 kmp (tabel 2),
cu o pondere de 77% sub valoarea medie
(microdepresiunile cu suprafaţa mai mică de
0,5 kmp deţin o pondere de 73% (fig. 2)). În
bazinul Mostiştei suprafaţa medie este cu mult
mai mică - 0,117 kmp (tabel 2), cu o pondere
de 74,8% sub valoarea medie (microdepresiunile
cu suprafaţa mai mică de 0,5 kmp deţin o
pondere de 95,2% (fig. 3-A). În ambele cazuri,
microdepresiunile cu suprafeţele cele mai mari
s-au dezvoltat pe suprafețele unde apa freatică
se găseşte la adâncimi de 3-5 m sau chiar sub 3
m, astfel încât în multe dintre acestea în
perioadele ploioase apa stagnează sub formă de
lacuri temporare sau bălţi. Astfel, în Bărăganul
Central cele mai cunoscute şi mai extinse lacuri
sunt situate în partea centrală a câmpiei (Tătaru,
Colţea, Plaşcu, Chioibăşeşti), dar şi acestea
seacă în lunile de vară, iar in bazinul Mostiștea
acestea s-au format la est de comuna Dor
Mărunt, în Bărăganul Sudic, apoi în Câmpul
Belciugatele şi al Mostiştei Superioare din
Câmpia Moviliţei.
Valoarea medie a perimetrului
(circumferinţei) microdepresiunilor din
Bărăganul Central este de 2,45 km, cea mai
mare pondere ocupând-o microdepresiunile din
valoarea sub 1 km şi de cele cu perimetrul
cuprins între 5 şi 10 km; microdepresiunile cu
cele mai mari valori ale circumferinţei, peste 10
km, deţin cea mai mică pondere, respectiv 3%.
Perimetrul se corelează direct cu suprafaţa
microdepresiunilor, raportul de corelaţie având
valoarea 0,86 (fig. 6).
Valoarea medie a perimetrului crovurilor
este de 1,32 km, cea mai mare pondere
ocupând-o crovurile din intervalul 1-5 km
(57,06%), urmate de cele cu valoarea sub 1 km
(56,02%) şi de cele cu perimetrul cuprins între
5 şi 12,1 km (2,09%). Perimetrul se corelează
direct cu suprafaţa microdepresiunilor, raportul
de corelaţie având valoare aproape egală cu cea
a crovurilor din Bărăgan (0,87) (fig. 5).
Lungimea medie a axei majore a
microdepresiunilor din Bărăganul Central este
de 935,98 m. Valorile extreme, de <500 m şi de
>2000 m deţin o pondere de 30%, respectiv
10%, iar valorile intermediare, de 500-1000 m
şi 1000-2000 m însumează 60% din totalul
microdepresiunilor (fig. 10). Valorile lungimii
microdepresiunilor se corelează direct atât cu
suprafaţa (R = 0,86) cât şi cu lăţimea (R = 0,80)
(fig. 4).
În cazul bazinului Mostiştea lungimea
medie a axei majore a microdepresiunilor este
de 466 m. Valorile de <500 m deţin o pondere
 Analiza morfometrică a crovurilor din Câmpia Română de est 23

de 69,1%, între 500 şi 1000 m 23,03%, iar
depresiunile cu diametrul mai mare de 1000 m
deţin 7,85%. Există o corelaţie directă mai
strânsă între lungimea microdepresiunilor cu
suprafaţa (R = 0,76) şi mai redusă cu lăţimea
acestora (R = 0,64) (fig. 4).
Lăţimea medie a microdepresiunilor
(lungimea axei minore) din ambele unități de
câmpie prezintă valori de peste 230 m (384,32
m în Bărăganul Central și 234,66 m în Bazinul
Mostiștei), intervalul 100-500 m ocupând cea
mai mare pondere (70% în Bărăganul Central și
74,8% în bazinul Mostiștei); valorile extreme
de sub 100 m şi de peste 1000 m deţin 6%,
respectiv 10% din totalul microdepresiunilor
din Bărăgan, iar lăţimea variază direct şi foarte
strâns cu suprafaţa, raportul de corelaţie având
valoarea 0,90. Pentru Mostiștea se pare că
numărul microdepresiunilor cu valori extreme
deține un procentaj mult mai mic predominând
cele cu valori de sub 100 m (17,27%) în
detrimentul celor cu valori maxime, peste 500
m care dețin doar 4,18%. Lăţimea nu se
corelează însă foarte strâns cu lungimea şi
suprafaţa, raportul de corelaţie având valoarea
0,64, respectiv 0,52 (fig. 3 - B și D).
Forma microdepresiunilor (crovurilor)
Pentru analiza formei microdepresiunilor din
cele două areale s-au calculat indicatorii descrişi
în tabelul 1, care se raportează la forma cercului
sau cea a pătratului, respectiv la valoarea 1.
Astfel, valorile apropiate de 1 indică asemănarea
formei unei microdepresiuni cu forma geometrică
la care se raportează (cerc sau pătrat), iar valorile
apropiate de 0 indică forma alungită.
Raportul de circularitate, care face referire
la forma cercului arată mari deosebiri între
microdepresiunile din cele două areale de
studiu. În Bărăganul Central are valori cuprinse
în între 0,01 şi 0,96, 69% din microdepresiuni
situându-se peste valoarea de 0,5. Valorile cele
mai mari ale raportului de circularitate, şi, deci,
forme circulare, se înregistrează la
microdepresiunile cu suprafeţe mici. De
asemenea, valori mici şi forme alungite au
microdepresiunile situate în partea de nord a
câmpiei.

Fig. 2 Principalii parametrii ai microdepresiunilor din Bărăganul Central: a) suprafaţă, b) perimetru;

c) lungimea; d) lăţimea
24 C. GHIȚĂ, C.-A. GHERGHINA , P. MOLIN, F. GRECU

Fig. 3 Principalii parametrii ai microdepresiunilor din bazinul Mostiştea: a) suprafaţă, b) perimetru;

c) lungimea; d) lăţimea

Fig. 4 Grafice de corelaţie ai unor parametri ai crovurilor din Bărăganul Central:

a) corelaţie suprafaţă-perimetru; b) corelaţie lungime-lăţime;
c) corelaţie suprafaţă-lungime; d) corelaţie suprafaţă-lăţime
 Analiza morfometrică a crovurilor din Câmpia Română de est 25

Fig. 5 Grafice de corelaţie ai unor parametri ai crovurilor din bazinul Mostiştea:

a) corelaţie suprafaţă-perimetru; b) corelaţie lungime-lăţime;
c) corelaţie suprafaţă-lungime; d) corelaţie suprafaţă-lăţime

Fig. 6 Reprezentarea grafică a indicatorilor de formă ai crovurilor din Bărăganul Central:

a) raportul de circularitate; b) raportul de alungire; c) factorul formă; d) coeficientul de sinuozitate
26 C. GHIȚĂ, C.-A. GHERGHINA , P. MOLIN, F. GRECU
Fig. 7 Reprezentarea grafică a indicatorilor de formă ai crovurilor din bazinul Mostiştei:
a) raportul de circularitate; b) raportul de alungire; c) factorul formă; d) coeficientul de sinuozitate
În bazinul Mostiștei, crovurile cu forme
circulare, dețin un procentaj mai mare (85,86%)
și predomină în Câmpul Ciornuleasa și pe
terasele Dunării (T3 și T4). Forme neregulate au
depresiunile din nordul bazinului, în Câmpia
Vlăsiei sau cele de pe interfluviul Argova-
Vânăta-Ialomiţa.
Raportul de alungire (cu valori cuprinse
între 0,67-1) caracterizează 55,4% dintre
crovurile din Bărăgan (cu valori cuprinse între
0,25 și 0,95) și 65,9% în bazinul Mostiștei (cu
valori între 0,39 și 2,37).
Factorul de formă, care se raportează la
forma pătratului, are valori cuprinse între 0,05
şi 0,71 în Bărăgan și între 0,12 și 4,41 în
Mostiștea. Acest indice arată clar că forma
microdepresiunilor din Bărăgan este cu mult
mai alungită (93,5% din microdepresiuni cu
valori sub 0.5) decât a celor din bazinul
Mostiștea. Acest fapt se explică și prin
orientarea impusă de regimul eolian (dintre
NNE spre SSV) în sectorul nordic al
Bărăganului, pe depozitele nisipoase și luto-
nisipoase.
Coeficientul de sinuozitate, care se
raportează tot la forma cercului, este cuprins
între 0,1 şi 0,98, cu un procent de 94% peste
valoarea de 0,5 pentru microdepresiunile din
Bărăgan și 97,9% pentru cele din bazinul
Mostiștei, ceea ce arată că forma
microdepresiunilor din ambele regiuni este
puţin sinuoasă.
În Bărăgan, raportul lungime/laţime se
înscrie în intervalul 0,96 şi 12,95, cu o valoare
medie de 2,87. Un procent de 65% din cazuri
au peste valoarea medie (Fig. 8). Cele mai mari
valori corespund, în general, microdepresiunilor
interdunare dezvoltate pe nisipurile holocene
din partea nordică a câmpiei, care sunt alungite
extrem.
Pentru crovurile din bazinul Mostiștei acest
raport se înscrie în intervalul 0,99 şi 5,56, cu o
valoare medie de 1,99. Un procent de 60,74%
din cazuri au însă sub valoarea medie, spre
deosebire de Bărăganul Central, crovurile uşor
alungite fiind in acest caz mai puţin numeroase.
(fig. 8).
 Analiza morfometrică a crovurilor din Câmpia Română de est
Concluzii
Atât dimensiunile cât și forma
microdepresiunilor constituie elemente ce
diferențiază crovurile din cele două areale
analizate și sunt, în mare măsură, determinate
de proprietățile fizico-chimice ale substratului
litologic (în special granulometria). Adâncimea,
oscilațiile panzei freatice și vântul influențează,
de asemenea, distribuția și orientare acestora.
Suprafața medie a depresiunilor din Bărăgan
este de 0.34 km2 în timp ce în Bazinul Mostiștei
crovurile sunt de trei ori mai mici ca suprafață,
acest parametru având valoarea medie de 0.11
km2 (tabelul 1). Diferențe mai apar si la nivelul
lungimii și lățimii medie, reflectate în raportul
L/l cu valori de 2,87 în Bărăgan și 1,99 în
Mostiștea, microdepresiunile din nordul
Bărăganului Central fiind mult mai alungite.
Ceilalți parametrii calculați (Rc, Ra, Ff, Ks)
reflectă, per ansamblu, o oarecare asemănare
între crovurile din cele două areale.
În Bărăganul Central, pe nisipurile holocene
din sectorul nordic, microdepresiunile au
dimensiuni mai reduse, sunt mai alungite și
puțin sinuoase, iar cele din partea centrală a
câmpiei au dimensiuni mai mari (suprafață,
adâncime) și forme rotunjite și sinuoase. De
asemenea, în partea nordică numărul și densitatea
microdepresiunilor au valori mai mari.
În general, microdepresiunile cu suprafețe
mici, sub 0,05 km2 (27%) din Bărăgan au forme
aproape circulare și nu sunt sinuoase, iar cele
cu suprafețe mari, de peste 1 km2 (16%) au
forme complexe și grad mare de sinuozitate.
Forme alungite, dar nesinuoase, au
microdepresiunile interdunare dezvoltate în
Fig. 8 Raportul lungime/lăţime (L/l)
27
nordul câmpiei, la care raportul lungime/lățime
are valori peste 2.
În bazinul Mostiștei, cea mai mare densitate
a crovurilor apare în Câmpul Ciornuleasa, pe
flancul drept al bazinului unde granulometria
(textură lutoasă, luto-nisipoasă şi luto-argiloasă,
cu conţinut mai mare de 1% nisip grosier),
grosimea mare a depozitelor loessoide (10-30
m), gradul ridicat de porozitate (30-50%),
conţinutul ridicat în săruri solubile (conţinut de
CaCo3 între 15-22%) și adâncimea mare la care
se găsește pânza de apă freatică au determinat
apariția microdepresiunilor cu suprafețe mici și
cu forme circulare, fără neregularități (coeficient
de sinuozitate redus 0,83). în nordul bazinului
și pe interfluviul Mostiștea-Ialomița, densitatea
crovurilor este mică, însă suprafața lor este mai
mare, cu un ridicat coeficient de sinuozitate.
Raportul lungime/lățime depășește valoarea 2,
iar orientarea generală respectă direcția
generală a vântului și direcția izopahitelor.
Ţinând cont de caracteristicile
morfometrice identificate (în special diametrul
și raportul de formă) și de condițiile genetice,
se pot defini trei clase de crovuri:
- Microdepresiuni cu formă alungită și puțin
sinuoase, interdunare, pe depozite nisipoase
holocene, în nordul Bărăganului Central;
- Microdepresiuni cu dimensiuni mari
(suprafață, adâncime), dar cu formă
circulare, depozite luto-nisipoase în cadrul
suprafeței interfluviale (in partea centrală și
estică a Bărăganului Central);
- Microdepresiuni cu dimensiuni în general
mici, cu forma rotunjită, pe depozite
loessoide cu granulometrie lutoasă și luto-
nisipoasă, în bazinul Mostiștei.
28 C. GHIȚĂ, C.-A. GHERGHINA , P. MOLIN, F. GRECU

BIBLIOGRAFIE

ANDREI, G., (1971), Câteva consideraţii asupra formării şi evoluţiei crovurilor din sudul Câmpiei Române, STE, C, 19.
CIORNEI, AL., RĂILEANU, P., (2000), Cum dominăm pământurile macroporice sensibile la umezire. Posibilităţi de
fundare a construcţiilor în P. S. U. Editura Junimea, Iaşi.
CONEA, ANA, GHIŢULESCU NADIA, VASILESCU P., (1963), Consideraţii asupra depozitelor de suprafaţă din
Câmpia Română de Est, STE, C, 11, Bucureşti.
FLOREA, N. (1970), Câmpia cu crovuri, un stadiu de evoluţie al câmpiilor loessice, STE, C, 16, Bucureşti.
GHERGHINA ALINA, GRECU FLORINA, COTET VALENTINA, (2006), The loess from Romania în the romanian
specialists vision, Lucr. Simp. “Factori și procese în zona temperata”, Ed. Universităţii “Al. I. Cuza” Iaşi, vol. 5,
pp. 103-116.
GHERGHINA ALINA, GRECU FLORINA, MOLIN PAOLA, (2008), Morphometrical Analysis of Microdepresions în
the Central Baragan Plain (Romania), Revisdta de Geomorfologie, vol. 10, Edit. Universității din București, 31-38.
GHIȚĂ, C., (2010), Geneza, evoluția și dinamica actuală a bazinelor morfohidrografice din Câmpia Română de Est.
Aplicații la bazinul Mostiștea, coord. prof. univ. dr. Grecu Florina, Universitatea din Bucuresti.
GRECU, FLORINA, PALMENTOLA, G., (2003), Geomorfologie dinamică, Ed. Tehnică, Bucureşti.
GRECU, FLORINA CÂRCIUMARU, E., GHERGHINA, ALINA, GHIȚĂ, CRISTINA, (2006), Semnificaţia
reliefogenă a depozitelor cuaternare din Câmpia Română la est de Olt”, Comunicări de Geografie, Edit.
Universităţii din Bucureşti, vol. X,, pp. 21 -35, ISSN 14535483.
GILLIJNS, KATLEEN, POESEN, J., DECKERS J., (2004), On the characteristics and origin of closed depressions în
loess-derived soils în Europe – a case study from central Belgium, Catena, Volume 60, Issue 1, 43-58.
HYATT, J.A., JACOBS, P.M, (1996), Distribution and morphology of sinkholes triggered gy flooding following
Tropical Storm Alberto at Albany, Georgia, USA, Geomorphology 17, 305-316.M
MORARIU, T., (1946), Câteva consideraţiuni geomorfologice asupra crovurilor din Banat, Revista Geografică, anul
II, fasc. I-IV, 1945, Bucureşti.
MORARIU, T., TUFESCU V. (1964), Procese de modelare în formaţiunile loessoide din sudul Câmpiei Române şi
Dobrogea, SUBB-GG, Cluj.
MURGOCI, GH., PROTOPOPESCU-PACHE EM., ENCULESCU P., (1908), Raport asupra lucrărilor făcute de
secţia agrogeologică în anul 1906-1907, An. Inst. Geol, I, Bucureşti.
PROTOPOPESCU-PACHE, E., (1923), Cercetări agrogeologice în Câmpia Română dintre valea Mostiştei şi râul Olt,
Dd SIG I, Bucureşti, 58-118.
TUFESCU, V., (1966), Modelarea naturală a reliefului şi eroziunea accelerată, Ed. Academiei RPR, Bucureşti.
VÂLSAN, G., (1917), Influenţe climatice în morfologia Câmpiei Române, D.d.S. Inst. Geol., VII (1915-1916),
Bucureşti.
*** (2005), Geografia României, vol V (Câmpia Română, Dunărea, Podişul Dobrogei, Litoralul românesc al Mării
Negre şi Platforma Continentală), Ed. Academiei Române, Bucureşti.
*** (1970- 1971), Hărţi topografice, 1: 50 000.
*** (2005), Ortofotoplanuri, scara 1:5 000

(1)
University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography
(2)
National Research & Development Institute for Soil Science, Agrochemistry, and Environmental
Protection, Bucharest, Romania
(3)
Roma Tre University, Department of Geological Sciences, Rome, Italy
 EA RC H C
ES E
R
NOUVEAUX SCHÉMAS DE L’AGRICULTURE

N
TR
E

SAHARIENNE EN ALGÉRIE :
TH

E
IMAGERIE SATELLITALE ET BASES DE DONNÉES
GÉOGRAPHIQUE COMME OUTILS D’ANALYSE
AN D S ET DE SUIVI
GE
L O

IC
MOD DEG N AN M
O
RP H RADATI DY N A
L OGIC AL
ABDELLAOUI ABDELKADER

Mots clé : agriculture saharienne ; oasis ; images satellitales ; SIG

Résumé. L’importance de l’agriculture dans l’économie des populations saharienne est soulignée par de
nombreux auteurs (P. Bonte, 1986 ; Messar, 1996 ; Toutain et al, 1988). Il s’agit souvent d’une agriculture
irriguée impliquant divers systèmes techniques hydrauliques (agriculture sous pluie dans les confins
sahariens, fouggaras dans les oasis, séguias traditionnelles, eaux de ruissellement s'accumulant après les
pluies dans les bas-fonds argileux pour des périodes plus ou moins longues, pivots dans les projets
complexes).
Cependant, le Sahara est, par définition, un milieu aride où l’eau est un élément rare, cher et pouvant
mettre en péril l’équilibre écologique et social des systèmes physiques. En effet, l’eau de surface est à la
fois rare et très irrégulière ; les eaux profondes, héritées des derniers épisodes pluvieux du quaternaire,
ont un caractère fossile et sont très peu renouvelables (Kassah, 1998).
En Algérie, confronté à l’insuffisance de la production alimentaire à cause notamment de la
minéralisation des sols suite aux extensions urbaines sur les terres arables fertiles du Tell, l’Etat a lancé
un grand mouvement de colonisation des terres sahariennes dans le cadre d’un vaste projet « Projet des
Oasis de l’an 2000 » qui se poursuit d’ailleurs dans une certaine confusion (Dubost, 1986, 1992).
Le présent travail tente d’analyser le développement de l’occupation des terres en termes d’agriculture
saharienne en utilisant quatre images satellitales de 1972, 1987, 2001 et 2005 sur la vallée de l’Adrar.
Nous nous intéressons de façon particulière aux surfaces irriguées par pivots ; nous examinons également
l’évolution des oasis traditionnelles le long de cette vallée.

Introduction profonde du paysage : disparition ou

L'oasis, définie de façon très large, est une
forme d'occupation de l'espace en milieu
désertique ou semi-désertique. Elle est caractérisée
par une mobilisation ponctuelle de ressources
en eau et par la formation d’écosystèmes
particuliers, résultant de l'activité humaine.
L'oasis est à la fois une implantation ponctuelle
d'agriculture irriguée en milieu désertique ou
semi-désertique, un écosystème construit autour
du palmier dattier principalement, et enfin un
système de production associé, de diverses
manières, à l’économie pastorale. Elle peut
également être vue comme un îlot de survie
dans un environnement agressif pour les
populations (Toutain, 1989).
L’évolution des systèmes oasiens, en milieu
saharien ou présaharien, s’est traduite, entre
autres marqueurs, par une recomposition
transformation des espaces végétalisés
(palmeraie, jardins), apparition de nouveaux
espaces urbanisés différemment organisés et
construits avec des matériaux et selon des
architectures diverses souvent en rapport avec
les phases d’évolution mais bien différents du
traditionnel, structure sociale des populations
avec de nouvelles classes et de nouvelles
répartitions de la richesse et du travail,
évolution des modes de vie et des mœurs
(Benblidia, Abdellaoui et al. (2006) ;
Abdellaoui, 2007). A titre illustratif, la figure
(1) montre l’évolution de l’oasis de Laghouat
(milieu pré saharien) entre 1972 et 2004 ; la
population est passée de 42800 habitants en
1977 à 119043 habitants en 2003 (estimation)
soit une variation de 178% (c’est-à-dire une
multiplication par un facteur de 2,8) en 26 ans ;
la végétation très dense en 1972 a
progressivement laissé la place au bâti (fig. 2).
30 Abdellaoui ABDELKADER

Figure 1 Évolution de l’oasis de Laghouat entre 1972 et 2001

Figure 2 localisation de la zone d’étude

 Nouveaux schémas de l’agriculture saharienne en Algérie
Pour parer à la carence de produits agricoles
l’Etat a mis en place des plans de soutien à
mise en valeur des terres pour l’activité agricole
sur de nouveaux espaces à l’extérieur des zones
bâties. Parallèlement, l’Etat a lancé un grand
mouvement de colonisation des terres
sahariennes ; c’est le « projet des oasis de l’an
2000 » qui s’est poursuivi durant des années
dans une certaine confusion car la phase de
réalisation n’a pas été précédée d’une réflexion
sur le fond et d’une incontournable concertation
entre les opérateurs (Dubost D., 1992).
Par ailleurs, en milieu aride et semi-aride
les territoires sont caractérisés par la fragilité et
la vulnérabilité de leurs écosystèmes. Cette
situation résulte du rapport précipitations /
sécheresse et des actions humaines qui vont
influer, selon leur degré d’intensité, sur
l’évolution et la stabilité des territoires. La
vulnérabilité se réfère à des données spatiales et
temporelles, notamment l’affaiblissement
d’ordre écologique (faune, flore, ressources) et
des données sociales (pauvreté, etc.). La faible
quantité des précipitations est certes une
contrainte climatique, mais elle est généralement
source de contraintes pédologiques et
hydrologiques variables en fonction du temps et
de l’espace. Ces contraintes imposent différents
degrés de limites au développement des
territoires. Si les contraintes dépassent le seuil
de tolérance, l’écosystème perd sa capacité de
résilience, et celui-ci tend vers une
transformation environnementale. Celle-ci
impose des contraintes au développement de
ces territoires. De ce fait, ces territoires sont
étroitement associés à la problématique «
développement-environnement ».
Présentation de la zone d’étude
La zone d’étude est délimitée par les latitudes
26°59.04’53’’N et 27°54’1.91’’N et les
longitudes 0°7.39’13’’O et 0°7.39’13’’E ; soit
globalement sur la région comprise entre Adrar
au nord et Sali au sud. Cette région est localisée
entre les plateaux du Tanezrouft (Sud-Ouest) et
du Tademaït (Nord-Est).
La concentration des zones de pivots est
principalement localisée vers les oasis d’El
Djedid, Zaouiat Kounta (la plus forte
concentration) et Sali. La route nationale 6
passe par les différentes oasis.
31
L’eau de surface est à la fois rare et très
irrégulière ; les eaux profondes, héritées des
derniers épisodes pluvieux du quaternaire, ont
un caractère fossile et sont très peu
renouvelables (Kassah, 1998). Les précipitations
sur Adrar sont extrêmement rares.
Méthodes et outils
1. Les images : pour le présent travail, nous
avons utilisé quatre images Landsat à plusieurs
dates : 14 novembre 1972, 12 janvier 1987, 16
avril 2001 et 11 avril 2005. Le projet « oasis
2000 » ayant effectivement démarré en 2000-
2001, nous avons ainsi un regard suffisamment
complet de la période avant et après. La
résolution de ces images nous semble
largement suffisante pour le thème que nous
étudions. Les quatre images ne sont pas
acquises à la même saison (automne, hiver et
printemps) ; cela n’est pas gênant dans le cadre
de notre étude.
Nous avons également utilisé des aperçus
« Google Earth » pour tenter de comprendre un
peu plus, de manière locale et ponctuelle,
certains aspects de la dynamique du processus
de développement des oasis qui ne sont pas
visibles sur les images Landsat à cause leur
faible résolution spatiale.
2. Le traitement numérique des images:
L’objectif est ici de mettre en évidence les
espaces de culture, plus exactement les oasis
traditionnelles avec une agriculture à deux
étages (palmiers et maraichers) et les nouvelles
zones agricoles avec un système d’irrigation en
pivot d’apparence circulaire à partir d’une
photographie aérienne ou d’une image
satellitale. Ces zones de végétation se trouvent
dans un contexte de sol désertique (sable ou
roche) généralement sans (ou avec très peu de)
végétation naturelle. Elles sont donc
généralement facilement mises en évidence et
ne nécessitent pas de traitement très complexe.
La chaine de traitements comporte ainsi : i)
une visualisation en composition colorées
fausses couleurs pour avoir une idée globale de
la zone ; ii) une extraction de fenêtres pour
cibler les traitements sur la zone de
développement agricole ; iii) une amélioration
32 Abdellaoui ABDELKADER
d’image par étalement de la dynamique ; iv)
une analyse par indice de végétation ; nous
avons essentiellement utilisé le NDVI qui a
donné ici de bons résultats comme on peut le
voir sur la figure 3 pour l’image de 2001 (fig. 3,
4). Sur cette figure, les différentes zones de
culture irriguées par pivots apparaissent sous la
forme d’un disque ; les disques de couleur verte
sont les zones à végétation active ; le jaune
indique une végétation encore basse donc à un
stade de développement encore primaire, peu
développée.
On devine par ailleurs des emplacements
probablement déjà abandonnés figurés par les
couleurs plus rouges ou pales.
v) une analyse en composantes principales
pour tenter de faire une comparaison entre
dates. Nous avons réalisé une combinaison
colorée, deux à deux, des composantes 4 des
analyses en composantes principales des
images de 1987, 2001 et 2005 ; la figure 4
montre, à titre d’exemple, la combinaison des
dates 2001 et 2005 ; l’affichage vert est affecté
à l’image 2001 et le rouge à 2005 ; le bleu est
affecté à une image « zéro ». Sur cette figure
les cercles verts sont les pivots actifs en 2001 et
totalement abandonnés en 2005 ; les cercles
noirs concernent les pivots actifs aux deux
dates ; les cercles rouges sont les nouvelles
exploitations en 2005.
Notons vers le bas gauche de l’image les
oasis traditionnelles toujours conservées ; elles
apparaissent en noir sur l’image.
3. La base d’objets géographiques (SIG) :
Pour pouvoir analyser à la fois les situations
observées à chaque date (calculs de surface,
nombre de pivots) et également le changement
d’une date à l’autre, nous avons élaboré une
base d’objets géographiques (SIG) constituée
de couches « pivots » aux différentes dates.
Nous avons pour cela opté pour MapInfo qui
nous a semblé largement suffisant pour le
présent travail. La figure 5 suivante montre à
titre d’exemple le résultat concernant 2005. Les
disques de couleur verte concernent les pivots
en activité ; ceux en couleur grise sont les
pivots inactifs, probablement des emplacements
testés puis abandonnés.
Avec cette base de données géographiques,
il deviendrait alors possible de surveiller
l’activité agricole de façon permanente, à la
condition de disposer des informations
pertinentes suffisantes.
4. Les extraits « Google Earth » :
L’écran « Google Earth » nous a permis:
i) de nous localiser globalement sur la zone
et d’avoir une idée très générale de l’ampleur
du phénomène d’implantation des pivots ; ceci
nous a permis de dénombrer environ 200
emplacements de pivots actifs ou abandonnés
sur une bande réduite de 36Km x 8Km ; nous
avons ainsi une densité de présence de 1.44
pivot au Km² comme on le voit sur la figure 6 ;
le diamètre d’un pivot étant de 617.60m, la
surface occupée est de 30 ha environ ; si on
retient, comme le cite Dubost (1992), qu’un
hectare de blé évapore 6000m3 d’eau au cours
d’un cycle de production hivernal (soit 600mm)
on peut effectivement imaginer la quantité
d’eau totale évaporée par la zone et donc
consommée à partir de la nappe.
ii) de distinguer des « états » d’utilisation
des pivots ; sur l’image, nous pouvons
distinguer les zones de couverture de végétation
active, les emplacements abandonnés et les
déplacements récents comme on le voit sur la
figure 7 ;
iii) de mesurer la surface couverte par un
pivot (rayon) ; nous trouvons ainsi que le
diamètre d’une surface irriguée par un pivot est
un disque de 617.60m de diamètre soit une
surface d’environ 30ha.
Résultats et discussion
En 1972 la zone ne comporte que les oasis
traditionnelles sur le couloir situé entre ; il n’y a
pas encore d’agriculture extensive (pas de
pivot ; oasis peu étalée et relativement bien
isolée les unes des autres comme on le voit sur
la figure 9.
La plus grande de ces oasis occupe une
superficie d’environ 300ha soit une
cinquantaine de parcelle de taille moyenne
(5ha). Ce qui donne une idée des exploitations.
En 2001, une année après la mise en route
du projet « oasis 2000 », nous trouvons déjà 62
pivots qui nous semblent en activité (très forte
valeur du NDVI) ; mais nous constatons par
contre 70 pivots paraissant abandonnés, ou tout
au moins avec un niveau de NDVI très faible
notant l’absence de végétation à la date
d’acquisition de l’image.
 Nouveaux schémas de l’agriculture saharienne en Algérie 33

Figure 5 SIG

Figure 3 Image NDVI 2001

Figure 6 Concentration
des pivots

Figure 4 NDVI 01-05

Figure 7 État des pivots

34 Abdellaoui ABDELKADER

Il est possible bien évidemment que cette

apparence soit uniquement due à la nature de ce
qui est planté, ou encore au stade de
développement de la végétation. Ne possédant
pas d’information terrain, il nous est difficile
d’aller plus loin dans notre investigation.
A partir de la figure 10, nous pouvons faire
un second constat d’ordre général : les
emplacements de pivots sont concentrés sur un
couloir (naturel) entre Adrar au Nord et Sali au
Sud. Les abandons sont plutôt localisés vers le
Figure 8 8:pivot
Figure pivot Sud (plus fort taux d’abandon) ; alors que du
côté d’Adrar, nous n’observons aucun abandon.
Il apparait important de noter ici le
déplacement fréquent des pivots dans des
emplacements parfois très proches et, surtout,
n’obéissant pas à des règles de trajectoires
facilement appréhendables comme cela est
montré sur la figure extraite d’une image
« Google Earth ».

Figure 11 Chevauchement
et déplacement des pivots

Figure 9 La zone en 1972

Figure 10 État de la zone en 2001 Figure 12 Synthèse de l’activité entre 1987 et 2005
 Nouveaux schémas de l’agriculture saharienne en Algérie 35

A partir de cette image, qui couvre une
superficie d’environ 1200 ha, il est possible de
faire les remarques suivantes :
i) Tous les emplacements en cours ou
précédemment occupés sont localisés à
proximité de la route, probablement
pour la facilité d’accès maximale, et donc
le coût d’exploitation le plus faible ;
ii) Sur cette image, seuls quatre pivots
semblent en activité (soit 24% des
emplacements) ; pour le reste, il
s’agirait d’emplacements abandonnés
temporairement ou définitivement,
probablement pour des problèmes de
salinisation ou d’appauvrissement des
sols ;
iii) Les emplacements se chevauchent ;
faute de données terrain, nous ne
pouvons pas donner ici d’explication ;
iv) Enfin la forte concentration des
emplacements sur cette image ; nous
arrivons ici à un taux d’occupation
surfacique d’environ 43% ;
La figure 12 montre une synthèse de
l’évolution de l’activité entre 1987 et 2005, en
réalité entre 2001 et 2005. Pour cette figure
nous avons effectué un zoom sur la partie Sud,
la plus perturbée. En 2001, 62 pivots sont actifs
au moment de l’acquisition de l’image ; il n’y
en avait plus que 28 en 2005. Nous avons ainsi
34 abandons de sites, soit plus de 48%. Un
examen plus attentif nous montre que certains
sites apparaissent abandonnés en 2001 et
également sur l’image de 2005 ; il s’agit très
probablement de sites effectivement
abandonnés depuis 2001 (après une occupation
en 2000). Les sites apparaissant abandonnés en
2005 mais pas en 2001 sont les sites ayant été
en activité entre 2002 et 2004 (intervalle entre
les deux images).
En termes de consommation d’eau, si nous
admettons qu’au cours d’un cycle de production
hivernal, un hectare de blé évapore 6000 m3
d’eau à l’hectare, soit 600mm (Dubost D. ;
1986) et qu’un pivot irrigue une superficie
d’environ 30ha, donc une quantité d’eau
évaporée de 180 000 m3 (soit 18 000 mm), on
trouve que les 62 pivots actifs en 2001 évaporent
environ l’équivalent de 1 116 000 mm !
Conclusion
L’utilisation de l’imagerie satellitale pour la
surveillance de l’activité agricole extensive
dans ces régions reculées et isolées est tout à
fait pertinente et peut donner d’excellents
résultats pour peu qu’un minimum de validation
terrain est réalisée. Les surfaces irriguées par
pivot sont nettement discernables sr des images
de moyenne résolution ; il n’est pas besoin de
recourir à des images de très haute résolution si
l’objectif se limite à surveiller l’activité en
termes de localisation des pivots actifs. Si l’on
doit viser l’étude de la productivité ou de l’état
de santé de la plante, d’autres moyens
d’investigation doivent alors être mis en œuvre.
L’utilisation d’une base de d’objets
géographiques (solution SIG) permet d’archiver
un historique, de réaliser des simulations et des
tendances de développement ; elle devrait
également permettre d’analyser d’autres
facteurs tels que la consommation en eau, le
déplacement des pivots, les problèmes
incontournables de salinisation, etc.

BIBLIOGRAPHIE

ABDELLAOUI A., (2007) : Intégration de l’imagerie satellitale multi-résolution et de données terrain pour la
réhabilitation des quartiers anciens en milieu oasien. Cas de la ville de Laghouat (Algérie) ; Annalele
Universitatii Bucurestii, Geografie ; pp. 5-19.
BENBLIDIA N., ABDELLAOUI A., GUESSOUM A. ET BENSAID A. (2006) : Utilisation de la morphologie
mathématique pour l’analyse de l’occupation de l’espace en zones urbaines et périurbaines présahariennes : cas
de Laghouat (Algérie) ; Télédétection, 2006, vol. 6, n° 2, pp. 177-190.
BONTE PIERRE (1986) : Une agriculture saharienne : les grâyr de l'Adrar Mauritanien ; Revue de l'Occident
musulman et de la Méditerranée, N°41-42, 1986. pp. 378-396.
36 Abdellaoui ABDELKADER

DUBOST DANIEL (1986) : Nouvelles perspectives agricoles du Sahara algérien ; Revue de l'Occident musulman et
de la Méditerrané ; N°41-42 ; 1986 ; pp. 339-356.
KASSAH ABDELFATTAH (1998) : Eau et développement agricole au Sahara maghrébin : enjeux, conflits et
arbitrages. Sécheresse n°2 ; vol. 9 ; juin 1998.
MESSAR E. M. (1996) : Le secteur phoenicicole algérien : Situation et perspectives à l’horizon 201O ; CIHEAM -
Options Méditerranéennes.
TOUTAIN G., DOLLI V., FERRY M. (1988) : Situation des systèmes oasiens en régions chaudes ; Les Cahiers de la
Recherche Développement ; n°22 ; juin 1989.

Université Paris est Créteil (UPEC) Paris France

École Européenne d’Études Avancées Paris France
abdellaoui.geo@gmail.com
 EA RC H C
ES E
R

N
TR
THE CORRELATION BETWEEN DRAINAGE
E
TH

E
DENSITY AND RELIEF ENERGY WITHIN
EŞELNIŢA BASIN
AN
S
D
GE
L O

MOD DEG N AN M
IC
DANIELA VLAD
I O
RP H RADAT DY N A
L OGIC AL

Key words: correlation, statistical analysis, linear regression, basin, Eşelniţa

Abstract: Developed on the south-eastern side of Almãjului Mountains, Eşelniţa drainage basin
neighbours upon the following basins: upon S-SV with Mala, upon SV-V with Mraconia, upon V-NV
with Berzasca, upon NV-NNE with Nera and on the NNE-SE direction with Cerna. The basin has a
surface of 77 km2 and present a 5th degree hydrographic network according to Horton-Strahler ranking
system, tributary to Danube by means of Eşelniţa main collector. Taking into consideration the geological
formation and the external agents, the current modelling of the relief existing within Eşelniţa drainage
basin acts by means of physical-chemical, gravitation and erosion processes causing the occurrence of
some relief form which are various both as type as well as extension. The values of drainage density
which is characteristic for Eşelniţa drainage basin varies between > 1 and < 6 km / kmp and as regards
the local relief, these lie between > 150 and < 400 m / kmp. The most reduced values may be noticed
upon the extremity of the basin while the highest ones approach the central part of the basin. The highest
value in case of drainage density is noticed at 6.8 m / square km, within the inferior course of Frasinului
and Cherbelez valleys from the superior segment of the basin and as the local relief regards, it is located
within the central segment of the basin along the main course. Located within a mountain area, Eşelniţa
drainage basin has in general higher values both for drainage density as well as for local relief.

1. General Considerations arrangement between the maximum altitude of

Eşelniţa drainage basin collects its water from a
reception area of 77 square km by means of
omonymous main collector arising from
Almãjului Mountains, below Svinecea Mare
peak, at an altitude of 1080 m. After the length
of a main water course of 26 km, within the
inferior course, at the confluence of Eşelniţa
river with Danube, formed a bay where
accumulation processes act as a result of
increasing of basis level. The change of the
initial basis level has occurred as a result of
forming the Iron Gates storage lake, so that the
altitude of the river mouth of Eşelniţa river is
64 m, in accordance with the normal level of
lake’s retention.
As a result of mechanical treatment of water
within hydro-electric plant, the altitude from
the river mouth of Eşelniţa river, may vary,
although generally varies between 63-68 m.
The basin presents a 5th degree hydrographic
network according to Horton-Strahler ranking
system, tributary to Danube by means of
Eşelniţa main collector. Developed under a
mountain relief, the basin presents a multistage
1107 m and the minimal altitude of 64 m, at the
confluence with Danube, therefore having a
level difference of 1043 m. The value of the
level difference between the spring, located at
1080 m and the river mouth located at 64 m, is
1016 m. The geological components within
Eşelniţa basin belong to Danube Field, having
a crystalline bed consisting in crystalline schists
represented by crystalline of Poiana Mraconiei,
crystalline of Neamţu and crystalline of Corbu,
eruptive rocks represented by two granitoidic
massifs with intrusive character, inferior
Paleozoic age: granite body of Cherbelezu
having a northern development within the basin
and granite body of Ogradena (Mutihac V.,
Ionesi L. 1974). The sedimentation formations
arranged on the crystalline bed do not cover a
major surface, as in the north-western area of
the basin there may be found formations
belonging to inferior Jurassic (conglomerates,
sandstones, argillaceous schists and coals) and
in southern area of the basin there are major
sedimentary deposits belonging to Neogene
(marl, gravel, organogene limestone) and
Quaternary (gravel and sands).
38 Daniela VLAD

LEGEND
>1
1.1-2
2.1-3
3.1-4
4.1-5
5.1-6
<6
Permanent hydrographic
network

Fig. 1. Eșelnița basin. Drainage density map

LEGEND
>150
150.1-200
200.1-250
250.1-300
300.1-350
350.1-400
<400
Permanent hydrographic
network

Fig. 2. Eșelnița basin. Local relief map

 The Correlation between Drainage Density and Relief Energy within the Eşelniţa Basin 39

1. Data and methods 1.1. Statistical analysis of drainage density

To obtain the necessary data for establishing
this correlation has been made by preparing the
maps regarding the drainage density and the
local relief by means cartograms method,
resulting for each a set of 103 unmediated
values. Based on this method, the statistic data
was obtained by means of measurements made
using the 1:25000 topographic map in the
informational geographic program ArcGis 9.3.
Upon applying this method, there have been
taken into consideration all diamonds,
including the partial ones as surface, therefore
resulting the total number of 103 values,
distributed in 7 classes for both parameters.
and local relief
It was opted for the correlation in linear
regression represented by a straight line
towards the deviation of all values is minimal.
According to Grecu F. and Comănescu L.,
(1998 ), “ the regression line is the line of best
fit on a points chart “ . The values of the two
sets were further processed by statistical
summary tables to classes of values (table 1 and
2) and by graphical representations to present
the contact between them and the type of
addiction by means of linear regression and
comparative on the basis of the polynomial,
logarithmic and exponential.

Tabel 1. Quantitative data rendering the drainage density

Classes Surface Relative frequency Cumulative
m / kmp Number of values % frequency
kmp % %
>1 1 1 14 13. 59 13. 59
1.1 – 2 6 8 13 12. 62 26. 21
2.1 – 3 9 12 13 12. 62 38. 83
3.1 – 4 9 12 10 9. 73 48. 56
4.1 – 5 27 35 28 27. 18 75. 74
5.1 – 6 20 26 20 19. 41 95. 15
<6 5 6 5 4.85 100
Total 77 100 103 100

Table 2. Quantitative data rendering the energy relief

Classes Surface Relative frequency Cumulative
Km / kmp Number of values % frequency
kmp % %
>150 6 8 16 15. 53 15. 53
150.1 – 200 12 16 16 15. 53 31. 06
200.1 – 250 25 32 32 31. 09 62. 15
250.1 – 300 11 14 15 14. 56 76. 71
300.1 – 350 13 17 14 13. 59 90. 3
350.1 – 400 9 12 9 8. 73 99. 03
<400 1 1 1 0.97 100
Total 77 100 103 100

The histogram of the local relief frequency

Fig. 2 and 3. Frequency histograms of drainage density and local relief in Eşelniţa basin
40 Daniela VLAD

Fig. 4 and 5. Diagrams representing the share of values classes of the two parameters analyzed

2. Results
Table 3. The mediated values of the drainage and the
The two sets of values corresponding to relief energy
drainage density and local relief have been
Drainage density Relief energy
correlated by applying two methods. In case of ( x) (y)
first method, the values from the 103 0. 3 84. 62
cartograms have been mediated using 7 value 1.55 158.62
classes (table 3) and graphically presented by 2.5 198.77
means of linear regression (fig. 6), therefore 3.7 228.37
resulting a correlation coefficient r = 0.978. 4.53 313.27
5.43 371.55
The second method deals with the graphical
6.48 400
representation in linear regression of the 103
unmediated values using also 7 value classes,
Standard deviation of the amount of z = 0.1
therefore resulting a correlation coefficient
result from the application of the formula:
r = 0.337 ( fig. 7).
To check the meaning of r = 0.978, has = ,
been applied the Student (t) and the Fischer (z) after Grecu F., Comãnescu L., 1998
verification tests, and the random amount u = 2.3 (fig.4), it
t= , z = ln , obtains by using the following formula:
after Grecu F., Comãnescu L., 1998
u= ,
resulting for Eşelniţa basin the following after Costea M., 2007.
values: t = 49. 5 and z = 2.

Fig. 6 and 7 Linear correlation of mediated and unmediated values of the two parameters
 The Correlation between Drainage Density and Relief Energy within the Eşelniţa Basin 41

The establishing of the determination factors conditioning the variation of density of

coefficient (CD = ), (after Costea M., fragmentation are the ones with the factors
2007), indicates the fact that in a proportion of conditioning the depth of fragmentation. By
96% from the values of drainage density, they means of graphical representation of the 7
are caused by the local relief and the remaining mediated value classes of fragmentation density
values have a variation which cannot be and depth of fragmentation of relief in
explained by the local relief. So, mainly there is polynomial, exponential and logarithmic
a direct connection between the density of correlation (fig. 8, 9 and 10), there is noticed
fragmentation and the relief energy, and in case the fact that the establishing has values close
of 4% of cases, the relation between the two to the value resulted in case of linear
parameters isn’t in any interdependence state, correlation, so there is a strong connection
as it is caused by other factors such as between the drainage density and the relief
geological formation, climate, hydrological energy, as the basin has a dense drainage
regime and the presence of vegetation. network and mostly well sharp. According to
Within the linear correlation of unmediated polynomial correlation r = 0.98, exponential
values between density and the depth of correlation r = 0.97 and only for the
fragmentation, the data of establishing indicate logarithmic correlation the value is slightly
a reduce spreading showing the fact that the lower than the linear one by r = 0.89.
Table 4. The statistical analysis of the data of drainage density and the energy relief based on their mediated values
Size statistic Drainage density Local relief
Total number of values 103 103
Number of classes 7 7
Scale Arithmetic (of the range) Arithmetic (of the range)
Sample type Normal Normal
Amplitude range 0. 89 51. 11
Form of repartition Bimodal form Unimodal asymetric form
Arithmetic average 3. 51 211. 73
The median 3 109. 2
The module 2.41 2. 54
The amplitude of values 6.8 390
Standard deviation 0.46 3.2
Dispersion 0.21 10.24
Coefficient of variation 13 1.5
Pearson coefficient of asymmetry 2.4 65.4
The standard error of the sample 0.045 0.31
The square average error of the z size 0.1
The random amount 2.3
The coefficient of determination 96

Exponential correlation between drainage

density and local relief
42 Daniela VLAD

Fig. 8, 9 and 10. The polynomial, exponential and logarithmic correlation between drainage density
and the local relief in Eşelniţa basin

3. Conclusions central and partially the inferior courses, where

In Eşelniţa drainage basin, the diverse
petrographical formation causes differentiations
regarding the territorial distribution of the
indicators of drainage density and depth of
relief’s fragmentation and implicitly in the
correlation relation between them. Therefore,
the geological components of Eşelniţa drainage
basin represented by crystalline series of Poiana
Mraconiei, Neamţu and Corbu belonging to
Danube Field, the granitoide bodies of
Cherbelezu and Ogradena and sedimentary
deposits having a significant share within the
inferior course of the basin, introduce
differentiations in the territorial distribution of
morphometric indicators and implicitly in
establishing the correlations between them.
Consequently, in case of crystalline and
magma rocks predominating the superior,
in predominate the sedimentary deposits, the
intensity of geomorphological processes is
differentiated, therefore resulting more or less
shaped forms. Density and local relief values are
explained by means of presence of erosion
processes acting within Eşelniţa basin by means
of all characteristic relief forms (channels,
gaps, gullies and torrential channels) having a
diversified development depending on the
geological formation.
Invest in human resources!
This work was supported by project:
POSDRU/88/1.5/S/61150 “Doctoral Studies in
the field of life and earth sciences”, project co-
financed through Sectorial Operational
Program for the Development of Human
Resources 2007-2013 from European Social
Fund.

REFERENCES

BOENGIU S., TÖRÖK – OANCE M., 2005, Caracteristici ale fragmentãrii reliefului în bazinul Blahniţei. Sectorul
piemontan, Forum Geografic, Nr. 4, Editura Universitaria Craiova.
BOENGIU S., MARINESCU E., IONUŢ O., LICURICI M., 2010, The analysis of the relief fragmentation features
within the Bălăciţa Piedmont, Forum Geografic, Nr. 9, Editura Universitaria Craiova.
COMÃNESCU L., 2000, Bazinul Casimcea. Corelaţia densitatea de drenaj – energia de relief, Revista de
Geomorfologie, Vol. 2, Editura Universitãţii din Bucureşti.
COSTEA M., 2007, Corelaţia dintre energia de relief şi densitatea fragmentării în bazinul Sebeşului, Forum Geografic,
Nr. 6, Editura Universitaria Craiova.
GRECU F, COMÃNESCU L., 1998, Studiul Reliefului. Îndrumator pentru lucrãri practice, Editura Universitãţii din
Bucureşti.
MUTIHAC V., IONESI L., 1974, Geologia României, Editura Tehnicã, Bucureşti.
MUTIHAC V., STRATULAT M.I., FECHET R.M., 2004, Geologia României, Editura Didacticã şi Pedagogicã,
Bucureşti.
RÃDOANE M., RÃDOANE N., ICHIM I., DUMITRESCU GH., URSU C., 1996, Analiza cantitativă în geografia
fizică, Editura Universitãţii Al. I. Cuza, Iaşi.
University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography
Simion Mehedinți Doctoral School
vladdaniela82@yahoo.com
 EA RC H C
ES E
R

N
TR
EMPIRICAL STUDY CONCERNING THE MAIN
E
TH

E
DANUBE DEFILE GEOSITES:
SOME TOURISTS’ REFLECTIONS
AN
S
D
GE
L O

DANIEL IOSIF1
IC
MOD DEG N AN M
I O
RP H RADAT DY N A
L OGIC AL

Key words: geosites, Danube, touristic valorization, questionnaires

Abstract. Geosites are relief forms with a scientific, aesthetical, ecological, economical, and cultural
value, in respect of human perception, that completes the total heritage of a given territory. In the last
decade, those geosites were strongly related with the touristic phenomenon. This paper presents an
empirical study about some most important geosites of the Danube defile in Romania. The point of view
from which the analyze is concern the opinions of tourists presented here in the summer of 2011.
Consequently, we have made practically 105 questionnaires and we have extracted same of special
questions from them. The results indicate the tourists’ opinions about the actual touristic phenomenon in
the Danube defile.

Introduction archeological sites from the southeastern Europe.

The Danube Defile on the Romanian side is a
valuable natural unit of a character unique
along the entire 2,875 km length of the Danube.
A lithological and morphological variety in the
relief, a climate with sub-Mediterranean
influences (Grecu et al., 2011), a complex biotic
cover, as well as a multitude of historical,
cultural and religious remains, lend the
landscape an aspect of originality. Historical
relics attest to thousands of years of human
habitation on this territory. To the West, the
boundary of the park coincides with that of
Baziaș village, while to the South, the limit
follows the Danube watercourse downstream to
the dam at Gura Vaii (Figure 1). To the north,
the boundary follows the southern flanks of the
Locva Mountains, partly includes the Almăj
Mountains and almost the entire area of the
Mehedinți Mountains (Pătroescu, Vintilă,
1997):35.
The Iron Gates are situated in the aria
between Baziaș locality and Drobeta Turnu-
Severin city (Caraș-Severin and Mehedinți
County) for a distance of about 140 km. The
name applies to the region where the Danube
River cuts through the Carpathian Mountains
forming a spectacular defile. The Danube
Defile contains some of the best preserved
Many were discovered during the surveys
undertaken in 1960 before the construction of the
two hydropower stations start. The karstic relief
and the interesting vegetation which contains
southern elements and many rare species of
plants are other attractions which recommend
visiting these places.
Methodology and data
In this paper we will analyze the touristic
region in a relative new geographical
perspective. We will use the new concept of
geosite, a concept which has until now a great
impact of geographical researchers. Many
studies concerning this point of view have
applied for the territory of Switzerland
(Reynard, 2004b; Monbaron, 2004; Wildberger,
Oppliger, 2001; Antonini, 1999; Maur, Maur,
1997; Grandgirard, 1996) or Italy (Aigotti,
Renzo, Giardino, Pellegrino, 2004; Aloia, Guida,
Ianuzzi, Lazzari, Siervo, 2007; Cannillo,
Gregorio, Eltrudis, 2005; Geremia, Massoli-
Noveli, 2005). In Romania, this new approach
is at his beginning, but we have great potential
(Comănescu, Dobre, 2009; Comănescu, Nedelea,
2010; Ilieș, Josan, 2007, 2009; Bâca, Schuster,
2011; Comănescu, Nedelea, Dobre, 2011).
44
Figure 1. The map of Iron Gates region. Numbers reprezent our geosites:
1 - Island of Moldova Veche; 2 - Trescovăț Hill; 3 - Șvinița natural amphitheater; 4 -Trikule fortress; 5 - Ponicova
Cave; 6 - Cazans gorges; 7 - Decebal sculpture; 8 - Sf. Ana Monastery; 9 - Cerna bay; 10 - VodițaMonastery
Geosites (term which include also the
geomorphologic sites) are relief forms with a
scientific, aesthetical, ecological, economical,
and cultural value, in respect of human
perception, that complete the total heritage of a
given territory, including the biodiversity and
human creation (Panizza, 2001; Panizza,
Piacente, 1993; Pralong, 2006; Reynard, 2004a;
Reynard, 2008; Reynard, Coratza, 2005;
Reynard, Fontana, Kozlik, Scapozza, 2007). In
the evolution of human society, the relief was
not only a support for economic activities, but
also fulfilled a strategic role, of defense against
invasion and war. Thus, some relief form
gained cultural and historical value, as special
constructions for observation and defense
occurred: citadels, castles, observation towers,
etc. Some of these artifacts are functional to the
present day, while other resist only as
archaeological vestiges, revaluing the comprising
relief, providing the latter a cultural and
educative value that may be utilized through
various touristic activities (Bâca, Schuster,
2011). This also applies to numerous vestiges
and artifacts in the Danube gorges, emphasizing
the strong relation between human communities
living here and its relief.
For this empirical study we have used 105
questionnaires made in our study region. Those
questionnaires were made in one week of June
Daniel IOSIF
near the city of Orșova. In this campaign we
have the aide of the students in second year of
the Touristic Studies program held by the
Faculty of Geography, Bucharest University.
The questionnaire used was modified and
completed after a questionnaire of Comănescu
and Nedelea (2010) and it is structured in
sixteen questions, with the propose to gain
information concerning the actual touristic
phenomenon and the tourists’ perception
regarding the main touristic attractions.
After the questionnaires were fully
completed, we made a database with all the
information. For the present paper we have
extracted some of the results of the
questionnaires, especially those which are
directly relating with the touristic perception of
geosites and landscape.
Results and discussions
We start this presentation of results with the
profile of the interviewed persons. In the table 1
are the age, the sex, the nationality, the studies
end the place of birth of all the people who
speak with us. We retain that 96% of
respondents were Romanian and only 4% were
from one another country (Germany). Almost
all of them had the age between 21 and 60.
 Empirical study concerning the main Danube defile geosites: some tourists’ reflections
Table 1. The profil of the respondents
Age of the interviewed The sex
<20 21-40 40-60 >60 M F
3% 51% 46% 0% 61% 39%
Firstly, we remark that almost a half of the
respondents (47%) love to make walking in this
area (Figure 2). The region attracts tourists for
his landscape and for his touristic circuits in
fresh air. Another half of those tourists (28%)
want, in their walking, to visit the region
attraction like the monasteries, the caves etc.
Only a quarter of respondents came here to
make a form of sportive tourism and scientific
tourism. The proportion is equal (13% and,
respectively, 12%).
The pleasure to make walking is directly
linked with the next results: 59% of tourists
love the most in this area the general landscape
(Figure 3). The natural sites came the second in
the tourists’ opinions. Only 11% of tourists
came here to enjoy the recreational facilities.
Two another questions were related with
the most important value from a natural site
and, also, for an anthropic site (Figures 4 and
5). The tourists prefer for a natural site the
aesthetical value correlated with the literary and
artistic value. For them, a natural site must have
a special aesthetic and it must be charged with a
literary and artistic values. The third option was
the scientific value (a fifth). On the other side,
Figure 2. What the tourists prefer to do the most
45
The nationality Studies Place of birth
Romania Other, which? Lyceum Faculty Urban Rural
96% 4% 42% 58% 70% 30%
Germans
for the anthropic sites, the results were very
clear. The historical importance is the most
important, with 58% of responses. Then are the
symbolic and religious importance.
Another very relevant question which
help us to understand the actual touristic
phenomenon and to estimate what are the
tourists’ demands was that who ask the visitors
about the most significant characteristic of a
site in the perspective of a touristic valorization
(Figure 6). The 46% of respondents said that
the attractively of a site makes it a visited one.
Also, the uniqueness of a touristic point is a
characteristic very significant (37%) when we
talk about tourism. The same tourists have said
that the accessibility is not a problem in a
touristic promotion (only 3% have given the
accessibility as the main characteristic).
In the first figure were represented ten most
important geosites from our region concerning
the touristic utilization. Answering at the
question regarding the attraction which has the
bigger impact for them, the tourists have
responded, in their great majority (54%) that
the Cazans region is the most beautiful from all
this area (Figure 7).
Figure 3. What the tourists love in this area
46 Daniel IOSIF

Figure 4. For a natural site, what is the most Figure 5. For an anthropic site, what is the most
important value in a touristic valorisation important value in a touristic valorisation

Figure 6. To be a real attraction, what is the most Figure 7. To be a real attraction, what is the most
important characteristic of a site important characteristic of a site

Conclusions potential to the detriment of

Concise, after the analyze of the results we can
conclude with those main ideas:
 The tourists came in this area especially
to make promenades in fresh air;
 The scientific value of a natural sites in
more important that the scientific one;
 The most part of tourists visit this
region especially for his landscape
historical/cultural potential;
 For a site to have a great number of
tourists, it must be attractive and
unique;
 The main touristic objective in this area
is the Cazans Region, which can be
viewed as a result in the tourists’ desire
for aesthetic values and their wish to
make walks.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AIGOTTI, D., RENZO, G. D., GIARDINO, M. & PELLEGRINO, P. (2004), I geositi nella provincia di Torino - Una
esperienza concreta di divulgazione. Geologia e turismo. Opportunità nell'economia del paesaggio, Secondo
Convegno Nazionale dell’Associazione Italiana Geologia e Turismo. Associazione Italiana Geologia e
Turismo, Bologna.
ALOIA, A., GUIDA, D., IANUZZI, A., LAZZARI, M. & SIERVO, V. (2007) Il patrimonio geoambientale del Monte
Gelbison nell'ambito del "Geoparco del Cilento. Geologia e turismo. Beni geologici e geodiversità, Terzo
Convegno Nazionale dell’Associazione Italiana Associazione Italiana Geologia e Turismo, Bologna.
ANTONINI, B. (1999), La valorizzazione e la tutela dei geotopi, in teoria e nella pratica. Geologia Insubrica, 4, 83-91.
 Empirical study concerning the main Danube defile geosites: some tourists’ reflections 47

BÂCA, I. & SCHUSTER, E. (2011), Listing, evaluation and touristic utilisation of geosites containing archaeological
artefacts. Case study: Ciceu Ridge (Bistrița-Năsăud County, Romania. Revista Geografica Academica, 5, 5-20.
CANNILLO, C., GREGORIO, F. D. & ELTRUDIS, A. (2005), Map of the geological and geomorphological sites of
the Malfatano coast in SW Sardinia: a contribution to the knowledge of the island's geodiversity. Il
Quaternario, 18, 275-66.
COMĂNESCU, L. & DOBRE, R. (2009), Inventorying, evaluating and tourism evaluating the geomorphosites from the
central sector of the Ceahlău National Park. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 3, 86-96.
COMĂNESCU, L. & NEDELEA, A. (2010), Analysis of some representative geomorphosites in the Bucegi Mountains:
between scientific evaluation and tourist perception. Area, 42, 406-16.
COMĂNESCU, L., NEDELEA, A. & DOBRE, R. (2011), Evaluation of geomorphosites in Vistea Valley (Fagaras
Mountains Carpathians, Romania). International Journal of the Physical Science, 6, 11, 61-68.
GEREMIA, F. & MASSOLI-NOVELI, R. (2005), Coastal geomorphosites of the Isles of Lipari and Stromboli (Aeolian
Islands, Italy): new potential for geo-tourism. Il Quaternario 18 233-44.
GRAND GIRARD, V. (1996), Gestion du patrimoine naturel. L'inventaire des géotopes géomorphologiques du canton
de Fribourg. Colloque commun de la Société Suisse de Géomorphologie (SSGm) et de l'Association Française
de Karstologie (AFK), Sornetan 181-95.
GRECU, F., CARABLANISA, S., ZAHARIA, L., IOANA-TOROIMAC,G., (2011), Les précipitations – facteur de la
dynamique des versants dans le défilé du Danube (Roumanie). Les climats régionaux: observations et
modélisation, pag. 349-354.
ILIEȘ, D. C. & JOSAN, N. (2007), Preliminary contribution to the investigation of the geosites from Apuseni
Mountains (Romania). Revista de geomorfologie 9 53-59.
ILIEȘ, D. C. & JOSAN, N. (2009), Geosites - geomorphosites and relief. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites 3 78-85.
MAUR, F.A.D. & MAUR, B.A.D. (1997), Ein Dutzend Schweizer Geotope zum Anfassen Schzeiz 2 18-22.
MONBARON, M. (2004), Inventaire des géotopes géomorphologiques du Canton du Jura. Swiss Geoscience Meeting
2004. Académie Suisse deas Sciences Naturelles Lausanne.
PANIZZA, M. (2001), Geomorphosites: concepts, methods and examples of geomorphological survey. Chinese Science
Bulletin 46 4-5.
PANIZZA, M. & PIACENTE, S. (1993), Geomorphological assets evaluation. Fur Geomorphologie N.F. Suppl.Bd. 87
13-18.
PĂTROESCU, M. & VINTILĂ, G. (1997), Natural, cultural and historical potential for tourism of the Iron Gates
National Park. Geographica Pannonica 1 35-38.
PRALONG, J.-P. (2006), Géotourisme et utilisation de sites naturels d’intérêt pour les sciences de la Terre : Les régions
de Crans-Montana-Sierre (Valais, Alpes suisses) et Chamonix-Mont-Blanc (Haute-Savoie, Alpes françaises).
Université de Lausanne, Lausanne.
REYNARD, E. (2004a), Géotopes, géo(morpho)sites et paysages géomorphologiques. in Reynard, E & Pralong, J-P eds
Paysages géomorphologiques - Compte-rendu du séminaire de 3ème cycle. Institut de Géographie, Lausanne.
REYNARD, E. (2004b), L’évaluation des géotopes géomorphologiques en Suisse. in Reynard, E & Pralong, J-P eds
Paysages géomorphologiques - Compte-rendu du séminaire de 3ème cycle. Institut de Géographie, Lausanne.
REYNARD, E. (2008), Scientific research and tourist promotion of geomorphological heritage. Geogr. Fis. Dinam.
Quat. 31 225-30.
REYNARD, E. & CORATZA, P. (2005), Geomorphological sites: research, assessment and improvement. A working
group of the International Association of Geomorphologists (IAG). Final Report 2001-2005, Lausanne.
REYNARD, E., FONTANA, G., KOZLIK, L. & SCAPOZZA, C. (2007), A method for assessing „scientific„ and
„additinal values„ of gemorphosites. Geographica Helvetica 62, 148-58.
WILDBERGER, A. & OPPLIGER, M. (2001), Géotopes, géotopes spéléologiques, géotopes d’importance nationale.
Stalactite 51 41-50.

Ph. D student at Faculty of Geography,

Bucharest University and Geographical Department of Paris Nanterre University
 EA RC H C COMPARAISON ENTRE DEUX MODÈLES
ES E
R NUMÉRIQUES D’ALTITUDES (MNA) RÉALISÉS

N
TR
PAR INTERFÉROMÉTRIE RADAR RSO (InSAR)
E
TH

E
POUR ÉTUDIER LES MOUVEMENTS DE TERRAIN
(GLISSEMENTS DE TERRAIN ET COULÉES DE BOUE)
AN S DANS LA RÉGION DE BUZĂU (ROUMANIE)
D
GE
L O

IC

MOD DEG N AN M
R T I O
RP H A D A D Y N A
L OGIC AL K. HACHEMI1, F. GRECU2, A. OZER3,
M. JURCHESCU4, M. VISAN2

Mots clefs : Glissements de terrain, coulées de boue, MNA, SRTM, Buzau, radar, RSO (SAR), ERS-1/2.
Résumé : Les Modèles Numériques d’Altitude (MNA) représentent des données considérables dans les
études géomorphologiques et la gestion des risques naturels. Ils sont importants dans la représentation,
l’analyse et l’interprétation du paysage. Dans la gestion des risques géologiques en particulier, ils ont un
rôle clé en apportant l’information 3D (tridimensionnelle) qui permet d’expliquer de nombreux
phénomènes et de prendre en compte des paramètres difficiles à interpréter dans une image à deux
dimensions. Pour répondre à la demande croissante des MNT, surtout pour des grandes étendues, de
nombreux outils (aéroportés ou spatiaux) et des techniques (Photogrammétrie, Radargrammétrie, Lidar,
GPS, etc.) ont été élaborés. L’une de ces techniques est l’interférométrie radar InSAR considérée comme
la meilleure solution en termes de compromis entre couverture globale et précision. Elle exploite la
différence de phase de l’onde radar directement liée à la distance séparant le radar de la cible imagée
entre deux acquisitions de différentes positions. Elle a donné des résultats satisfaisants dans de nombreux
sites. L’étude des glissements de terrain et des coulées de boue nécessite de disposer d’un modèle
numérique d’altitude très précis et avec la meilleure résolution possible; beaucoup utilisent le DEM-
SRTM de 90 m car il est disponible gratuitement alors qu’un MNT de 30 m est très cher; la réalisation
d’un MNT par levé topographique peut également s’avérer longue et coûteuse; le recours à l’imagerie
radar apparaît donc comme une alternative intéressante. Ce MNA est très utile: il permet de montrer les
pentes (l’un des principaux facteurs déclencheurs des mouvements de terrain en général) et donc de
localiser les glissements surtout là où il y a de l’humidité. Dans ce travail et à l’aide de la technique
d’interférométrie radar RSO (InSAR), nous avons réalisé un MNA (Modèle Numérique d’Altitude) avec
une résolution de 20 m à partir des images radar RSO (SAR) du couple tandem des satellites ERS-1/ERS-
2 et nous l’avons comparé avec le DEM-SRTM. Le MNA réalisé est fonction de l’altitude du terrain, des
effets atmosphériques et d’une constante (Cts) qui désigne les erreurs susceptibles d’être produites dans
toutes les étapes de calculs et de réalisation du MNA. Cette fonction est adaptative, ce qui signifie qu’on
peut l’écrire en termes de sommation ou soustraction qui permet d’ajouter ou d’enlever les altitudes
considérées erronées. Pour bien montrer cette comparaison, nous avons pris cinq exemples de
mouvements de terrain, trois sur les glissements de terrain et deux sur les coulées de boue. Nous avons
procédé à la réalisation des profils et tracé des coupes de ces mouvements de terrain de la région de
Buzău (Roumanie) où se localisent des glissements de terrain et des coulées de boue pour les deux MNA
(MNA-ERS1/2-95 et DEM-SRTM). L’objectif principal de ce travail est de montrer l’utilité d’effectuer la
différence et la comparaison entre deux MNA obtenus à deux dates différentes réalisés à partir des images
RSO (SAR) à l’aide de la même technique d’interférométrie radar (InSAR) dans l’étude des glissements
de terrain et les coulées de boue dans une zone complexe de la région subcarpatique de Buzău
(Roumanie) caractérisée par une humidité importante et une végétation forestière prépondérante. Nous
avons effectué la différence entre ces deux MNA, le DEM-SRTM réalisé au mois de février 2000
(11/02/2000) et le MNA-ERS-1/2 réalisé à partir du couple tandem du 28/29 mai 1995 en deux passages
(multi-passes). Le DEM-SRTM, étant obtenu à partir d’un seul passage, a l’avantage de ne pas être
affecté par les effets atmosphériques. Mais d’autres erreurs peuvent être présentes et il faudrait les
prendre en considération dans cette opération de différence. La précision locale sur une surface couverte
de [100 km x 100 km] est de l’ordre 5-6 m en altitude et 5m en planimétrie. Notons que, grâce à nos
opérations de géoréférencement des images, nous avons éliminé les éventuels décalages entre les deux
MNA. La comparaison entre les deux MNA montre une différence altimétrique causée par trois
paramètres de sources différentes. Elle est la somme des altitudes suivantes : (1) Altitude due aux effets
atmosphériques (Hatm); (2) Altitude due aux erreurs commises durant toutes les étapes de réalisation du
MNA (Herr), comme les erreurs de déroulement de phase, les erreurs de filtrage etc.; (3) Altitude de
déformations produite dans un intervalle de temps de plus de 4 ans et 9 mois (HDef). On suppose que cette
période induit forcement des différences d’altitude entre ces deux MNA suite aux caractéristiques des
50 K. HACHEMI, F. GRECU, A. OZER, M. JURCHESCU, M. VISAN

terrains dans la région de Buzău. Pour estimer cette déformation (différences d’altitude due aux
changements d’origine géologique), il faut estimer et éliminer les autres altitudes dues aux autres origines
(allongements effets atmosphériques et les erreurs de calcul de MNA) sans oublier les erreurs dues aux
précisions du DEM-SRTM. Le résultat de ce travail se résume au niveau du glissement du Schela, où, des
deux profils tracés dans la direction Ouest/Est sur les deux MNA réalisés par InSAR, celui basé sur le
DEM-SRTM donne un profil d’une pente constante orientée vers l’Ouest/Est; par contre, celui du MNA-
ERS1/2 présente une pente de même orientation sauf que l’on note un genre de palier au milieu de la
pente. Cette différence de morphologie peut être interprétée comme un changement de forme de terrain
entre les deux périodes (1995 et 2000). On peut avancer que cette différence de morphologie est due à
l’instabilité du palier (1995) et suite aux constructions, le glissement de terrain s’est déclenché, ce qui a
donné la morphologie récente (2000). Le profil Sud/Nord du versant de Schela montre bien que les deux
MNA ont la même morphologie sauf une différence d’altitude au sommet du versant et à la base du
versant. Cette différence est estimée à environ 10m pour une période de plus de 4 ans alors que le profil
enregistre une même altitude au centre du versant. La présence d’une route en béton et de réseaux de
communication (poteaux d’électricité en béton), ainsi que l’existence de pompes d’exploitation de pétrole
montrent que cette zone a subi beaucoup de travaux. On remarque bien que dans les deux profils tracés, il
y a un mouvement de compensation dans les deux directions ce qui confirme que la variation d’altitude
est due à la déformation du terrain.

I. Introduction 24 heures que cette technique a connu un

Les Modèles Numériques de Terrain (MNT)
sont très importants dans la représentation,
l’analyse et l’interprétation du paysage. Dans
la gestion des risques naturels en particulier, ils
ont un rôle clé en apportant l’information 3D
(tridimensionnelle), qui permet d’expliquer de
nombreux phénomènes et de prendre en compte
des paramètres difficiles à interpréter dans une
image à deux dimensions. Pour répondre à la
demande croissante des MNT, surtout pour des
grandes étendues, de nombreux outils
(aéroportés ou spatiaux) et des techniques
(Photogarammetrie, Radargrammetrie, Lidar,
GPS, etc.) ont été élaborés. L’une de ces
techniques est l’interférométrie radar
SAR considérée comme la meilleure solution
en termes de compromis entre couverture
globale et précision [D. MASSONET et C.
ELACHI, 2006]. Elle exploite l’information de
différence de la phase de l’onde radar entre
deux acquisitions de différentes positions. Elle
a donné des résultats satisfaisants dans de
nombreux sites. C’est pour la réalisation d’un
MNA (Model Numérique d’Altitude) que
l’interférométrie radar RSO a été proposée pour
la première fois par GRAHAM (1974); elle a
été relancée en 1986 par ZEBKER et
GOLDSETEIN (1986). C’est à partir du
lancement du satellite européen ERS-1 (1991)
suivi du satellite ERS-2 (1995), et avec la
disponibilité des couples tandems d’intervalle
véritable essor. Elle s’est couronné en février
(2000) par la mission SRTM qui a aboutit à
l’élaboration d’un DEM (Digital Elevation
Model) global pour presque 80 % de la surface
de la Terre, avec une résolution de 30 m et une
précision altimétrique globale moins de 16 m
[B. RABUS et al., 2003,]. Elle a cependant des
limites et son succès dépend énormément des
caractéristiques physiques de la surface des
zones imagées en qualité de précision [H.A.,
ZEBKER et al., 1994], [D. RAUCOULES,
1997] et [K. S. RAO et al., 2006].
L’interférométrie radar RSO exploite la
différence de phase directement liée à la
distance séparant le radar de la cible imagée.
Elle a deux applications directes : la première
est la réalisation d’un MNA et quand elle est
utilisée en mode dit différentiel, elle peut aussi
fournir des informations sur les changements
du relief causés par des phénomènes
géologiques comme les séismes, les
glissements de terrain, la subsidence [E.
RODRIGUEZ et J. M. MARTIN, 1992]. Les
produits cartographiques et les images de
télédétection nous aident à comprendre
plusieurs phénomènes liés à l’espace
géographique, cependant certaines décisions et
conclusions ne peuvent être prises que si ces
produits sont combinés avec un MNA. A titre
d’exemple, les MNA ont une importance
capitale dans la gestion des phénomènes
hydrologiques (risques d’inondation) et
 Comparaison entre deux Modèles Numériques d’Altitudes réalisés par interférométrie radar RSO…
géomorphologiques (détection des glissements
de terrain, etc.), mais aussi dans l'ingénierie
civile et le domaine militaire. Dans cet article,
grâce à cette technique (InSAR), nous avons pu
réaliser un Modèle Numérique d’Altitude
(MNA) de la région subcarpatique de Buzău
(Roumanie) et par la suite nous l’avons
comparé avec le DEM-SRTM. L’objectif
principal de ce travail est de montrer l’utilité
d’effectuer la différence et la comparaison entre
deux MNA obtenus à deux dates différentes
réalisés à partir des images RSO (SAR) à l’aide
de la même technique d’interférométrie radar
(InSAR) dans l’étude des glissements de terrain
et les coulées de boue dans une zone complexe
de la région subcarpatique de Buzău,
caractérisée par une humidité importante et une
végétation forestière prépondérante. Pour bien
montrer cette comparaison, nous avons pris
cinq exemples de mouvements de terrain, trois
sur les glissements de terrain et deux sur les
coulées de boue. Nous avons procédé à la
réalisation des profils et tracé des coupes de ces
mouvements de terrain de la région (Roumanie)
où se localisent des glissements de terrain et
des coulées de boue pour les deux MNA
(MNA-ERS1/2-95 et DEM-SRTM). La
méthodologie envisagée consiste à créer un
Modèle Numérique d’Altitude (MNA), avec
une bonne résolution (20 mètres) à partir des
images radars RSO à l’aide de la technique
d’interférométrie (InSAR). La soustraction des
MNA théoriquement dans ce cas, permet
d’obtenir une carte d’instabilité entre deux
périodes. Cette méthode a été utilisée par
GENTILI et al. (2002) dans le cas des
glissements de terrain de Corniglio en Italie, à
l’aide de la technique de photogrammétrie
aérienne et à partir de la différence entre deux
modèles de terrain à différentes dates entre les
deux périodes, de décembre 1994 et de juillet
1996. Cette différence de MNA a permis
d’avoir des résultats qui ont permis de
cartographier les zones en déplacement vertical
à partir des images de résolution 5 m. Ce
résultat a abouti à la réalisation d’une carte de
déformation précise, montrant une érosion de
terrain d’une épaisseur de 28 m et une
accumulation de 17 m sur une période
d’environ deux ans. La même chose avec la
51
stéréophotogrammétrie et à partir des
photographies aériennes de la vallée de Breaza
a été essayée par DEWITTE (2005), d’où l’idée
de créer une carte d’aléa à la réactivation des
glissements de terrain dans cette vallée par une
analyse cinématique des MNA de différentes
dates. C’est presque la même idée qui a été
proposée à l’université de Sherbrooke par le
Professeur Hardy GRANBERG, afin de
calculer l’épaisseur de la neige de la région de
Schefferville, à l’est du Canada, sauf que dans
ce cas, sont utilisés les produits des MNA
réalisés par la technique d’interférométrie
InSAR.
II. Localisation et caractéristiques de la zone
d’étude et données utilisées
II.1. Localisation et caractéristiques de la zone
d’étude
La zone d’étude se trouve dans les Carpates
Orientales extérieures, précisément dans la
Courbure Subcarpatique (voir figure n°1). Cette
situation est le siège de fréquents phénomènes
comme les coulées de boue, les inondations, les
séismes et les glissements de terrain.
Coordonnées géographiques de la zone d’étude
sont :
- latitude au sud et au nord : 44,813°/
45,926° ;
- longitude à l’ouest et à l’est : 26,089°/
27,614°.
Cette zone d’étude se caractérise aussi par :
1- une zone plate, qui est représentée par les
plaines de Buzau située à l’est; altitudes
moyennes entre 30 à 80 m;
2- une partie d’élévation modérée à haute,
représentée par les Subcarpates et les Carpates
à l’ouest, et qui se caractérise par:
i - une partie intermédiaire avec des
altitudes allant de 300 à 400 m;
ii - une partie haute avec des altitudes
supérieures à 1000 m.
Les trois types de reliefs de la zone d’étude
peuvent avoir différentes réponses du signal
radar rétrodiffusé vers le capteur:
1- un terrain plat correspond aux plaines de
Buzau à l’est;
2- une zone intermédiaire aux pentes
orientées vers la visée du radar;
52 K. HACHEMI, F. GRECU, A. OZER, M. JURCHESCU, M. VISAN

3- une zone très accidentée entre les limites entre les Carpates, les Subcarpates et la
Subcarpates et les Carpates à l’ouest. plaine de Buzău, les lacs, la rivière de Buzău,
L’image d’amplitude suivante montre bien les zones urbaines et (voir figure n°2).
les caractéristiques de la zone d’étude, les

Légende

Carpates
N

Subcarpates

Montre la géomorphologie de la Roumanie et les

Carpates et Subcarpates
Plaines
Cadre rouge : Zone d’étude

Zone d’étude
(100 km x 100 km)

Mer noire
0 100 km

Figure n°1: Localisation et caractéristiques de la zone d’étude

Carpates Subcarpates
Glacis
Ville de
Plaine Focşani

Volcans de boue
Ville de
Rimnicu-
Sarat
Ville de Nihiou
Ville de
Fundeni

Ville de
Buzau

Ville
Calugareni

4 Lacs

Ville de
Ville de Mizil
Panignole

Figure n°2: Image radar d’amplitude géoréférencée de la zone d’étude

 Comparaison entre deux Modèles Numériques d’Altitudes réalisés par interférométrie radar RSO…
II.2. Données utilisées
Les données utilisées sont:
- des données Radar à Synthèse
d’Ouverture, Image RSO (SAR en anglais);
- données de type Complexe Mono Vue
(SLC: Single Look Complex);
- des données des satellites: ERS-1 et ERS-2;
- elles ont été traitées par compression
d’impulsion en direction radiale (en distance) et
par la synthèse d’ouverture RSO (SAR) en
direction azimutale à partir du même centre de
traitement et d’archivage (UK-PAF);
- l’acquisition est descendante (acquisition
de jour), d’une direction azimutale vers le bas;
- la scène est illuminée vers la droite en
visée latérale avec un angle d’incidence de 23°,
dans la bande « C » de longueur d’onde (5,65
cm), et une polarisation verticale (V/V).
- ces images couvrent une surface de
(100km x 100km) avec une résolution de 4 m
(en azimut) et 20m (en distance).
- ces images ont été obtenues auprès de
l’ESA par le Laboratoire de Géomorphologie et
Télédétection (Université de Liège), dans le
cadre d’un programme de recherche partagé
entre les universités de Liège, Paris-Est et
Bucarest.
- DEM-SRTM réalisé au mois de février
2000 (11/02/2000) à partir de la mission SRTM
qui a abouti à l’élaboration d’un DEM (Digital
Elevation Model) global pour presque 80 % de
la surface de la Terre, avec une résolution de 30
m et une précision altimétrique globale moins
de 16 m.
III. Modele Numérique d’Altitude (MNA)
III.1. Réalisation du MNA
Dans ce travail et à l’aide de la technique
d’interférométrie radar RSO (InSAR), nous
avons réalisé un MNA (Modèle Numérique
d’Altitude) avec une résolution de 20 m à partir
des images radar RSO (SAR) du couple tandem
des satellites ERS-1 et ERS-2 (voir figure n°3).
Le MNA réalisé à partir du couple tandem
est extrait de la différence de phase, cette
différence peut être écrite sous la forme suivante :
53
La figure n°3 montre les principaux
produits d’interférométrie InSAR réalisés. Nous
avons en particulier réalisé l’interférogramme
topographique de la région à partir des images
radars SAR du couple tandem des satellites
ERS-1 et ERS-2. Nous avons effectué le
déroulement et le géocodage dont le résultat
correspond à un MNA de Buzău d’étendue de
100 km x 100 km avec une résolution de 20 m
et de précision verticale globale qui ne dépasse
pas les 17m [K. HACHEMI, 2009].
III.2. Cohérence et l’incohérence
La fiabilité de l’interférogramme créé par
l’interférométrie radar RSO (InSAR) repose sur
l’image de cohérence ;
- un degré maximum signifie une forte
corrélation entre les deux phases et représenté
dans l’image de cohérence par des zones claires
(bonne cohérence) ;
- un degré de cohérence minimum signifie
sur le terrain que la phase est instable et
représenté dans l’image de cohérence par des
zones sombres (mauvaise cohérence).
Dans une échelle de gris, le degré de
cohérence varie du noir (valeur minimale) au
clair (valeur maximale).
La figure n°4 montre le résultat final de la
réalisation du MNA de Buzău à partir du
couple tandem ERS-1/ERS-2 (28/29-05-1995)
qui sera nommé le MNA de Buzău ERS1/2-
1995. Elle montre aussi la localisation des
points de contrôles de calcul d’allongement
atmosphérique [ELGERED G., 1993] et [D.
MOISSEEV, et R., F.HANSSEN, 2003].
III.3. Éléments du MNA réalisé
Le MNA réalisé est fonction de l’altitude du
terrain, des effets atmosphériques et d’une
constante (Cts) qui désigne les erreurs
susceptibles d’être produites dans toutes les
étapes de calculs et de réalisation du MNA.
Cette fonction est adaptative, ce qui signifie
qu’on peut l’écrire en termes de sommation ou
soustraction qui permet d’ajouter ou d’enlever
les altitudes considérées erronées.
54 K. HACHEMI, F. GRECU, A. OZER, M. JURCHESCU, M. VISAN

Image de magnitude Interférogramme Interférogramme + magnitude

Image de cohérence Image déroulée à partir du logiciel Image d’altitude aux coordonnées
Snaphu radar

MNA géocodé résolutions 20 m, interpolation logiciel ENVI

Figure n°3: Les principaux produits d’interférométrie InSAR réalisés

IV. Différence entre les deux MNA RSO
(InSAR)
IV.1. Réalisation de la différence entre les
deux MNA
Dans ce travail, nous avons supposé que les
deux phases liées aux altitudes des deux MNA
sont identiques :
Nous avons effectué la différence entre ces
deux MNA (voir figures n°5 et 6), c’est-a-dire
entre le DEM-SRTM réalisé au mois de février
2000 (11/02/2000) et le MNA-ERS-1/2 réalisé
à partir du couple tandem du 28/29 mai 1995 en
deux passages (multi-passes). Le DEM-SRTM,
étant obtenu à partir d’un seul passage, a
l’avantage de ne pas être affecté par les effets
atmosphériques. Mais d’autres erreurs peuvent
être présentes et il faudrait les prendre en
considération dans cette opération de
 Comparaison entre deux Modèles Numériques d’Altitudes réalisés par interférométrie radar RSO…
différence. La précision locale sur une surface
couverte de [100 km x 100 km] est de l’ordre 5-
6 m en altitude et 5m en planimétrie. Notons
que, grâce à nos opérations de
géoréférencement des images, nous avons
éliminé les éventuels décalages entre les deux
MNA. La comparaison entre les deux MNA
montre une différence altimétrique causée par
trois paramètres de sources différentes. Elle est
la somme des altitudes suivantes: (1) Altitude
de déformations produite dans un intervalle de
temps de 4 ans et 9 mois (Hdef) ; (2) Altitude
due aux effets atmosphériques (Hatm) ; (3)
Altitude due aux erreurs commises durant
toutes les étapes de réalisation du MNA (Herr),
comme les erreurs de déroulement de phase, les
erreurs de filtrage etc.
On peut dire que la différence entre les deux
MNA est la somme des altitudes suivantes :
DEMSRTM – MNAERS1/2 = HDef + Hatm + Herr .
Avec:
HDef : Altitude de déformations produite dans
intervalle de temps de plus de 4 ans et 9 mois;
Hatm : Altitude due aux effets atmosphériques;
Herr : Altitude due aux erreurs de réalisation
du MNA.
Figure n°4: MNA de la zone d’étude (100 km x 100 km), résolution de 20 m
55
Cette différence des deux modèles
d’altitudes montre l’influence de l’atmosphère
(obstacle de la couche atmosphérique) sur le
trajet de l’onde radar propagée entre le capteur
radar et la scène. Cette couche est la cause
principale des allongements du trajet aller-
retour de l’onde radar qui dépend de la latitude
et de l’altitude du point, de la pression et de la
température. Nous avons essayé de montrer
l’utilité d’effectuer la différence entre deux
MNA obtenus à deux dates différentes, réalisés
à partir des images RSO et à l’aide de la même
technique d’interférométrie radar InSAR.
L’idéal est de procéder à la différence à partir
de deux MNA obtenus d’un même capteur,
mais le manque de données RSO de ce genre
nous a obligé à utiliser le DEM-SRTM de
résolution de 90 m, c’est le seul MNA dont
nous disposons sur la région. Le problème qui
s’est posé est que les deux MNA n’ont pas la
même résolution, donc nous étions obligés de
rééchantillonner le DEM-SRTM pour qu’il soit
à la même résolution, c'est-à-dire 20 m, tout en
sachant que ce ré-échantillonnage induit aussi
des erreurs.
56 K. HACHEMI, F. GRECU, A. OZER, M. JURCHESCU, M. VISAN

Figure n°5: Image de différence des deux MNA (1995 et 2000)

Figure n°6: Image de différence des deux MNA (1995 et 2000)

 Comparaison entre deux Modèles Numériques d’Altitudes réalisés par interférométrie radar RSO… 57

IV.2. Localisation des glissements et des
coulées de boue sur le MNA
Nous avons pu aussi localiser les glissements
de terrain et les coulées de boue sur le MNA
(Modèle Numérique d’Altitude) réalisé (voir
figure n°7). Le tableau suivant montre les
coordonnées géographiques de ces trois
glissements de terrain et ces deux coulées de
boue dans la région.

Tableau n°1: Coordonnées géographiques des trois glissements de terrain et des deux coulées de boue dans la région
Mouvements de Altitude
Coordonnées Géographique Cordonnées UTM (m)
terrain (m)
Latitude Longitude Latitude Longitude X-UTM Y-UTM
Glissement de
terrain
Glissement de 5020577.91
45°20’27,88’’ 26°41’03,35’’ 45,34109° 26,684268° 475262.1290847014 340 m
Berca 6428459
Glissement de 5018048.05
45°19’06,15’’ 26°42’38,15’’ 45,318368° 26,710608° 477316.2813158252 336 m
Schela 2845097
Glissement de 5021253.8
45°20’44,81’’ 26°21’20,24’’ 45,345739° 26,355800° 449517.2981156774 293 m
Sibiciu (B1) 2250659
Glissement de
45°20’42,74’’ 26°22’13,88’’ / / / / 390 m
Sibiciu (B2)
Coulées de
boue
Coulées de 5024379.35
45°22’25,39’’ 26°19’18,74’’ 45,373837° 26,321876° 446899.3516511435 333 m
Chirleşti 3075847
Coulées de Gura 45,4985667 5038295.84
45°29’54,81’’ 26°15’11,75’’ 26,253261° 441655.7831954681 670 m
Siriului ° 0571857

Figure n°7: MNA de la zone d’étude réalisé à partir du couple tandem ERS-1/2 (28/29 mai 1995)
58 K. HACHEMI, F. GRECU, A. OZER, M. JURCHESCU, M. VISAN

V. Comparaison des deux MNA pour les
glissements et les coulées de boue
V.1. Glissements de terrain
V.1.1. Différence des deux MNA du glissement
de terrain de Berca
Le glissement de terrain de Berca se situe au
nord de la ville Berca, à environ 5,5 km à
l’ouest du volcan sud (Pâclele Mari). Ses
coordonnées géographiques sont données dans
le tableau n°1. Les dimensions de la zone
affectée sont approximativement de 132 m dans
la direction Nord-Ouest/Sud-Est et 355 m dans
la direction Sud-Ouest/Nord-Est, ce qui
correspond à 17 pixels et environ 6-7 pixels
dans les images d’amplitudes radar réalisées
pour les deux directions respectivement. Un
objet de cette dimension (17 pixels sur 6 pixels)
est difficilement discernable sur une image; il
sera mieux visible avec d’autres résolutions. On
le voit sur l’image Google (moins de 5m de
résolution) et sur une photographie aérienne
(voir figure n°8). Sur ces documents on voit
nettement la forme de vallée du glissement
ainsi que ses trois directions de mouvements de
matériaux: au long de l’axe Nord-Ouest/Sud-
Est. et sur les flancs de la vallée, de directions
respectives Nord-Est/Sud-Ouest et Sud-Ouest/
Nord-Est.

Figure n°8: Glissement de Berca à partir de photo aérienne et image Google

 Comparaison entre deux Modèles Numériques d’Altitudes réalisés par interférométrie radar RSO…
Le graphe n°1 montre la différence en
altitude entre les deux MNA (DEM-SRTM et
MNAERS-1/2-95. Cette différence est estimée,
comme le montre le graphe, par une valeur
maximale de 15m dans la partie haute qui se
différencie de la partie basse au point de
croisement là où les deux MNA ont la même
altitude. La partie basse présente une différence
qui ne dépasse pas 1m. On voit bien que le
MNA-ERS1/2-95 de 1995 dans la partie haute
est plus élevé que le DEM-SRTM de l’année
2000, par contre dans la partie basse nous
notons au contraire une similitude. Les MNA
respectent la même morphologie du terrain. Le
graphe n°2 montre les profils de ces deux MNA
dans la direction Sud-Ouest/Nord-Est. Cette
forme de cuvette des deux MNA représente la
morphologie du terrain; par contre la différence
d’altitude est grande et estimée par une valeur
maximale de 30m vers le flanc Ouest du
glissement. Mais cette différence ne peut pas
être interprétée comme une déformation de
terrain entre les deux périodes.
En analysant les deux graphes précédents
(n°1 et 2), nous pouvons dire que la différence
entre les MNAs n’est pas fiable pour
l’interpréter comme une déformation du terrain
entre les deux périodes (1995 et 2000), mais
cette différence permet de conclure que le fait
d’avoir une variation d’altitude totalement
différente dans les deux directions (presque le
double) peut être expliqué par le bon résultat
Graphe n°1: Profil Nord-Ouest/Sud-Est du glissement de Berca
59
que peut donner l’interférométrie InSAR
concernant les pentes en direction de la visée
du radar.
V.1.2. Différence des deux MNA du glissement
Schela
Le glissement de terrain de Schela se situe à
environ 3 km vers l’Ouest de la ville d’Aldeni
et 4 km de la ville de Berca vers le Nord-Est.
Les coordonnées géographiques sont données
dans le tableau n°1. Ce glissement s’est produit
sur une superficie d’environ (100m x 100m) ce
qui correspond à une vingtaine de pixels dans
l’image d’amplitude radar de 20 m de résolution.
Ce glissement de terrain est causé par le facteur
industriel. Les constructions de routes en béton,
l’installation des réseaux électriques et de
communications en utilisant des poteaux en
béton, et l’exploitation pétrolière dans cette
zone, jouent un rôle de surcharge, ce qui a
provoqué des glissements de terrain suite à la
fragilité des terrains. La direction des
mouvements de matériaux est vers le Nord un
peu opposé de la direction de visée du radar qui
est à droite de l’Est/Ouest. Ce glissement a
détruit la route et des poteaux du réseau
électrique près des endroits où il y a des
pompes d’extraction de pétrole. Ce glissement
se situe sur le versant dans la direction du Nord
(voir figure n°9).
60 K. HACHEMI, F. GRECU, A. OZER, M. JURCHESCU, M. VISAN

Graphe n°2: Profil Sud-Ouest/Nord-Est du glissement de Berca

Figure n°9: Glissement de Schela en relief. Source: Google Earth 2008

Le graphe n°3 montre les deux profils des
deux MNA réalisés par InSAR, dans la
direction Ouest/Est; on voit que le DEM-SRTM
donne un profil d’une pente constante orientée
vers l’Ouest/Est, et par contre, le MNA-ERS1/2
présente une pente de la même orientation sauf
qu’elle a un genre de palier au milieu de la
pente. Cette différence de morphologie peut
être interprétée comme un changement de
forme de terrain entre les deux périodes (1995
et 2000). On peut avancer que cette différence
de morphologie est due à l’instabilité du palier
(1995) et que suite aux constructions s’est
déclenché le glissement de terrain qui a donné
la morphologie récente (2000). Le graphe n°4
du profil Sud/Nord du versant de Schela montre
bien que les deux MNA ont la même
morphologie sauf une différence d’altitude au
sommet du versant et à la base du versant. Cette
différence est estimée à environ 10m, alors que
le profil enregistre une même altitude au centre
du versant. Il faut aussi prendre en
considération que cette zone a été le champ de
construction d’une route en béton, et des
 Comparaison entre deux Modèles Numériques d’Altitudes réalisés par interférométrie radar RSO… 61

réseaux de communication (poteaux et une accumulation de 17 m dans une période

d’électricité en béton) ainsi que d’exploitation
de pétrole, donc du fait qu’elle a subi beaucoup
de travaux; la différence d’altitude est malgré
tout grande. Mais il faut noter ici l’étude de G.
GENTILI et al. (2002) sur les glissements de
terrain de Corniglio (Italie), où les auteurs ont
abouti à des déformations précises montrant
une érosion de terrain d’une épaisseur de 28 m
d’environ deux (2) ans (1994 et 1996) en
utilisant la différence entre deux modèles
numériques de terrain. On remarque bien que
dans les deux graphes suivants (n°3 et 4) il y a
un mouvement de compensation dans les deux
directions ce qui confirme que la variation
d’altitude est due à la déformation du terrain.

Graphe n°3: Profil Ouest/Est de l’emplacement du glissement de Schela

Graphe n°4: Profil Sud/Nord de l’emplacement du glissement de Schela

62 K. HACHEMI, F. GRECU, A. OZER, M. JURCHESCU, M. VISAN
Les deux premiers exemples de glissements
de terrain choisis correspondent à différents
facteurs déclencheurs: (i) le premier est un
glissement à cause naturelle (morphologie et
nature du terrain); (ii) le deuxième a un facteur
déclencheur anthropique (surcharge, construction,
exploitation du pétrole, etc.).
V.1.3. Différence des deux MNA au niveau du
glissement de terrain de Sibiciu (ville de
Pătârlagele)
Le glissement de terrain de Sibiciu (ville de
Pătârlagele) a deux bases (base-1 et base-2); les
coordonnées figurent dans le tableau n°1. Il se
situe à environ 3 km au Nord-Ouest du village
de Pănătău. La direction des mouvements est de
Nord-Est/Sud-Ouest presque la même que la
direction de la visée du radar (c’est-à-dire la
Figure n°10: Vue en relief du glissement de Sibiciu et de la carrière d’exploitation
de diatomées (ville de Pătârlagele). Source: Google Earth 2008
V. 2. Coulées de boue
V.2.1. Différence des deux MNAs du coulée de
boue de Chirleşti
La coulée de boue de Chirleşti se situe à 5,7 km
au Sud de la ville de Nehoiu. Les coordonnées
géographiques sont données dans le tableau
n°1. La direction des mouvements des débris
boueux (boue mélangée) est de Sud-
pente n’est pas orientée vers le radar). La
largeur de la base est de 275 m, soit 14 pixels
sur l’image radar. La longueur de la source est
d’environ 669 m en direction Sud-Ouest/Nord-
Est, soit 33 pixels. Par contre, la largeur de la
source est de 616 m, soit 30 pixels. La longueur
de la source à la base qui débouche sur le
ruisseau de Sibiciu est de 1614 m environ, soit
presque 80 pixels. La distance qui sépare la
source du village de Pănătău est environ 2,5 km
(voir figure n°10).
Dans les deux graphes suivants (n°5 et 6°),
on remarque bien que le MNA-ERS1/2 est plus
élevée que le DEM-SRTM. Cette différence est
de l’ordre de 35m ce qui confirme que cette
différence est due aux erreurs dans la
réalisation du MNA et en même temps
confirme que cette zone est très complexe et
nécessite un MNA bien précis.
Ouest/Nord-Est. La longueur du trajet de la
coulée est d’environ 1300 m, par contre la
largeur de sa base en bas est d’environ 151 m,
soit presque de 8 pixels dans les images
d’amplitude (ce qui est encore très peu pour
une bonne détection). Il est orienté vers la visée
du radar. Les principaux facteurs qui ont
produit ce phénomène sont les précipitations et
le déboisement (voir figure n°11).
 Comparaison entre deux Modèles Numériques d’Altitudes réalisés par interférométrie radar RSO… 63

Graphe n° 5: Profil Sud/Nord du glissement de Sibiciu

Graphe n°6: Profil Oust/Est du glissement de Sibiciu

Les graphes n°7 et 8° de comparaison entre
les deux MNA dans la zone de coulée de boue
de Chirlesti, montre une différence maximale
de 20 m dans la direction Sud-Ouest/Nord-Est
et une différence de 30m dans la direction Sud-
Est/Nord-Ouest. Cette différence peut être due
à la déformation, aussi comme aux erreurs
commises dans les parties de réalisation du
MNA-ERS1/2, considérant la difficulté de
corriger le MNA dans cette région avec de la
végétation et des pentes assez raides.
64 K. HACHEMI, F. GRECU, A. OZER, M. JURCHESCU, M. VISAN

Figure n°11: Coulée de boue de Chirleşti en relief. Source: Google Earth 2008

Graphe n°7: Profil Sud-Ouest/Nord-Est de la coulée de boue de Chirleşti

 Comparaison entre deux Modèles Numériques d’Altitudes réalisés par interférométrie radar RSO… 65

Graphe n°8: Profil Sud-Est/Nord-Ouest de la coulée de boue de Chirleşti

V.2.2. Différence des deux MNA pour la coulée
de boue de Gura-Siriului
La coulée de boue de Gura-Siriului se situe à
9,180 km de la ville de Nehoiu au Nord-Ouest.
La longueur du trajet de la coulée de boue est
de 456,37 m de direction Est-Ouest (403,98 m
vol d’oiseau). Elle coupe la route et débouche
sur un barrage naturel (Lac Gura-Siriului). La
source est entourée de végétation d’arbres
(source déboisée). La largeur Nord-Sud de la
base est de 127 m ; la pente est de plus de 55°.
Elle n’est pas orientée vers le radar, elle a le
même sens que la visée (Est-Ouest). La
direction du sens de la coulée de boue est Est-
Ouest. On voit bien dans la photo (voir figure
n°12) que cette coulée de boue (entourée par un
cercle rouge) déborde sur la route et débouche
sur le barrage.

Figure n°12: Vue en relief de la coulée de boue Gura-Siriului. Source: Google Earth 2008
66 K. HACHEMI, F. GRECU, A. OZER, M. JURCHESCU, M. VISAN

Les deux graphes suivants (n°9 et 10)
montrent une différence d’altitude très
importante dans les deux directions, et malgré
que la morphologie des deux MNA est toujours
respectée, cette différence dépasse les 50m.
Cette différence ne peut être interprétée comme
une déformation mais nous pensons que c’est
due aux erreurs commises dans la réalisation et
la correction du MNA-ERS1/2 car cette zone a
présenté une difficulté dans le calage et la
localisation avec des cartes de référence.

Graphe n°9: Profil Sud-Ouest/Nord-Est de la coulée de Gura-Siriului

Graphe n°10: Profil Sud-Est/Nord-Ouest de la coulée de Gura-Siriului

 Comparaison entre deux Modèles Numériques d’Altitudes réalisés par interférométrie radar RSO…
VI. Discussion
L’une des techniques de la réalisation des
Modèles Numériques d’Altitude (MNA) est
l’interférométrie radar InSAR considérée
comme la meilleure solution en termes de
compromis entre couverture globale et
précision. Elle exploite la différence de phase
de l’onde radar directement liée à la distance
séparant le radar de la cible imagée entre deux
acquisitions de différentes positions. L’étude
des glissements de terrain et des coulées de
boue nécessite de disposer d’un modèle
numérique d’altitude très précis et avec la
meilleure résolution possible; beaucoup des
gens utilisent le DEM-SRTM de 90 m car il est
disponible gratuitement alors qu’un MNT de 30
m est très cher; la réalisation d’un MNT par
levé topographique peut également s’avérer
longue et coûteuse; le recours à l’imagerie radar
apparaît donc comme une alternative
intéressante. L’hypothèse est de considérer que
la différence entre deux modèles numériques
d’altitude (MNA) de dates différentes se traduit
par des déplacements (déformations) produits
entre ces deux périodes. Le problème est qu’il
est très difficile d’éliminer toutes les autres
sources qui influencent les mesures de
l’interférométrie radar RSO. En estimant par
approximation les autres sources comme les
franges d’artéfacts atmosphériques, qui sont les
plus importants et les plus influençant dans la
mesure de la phase par interférométrie radar
RSO, cette différence entre les MNA peut
aboutir à des déplacements entre ces périodes et
on peut ainsi calculer leurs vitesses de
déformation. Dans ce travail et à l’aide de la
technique d’interférométrie radar RSO
(InSAR), nous avons réalisé un MNA avec une
résolution de 20 m à partir des images radar
RSO (SAR) du couple tandem (28/29 mai
1995) des satellites ERS-1/ERS-2 et nous
l’avons comparé avec le DEM-SRTM (11
février 2000). Nous avons supposé que cette
période induit forcément des différences
d’altitude entre ces deux MNA suite aux
caractéristiques des terrains dans la région de
Buzău. Pour estimer ces déformations
(différences d’altitude dues aux changements
67
d’origine géologique), il faut estimer et
éliminer les autres altitudes dues aux autres
origines (allongements effets atmosphériques et
les erreurs de calcul de MNA), sans oublier les
erreurs dues aux précisions du DEM-SRTM. Le
résultat de ce travail se résume au niveau du
glissement du Schela. Ici, des deux profils
tracés des deux MNA réalisés par InSAR, dans
la direction Ouest/Est, celui basé sur le DEM-
SRTM donne un profil d’une pente constante
orientée vers l’Ouest/Est; par contre, celui
dérivé du MNA-ERS1/2 présente une pente de
même orientation, sauf que l’on note un genre
de palier au milieu de la pente. Cette différence
de morphologie peut être interprétée comme un
changement de forme de terrain entre les deux
périodes (1995 et 2000). On peut avancer que
cette différence de morphologie est due à
l’instabilité du palier (1995) et suite aux
constructions, le glissement de terrain s’est
déclenché ce qui a donné la morphologie
récente (2000). Le profil Sud/Nord du versant
de Schela montre bien que les deux MNA ont la
même morphologie sauf une différence
d’altitude au sommet du versant et à la base du
versant. Cette différence est estimée à environ
10m pour une période de plus de 4 ans alors
que le profil enregistre une même altitude au
centre du versant. Il faut noter que cette zone a
subi beaucoup de travaux et a été le champ de
construction d’une route en béton et de réseaux
de communication (poteaux d’électricité en
béton) ainsi que d’exploitation de pétrole. Il y a
eu un mouvement de compensation dans les
deux directions, ce qui confirme que la
variation d’altitude est due à la déformation du
terrain. L’image Aster (15/01/2003) montre
deux des endroits à glissements de terrain (voir
figure n°13). Le cercle rouge montre l’existence
du glissement de terrain de Berca, par contre le
cercle jaune représente l’endroit de glissement
de terrain de Schela. Cette image Aster est prise
en janvier 2003, ce qui prouve que le
glissement de Schela a eu lieu avant la date
d’acquisition de cette image (15 janvier 2003).
Ça nous a servi dans la vérification des résultats
de la comparaison entre les deux MNA (DEM-
SRTM et MNA-ERS1/2-95) et confirmé le
résultat obtenu.
68 K. HACHEMI, F. GRECU, A. OZER, M. JURCHESCU, M. VISAN

Figure n°13: Image Aster de résolution 15 m (15/01/2003)

Localisation des glissements de Berca et de Schela

VII. Conclusion
Cette étude nous a permis de confirmer l’intérêt
du couple tandem (ERS-1/ERS-2) dans la
réalisation d'un MNA et le comparer avec un
autre MNA de date différente, comme le DEM-
SRTM, pour étudier les mouvements de terrain
(glissements et coulées de boue) dans la région
subcarpatique de Buzău (Roumanie). Nous
avons pu calculer avec grande précision le
MNA de cette zone très complexe. La
différence entre les deux MNA est plus
importante dans la zone des coulées de boue
que dans la zone des glissements de terrain.
Cette différence est due surtout à la
géomorphologie du terrain. Le terrain dans la
zone des coulées de boue est très accidenté et
caractérisé par des pentes de degrés en majorité
supérieur à 30° et les reliefs ont des altitudes
entre 750 et 1000m. Par contre, dans la zone de
glissement de terrain les pentes ont des degrés
inférieurs à 30° et les altitudes sont entre 300 et
400 m. Dans ce cas il n’y a pas que les effets
d’atmosphère qui interviennent ou les effets de
lissage du au filtrage; il y a aussi l’opération de
déroulement de phase qui est très délicate, où
l’existence des gradients forts ainsi que la
présence de végétation avec de mauvaises
cohérences se traduisent par moins de fiabilité
des résultats.
VIII. Remerciements
Nous remercions l’AUF pour le financement du
projet de recherche partagée sur l’apport de
l’imagerie satellitale multi résolution dans le
suivi des phénomènes de glissements de terrain
en Roumanie, qui a permis d’acquérir les
images utilisées dans le présent travail. Nous
remercions aussi le Professeur Gh. VIŞAN pour
les sorties sur le terrain et la collecte des points
GPS.
 Comparaison entre deux Modèles Numériques d’Altitudes réalisés par interférométrie radar RSO… 69

REFERENCES

DEWITTE O., 2005, «Centrul de Cercetare Degradarea Terenurilor si Dinamica Geomorfologica, Lucrări şi rapoarte de
cercetare», GRECU F. (ed.), Vol. I, DTDG, Facultatea de Geografie, Edit. Universităţii din Bucuresti, 69-81.
ELGERED G., 1993, «Tropospheric radio-path delay from ground-based microwave radiometry, dans: Janssen M. A.
(ed.) «Atmospheric Remote Sensing by Microwave Radiometry», John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 215-258.
GENTILI G., GIUSTI E., PIZZAFERRI G., 2002, «Photogrammetric Techniques for the Investigation of Corniglio
Landslide», dans: ALLISON R.J. (ed.), «Applied Geomorphology, Theory and Practice», University of Durham,
John Wiley & Sons, LTD, England, 40-48.
GRAHAM L.C., 1974, «Synthetic interferometry radar for topographic mapping», Proc. IEEE, 62, 763-768.
HACHEMI K., 2009, «Apport de l’interférométrie radar SAR pour la réalisation d’un MNA (Modèle Numérique
d’Altitude) sur la région subcarpatique de Buzau (Roumanie)», Analele Universităţii Bucureşti, LVIII.
MASSONNET D., ELACHI C., 2006, «High-resolution land topography», C. R. Geoscience 338, 1029–1041,
http://france.elsevier.com/direct/CRAS2A/, Internal Geophysics.
MOISSEEV D., HANSSEN R., F., 2003, «Influence of hydrometeors on InSAR observations», dans: IGRSS 2003,
IEEE, International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium Proc., Toulouse, France, I-D12-08, 21-25.
RABUS B., EINEDER M., ROTH A., BAMLER R., 2003, «The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission - a new class of
digital elevation models acquired by spaceborne radar», ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing,
57 , 241-262.
RAO K. S., AL-JASSAR H. K., PHALKE S., RAO Y. S., MULLER J.-P., LI Z., 2006, «A study on the applicability of
repeat-pass SAR interferometry for generating DEMs over several Indian test sites», International Journal of
Remote Sensing, Vol. 27, No. 3, 595–616.
RAUCOULES D., 1997, «Utilisation de l’interférométrie ROS (ERS1) pour la construction de MNT en zone
montagneuse, application au Grand Caucase», thèse; mémoire Géosciences-Montpellier, n°3, Université
Montpellier II, 1998-7558, L3.31-M3-364.
RODRIGUEZ E., MARTIN J. M., 1992, «Theory and design of interferometric synthetic aperture radars», IEE
Proceedings-F, 139(2):147-159.
ZEBKER H. A., GOLDSTEIN R. M., 1986, «Topographic mapping from interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar
observations», J. Geophysical. Research., 91, 4993-4999.
ZEBKER H.A., WERNER C.L., ROSEN P.A., HENSLEY S., 1994, «Accuracy of topographic maps derived from
ERS-1 interferometric radar», Geoscience and Remote Sensing, IEEE Transactions, Vol.32, 823-836.

(1)
LGP, UMR 8591 CNRS, Meudon (Bellevue),
(2)
Université de Bucarest,
(3)
Université de Liège, (4) Institut de Géographie, Academie Roumaine
(4)
Institut de Géographie, Academie Roumaine
hachemi_kamel@yahoo.fr / kamel.hachemi@cnrs-bellevue.fr.
 EA RC H C
ES E
R

N
TR
NOTE REGARDING THE FACTORS CAUSING
E
TH

E
SNOW AVALANCHES

AN
ANCA MUNTEANU1, LAURA COMĂNESCU1,
S
D
GE
L O

ALEXANDRU NEDELEA1
IC
MOD DEG N AN M
I O
RP H RADAT DY N A
L OGIC AL

Key words: snow avalanches, release factors, potential factors

Abstract: Avalanches are natural phenomena which manifest in tight connection with the characteristics
of relief elements. From among these elements, those which may determine avalanches are mainly
connected to potential factors (geomorphologic, meteorological, biological, anthropic), as well as release
factors (earthquakes, slopes, wind, snow, animal or anthropic trepidation etc). In this respect, the present
paper aims at a general presentation of release factors, as well as exemplifications/ illustrations of existent
situations. Avalanches are also present in the Carpathian space, as spread phenomena, which affect large
areas. Release moments appear when certain conditions are fulfilled by a series of parameters. This paper
contributes to the filling in of the database referring to conditions of forming, releasing and presence of
avalanches from Meridional Carpathians (the massifs Piatra Craiului and Făgăraș).

1. Introduction temperature, solar radiation, wind), hydrographic

Avalanches are normal natural phenomena
which manifest in the mountainous space, in
winter time (Moynier, 1993). They are
determined by the gravitation, the snow and the
ice which slip downhill, increasing their volume,
weight and speed when falling down/ slipping
(Grecu, 2006). They are complex processes of
mechanic erosion, resulted from the direct
action of the gravitation force upon snow
masses, which are in unstable balance and with
a weak cohesion in depth, which unfolds
extremely rapidly and spectacularly (Iancu,
1978). There are relationships between the
slope’s inclination, morphology and vegetation,
which provide the potential of forming and
releasing the avalanches (Barbolini et. al.,
2011).
A series of conditions must be fulfilled for
the avalanches to be formed. These are of two
types: potential and release factors. In the first
category there are local geologic characteristics
(lithology, structural, tectonic), geomorphologic
(relief, altitude, morphology, slope, exposure,
fragmentation, the rugosity of sublayer),
meteorological (meteorological parameters:
intensity and duration of precipitation,
thickness, structure and snow layers, air
(hydrographic network), biological (vegetation,
fauna) and anthropic (man and his activities).
The second category implies the exceeding of
the threshold of potential factors, which may
determine unbalances within the snow mass
(earthquakes, slopes, exposure, wind, the
thickness of the new snow, animal or anthropic
trepidations, etc.) (Grecu, 2006).
In this material, we present generally and in
detail the second category of factors, release
factors, as presence, interaction and evolution
manner, effects, importance, with the role they
have in the dynamic of avalanches.
At the base of the accomplishment of this
article there are a series of data extracted by the
analysis of some studies, done in the
specialised literature and the processing,
according to what exists at the level of the
Meridional Carpathians – the massifs Piatra
Craiului and Fagaras (Ancey, Charlier, 1996;
Barbolini et. al., 2011; Decaulne,
Saemundsson, 2006; Engel, 2000; Grecu, 2006;
Grecu, Palmentola, 2003; Iancu, 1978; Johnson,
Smith, 2010; Keiler et. al., 2006; Luckman,
1977; Maggioni et. al., 2002; McClung, 2001,
2002; McClung, Schaerer, 1993, 2006;
Mititeanu, 2012; Moynier, 1993; Moțoiu, 2005,
2008; Munteanu, 2009; Munteanu, et. al.,
72 Anca MUNTEANU, Laura COMĂNESCU, Alexandru NEDELEA

2011a; Munteanu et. al., 2011b; Rabofsky,
Gabl, 1996; Simenhois, Birkeland, 2010;
Sivardiere, 2003; Tremper, 2008; Urdea, 2000;
Voiculescu, 2002; Weir, 2002).
2. Discussions
In creating the proper conditions, of the way of
the avalanches’ release and manifestation, an
essential role is held by the states of moment of
the elements’ components which generate the
avalanche. These can be grouped as release
factors, which are represented by potential
factors in case they exceeded the thresholds,
which lead to the unbalance of snow masses
(Grecu, 2006).
Depending on the typology of the elements
which generate them, the release factors can be
grouped as: geologic and geomorphologic
factors (structural unbalances, earthquakes,
slopes values, a certain exposure), meteorological
factors (precipitations, temperature, insolation,
wind, thickness, structure, the balance of the
snow layer), biological factors (noise and
trepidations produced by animals, certain
characteristics of vegetation), anthropic factors
(noise and anthropic trepidations). From among
these, the most important parameters are
topographic and climatic parameters, which
give the periodicity, dimensions, the way of
manifestation of the avalanches (Luckman
1977). Hereinafter, we will detail the
characteristics of each of them:
Geologic release factors may appear
occasionally, once some structural unbalances
or earthquakes take place (Grecu, 2006). This is
in connection with local seismic activity from
each mountainous area. Also, indirectly, by
structure and lithology, certain morphologic
characteristics, of slope, of sublayer, which
may determine the release moment, may be
recorded. This is the reason why these factors
appear in tight connection with geomorphologic
factors (Munteanu, 2009).

Tab. 1 Characteristics of the avalanches depending on the slope angle

(after Tremper, 2008, simplified)

Steepness Avalanche activity

55°- 90° Frequent sluffs and smaller slabs dramatically reduce the number of large slabs
45°- 55° Frequent smaller slabs and sluffs reduce the number of large slabs
This is prime avalanche terrain with the bull’s-eye around 38°. Frequent smaller
35° - 45°
slabs some large
Slabs increasing rapidly in frequency as you approach 35°. Usually requires
30° - 35°
fairly unstable conditions
25° - 30° Infrequent slab in unstable conditions. Those that do occur tend to be large
10° - 25° Infrequent wet slab avalanche runout. Dry slabs in extremely unusual situation

Geomorphologic release factors are
extremely important, as they record local
morphologic conditions. From among these,
exposure, predominantly eastern, south-eastern
or southern, is more encouraged by permanent
warming; inclination determines the movement
of snow masses on the slope, having the main
importance, whereas the other factors
(gravitation processes, gelifraction) have a
complementary role. There isn’t an inferior
limit of the inclination angle below which there
are no conditions of avalanche release (Moţoiu,
2005). The danger in case of an avalanche is
generally at 38° - 40°, when the most frequent
avalanches with victims take place, but they
can be at 60° and at less than 40° (Tremper,
2008, Tab. 1):
Meteorological release factors are
represented by certain meteorological parameters
(precipitations, temperature, insolation, wind,
thickness, microscopic structure and the
balance of the snow layer), which got to exceed
certain thresholds and they can determine
unbalances in the snow masses (Grecu,
Palmentola, 2003). From among these, each
local meteorological characteristic produces
certain modifications/ changes upon the
components of snow layers, which they
permanently transform. Thus, liquid
precipitations produce an increase of the
 Note regarding the factors causing snow avalanches
volume for the snow, this becoming “heavier”.
The initial snow partially melts, and the snow
which remains may move, causing avalanches
(more frequently in the autumn or in the spring)
(Mititeanu, 2012). Snow precipitations produce
large dimensions avalanches, as they are more
abundant and the layer which forms is thicker,
over 30-60 cm (Keiler et. al., 2006). Freshly
fallen snow represents the sum of the thickness
of the snow layer from the last days, extremely
important in the characteristics and maintaining
of stability (Rabofsky, Gabl, 1996). The
intensity of the snowfall is important in
generating avalanches, if it is done in large
snow quantities, in a short time and with wind
(Moţoiu, 2008; Tremper, 2008).
The temperature of the snow layer, as well
as the variation of the temperature inside the
snow layer influences the physical-mechanical
characteristics of the snow layer in its whole
(Weir, 2002). The differentiations between the
different thermic situations may determine
cohesion modifications between the snow
flakes and implicitly the encouragement of
release conditions (Mititeanu, 2012).
Insolation by direct and reflected solar
radiation determines different warming of
snow. It depends on exposure, leading to the
heating, partial melting and re-freezing of the
snow layer (Moţoiu, 2008).
Fig. 1 Snow stratification – situation which generates
avalanches
1. The rock on place; 2. cornice; 3. Fresh snow;
4. Stratification crust; 5. Old snow; 6. Compact snow
with re-freezing crystals; 7. Snow compacted by re-
freezing and consolidation; 8. Very compact snow =
gliding bad (after "Technique de l'Alpinisme" by Bernard
Amy et col., Arthaud, 1977, quoted by Mititeanu, 2012
and Urdea, 2000, with modifications, as model for the
peak of the Piatra Craiului - Munteanu, 2009)
73
Wind represents a factor of avalanches
release, as it may act by several ways: its
impact force directly upon the snow layer (by
shock waves) or by the overloading of the snow
layer with materials or transported snow (the
forming of cornices or plates) (McClung,
Schaerer, 2006). When it accompanies snow it
contributes to unequal deposits (accumulations
in depressions, blowing on inter-rivers),
continuing the snow transportation to the
surface after the snow fall is over, too.
Sometimes it is deposited under the form of
“wind plates” and it forms cornices on peaks
(which, by rupture, may cause avalanches, by
“breaking” the wind plate under the cornice)
(Mititeanu, 2012; Tremper, 2008) (Fig. 1).
The typology and the moment of
avalanches release are also influenced by the
thickness, structure and porosity of the snow
layer (there can be layers with smaller density
under those with bigger density) (Weir, 2002).
The thickness of the snow layer represents the
factor which produces a control of avalanches
release, being in tight connection with the
declivity conditions of the slopes: 50o for 5 cm
thickness of the snow layer; 30o for 15 cm
thickness of the snow layer; 22o for 50 cm
thickness of the snow layer (Pissart, 1987,
quoted by Voiculescu, 2002). The microscopic
structure has got a determinant role, being
given by the forms of crystals, the percentage
of water in liquid and gas state, the variation
within the same snow blanket. This structure
varies depending on the local conditions of the
relief, the meteorological parameters during the
snowfall, being transformed in time. Those
from abundant snowfalls with dry snow
("pulver"), or when the snow is dry and
granular can be potential (Mititeanu, 2012;
Tremper, 2008).
The balance of the snow layer represents a
model for the snow stability, where stability is
given by the formula:
T ≤ R limit
where: T is the traction exercised upon a snow
block; R represents the assembly of resistance
forces; G is the snow weight; α is the
inclination angle of the relief (Fig. 2). The
moment this balance is changed, avalanches
appear/ happen. If there is an overburdening on
74 Anca MUNTEANU, Laura COMĂNESCU, Alexandru NEDELEA

the traction force and the resistance force, it them have essential roles and act in tight
diminishes the stability by internal looseness, connection with all the other factors.
and the balance is broken (McClung, Schaerer,
2006; Sivardiere, 2003). 3. Conclusions

Avalanches are complex phenomena,

Fig. 2 The balance of the snow layer
(after Sivardiere, 2003, with modifications)
Biological release factors may contribute
to the avalanches release, by the noise and
trepidations produced by animals, which may
“cut” the snow (especially plates); gravitational
falls of the snow accumulations, placed on
different types of vegetation (especially on
dwarf pine) (Weir, 2002).
Anthropic release factors are represented
by noise and trepidations produced by the
presence of man and its activities. Avalanches
may be produced by man involuntarily (the
passing by of a tourist or skier etc) or
voluntarily and controlled (with explosives,
sounds, mechanic shocks etc). It is well known
the term of “skier avalanche”, which designates
the avalanches produced by skiers, when they
“cut” the snow plates and cause the avalanches
(Engel, 2000; McClung, Schaerer, 2006;
Mititeanu, 2012). This aspect is also met in
Romanian Carpathians, most part of the
avalanches which had victims being caused by
these (Mititeanu, 2012; Moţoiu, 2008).
All these release factors contribute to
creating ideal conditions of provocation,
specific for generating avalanches. Each of
conditioned by a series of factors. From among
these, potential and release factors have got a
special importance, in the way of occurrence of
the avalanches’ dynamic. These factors
establish the parameters of the areas which are
vulnerable to avalanches. All the release factors
which were presented, by the connections they
have, are important in the dynamic of the
respective processes and areas.
This material shows the extremely
important role potential elements have in
generating the conditions for the avalanches
occurrence. It is an extremely important
material for understanding the present dynamic
from the mountainous area of Piatra Craiului
and Fagaras, coming to complete the data
known up to present.
4. Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the project:
”Evaluation and Monitoring of Avalanche Risk
in the Context of Mountain Environment
Organising and Planning. Case Study – Fagaras
and Piatra Craiului Mountains”, financed by
CNSIS, category IDEI, and the strategic grant
POSDRU /89/1.5/S/ 58852, Project Program
for postdoctoral researchers in science
education, co-financed by the European Social
Fund within the Sectoral Operational Program
Human Resources’ Development 2007–2013”.
Also, we want to thank those who helped us
in the activities of documentation and in the
field, the Administration of the National Park
Piatra Craiului, the Mountaineers, the chalets’
owners, those from the NGO Liliecii Brașov.

REFERENCES

ANCEY C., CHARLIER C. (1996), Quelques reflexions autour d’une classification des avalanches, Revue de
Geographie Alpine, 1, pp. 9-21.
BARBOLINI, M., PAGLIARDI, M., FERRO, F., CORRADEGHINI, P., (2011), Avalanche hazard mapping over large
undocumented areas, Natural Hazards, 56, 451–464.
DECAULNE A., SAEMUNDSSON T. (2006), Geomorphic evidence for present-day snow-avalanche and debris-flow
impact in the Icelandic Westfjords, Geomorphology 80, pp. 80–93.
 Note regarding the factors causing snow avalanches 75

ENGEL Z. (2000), Skier – Triggered Avalanches, Geographica, XXXV, Supplementum, Acta Universitatis Carolinae,
Univerzita Karlova V, Praze, pp. 247-263.
GRECU FLORINA (2006), Hazarde şi riscuri naturale, ediţia a III-a, Ed. Universitară Bucureşti, 222 p.
GRECU FLORINA, PALMENTOLA G. (2003), Geomorfologie dinamică, Ed. Tehnică, Bucureşti, 392 p.
IANCU M. (1978) Universul alb, Ed. Albatros, București, 341 p.
JOHNSON A. L. SMITH D. J. (2010), Geomorphology of snow avalanche impact landforms in the southern Canadian
Cordillera, The Canadian Geographer / Le G´eographe canadien 54, 1, pp. 87–103.
KEILER M., SAILER R., JORG P., WEBER C., FUCHS S., ZISCHG A., SAUERMOSER S. (2006), Avalanche risk
assessment – a multi-temporal approach, results from Galtur, Austria, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 6, 637–651.
LUCKMAN B. H. (1977), The Geographic Activity Of Snow-Avalanches, Geografska Annnder, SQA, pp. 1-2.
MAGGIONI M., GRUBER U., STOFFEL, A. (2002), Definition and characterisation of potential avalanche release
area, 2002 ESRI International User Conference, San Diego, USA.
McCLUNG D. M. (2001), Characteristics of terrain, snow supply and forest cover for avalanche initiation caused by
logging, Annals of Glaciology, 32, International Glaciological Society, pp. 223-229.
McCLUNG, D.M. (2002), The elements of applied avalanche forecasting Part II: The physical issues and the rules of
applied avalanche forecasting, Natural Hazards 26, pp. 131-146.
McCLUNG D.M., SCHAERER P. (1993), The Avalanche Handbook, Seattle, WA, The Mountaineers.
McCLUNG D.M., SCHAERER P. (2006), The Avalanche Handbook, Seattle, WA, The Mountaineers, 344 p.
MITITEANU D. (2011), Îndrumar avalanşe, www.dinumititeanu.blogopedia.biz.
MOYNIER J. (1993), Avalanche Awareness, Chockstone Press, 33 p.
MOŢOIU MARIA DANA (2005), Avalanşe – caracteristici, determinare şi consemnare, Administratia Naţionale de
Meteorologie, Bucureşti, 84 p.
MOŢOIU MARIA DANA (2008), Avalanşe şi impactul lor asupra mediului. Studii de caz în Carpaţii Meridionali, Ed.
Proxima, Bucureşti, 280 p.
MUNTEANU ANCA (2009), Mofodinamica actuala, riscuri si hazarde naturale în Masivul Piatra Craiului, Teză de
doctorat, Universitatea Bucuresti, 282 p.;
MUNTEANU ANCA, NEDELEA A., COMĂNESCU LAURA, GHEORGHE CĂTĂLINA (2011), The dynamics of
slopes affected by avalanches in Piatra Craiului Massif – Southern Carpathians, International Journal of the
Physical Sciences, 6 (7), pp. 1720-1731;
MUNTEANU ANCA, NEDELEA A., COMĂNESCU LAURA (2011), The dynamics of the snow avalanche affected
areas in Piatra Mica mountains (Romania), Comptes Rendus Geoscience, Elsevier, 343, pp. 691–700.
RABOFSKY E., GABL P. (1996), Lawinen Handbuch, Tyrolia – Verlag, Innsbruck – Wien, 89 p.
SIMENHOIS R., BIRKELAND K. (2010), Meteorological and Environmental Observations from Three Glide
Avalanche Cycles and the Resulting Hazard Management Technique, Proceedings of the 2010 International
Snow Science Workshop, Squaw Valley, California, 6 p.
SIVARDIERE F. (2003), Dans le secret des avalanches, Glenat, ANENA, 111 p.
TREMPER B. (2008), Staying Alive in Avalance Terrain, The Mountanineers Books, 320 p.
URDEA P. (2000), Munţii Retezat, Ed. Academiei Române, Bucureşti, 272 p.
VOICULESCU M. (2002), Fenomene geografice de risc în Masivul Făgăraş, Ed. Brumar, Timişoara, 231 p.
WEIR P. (2002), Snow avalanche Management in forested tarrain, 190 p.

1
Faculty of Geography, University of Bucharest, Romania
 EA RC H C
ES E
R

N
TR
MORPHOMETRIC ASPECTS
E
TH

E
IN SĂSĂUȘ RIVER BASIN

AN
S
D
GE
L O

MOD DEG N AN M
IC
RALUCA ALEXANDRU*, MARIUS MIHAI PAISA,
I O
RP H RADAT DY N A
L OGIC AL GEORGIAN CĂTESCU

Key words: river morphometry, GIS analysis, drainage basins.

Abstract: Săsăuş (Pârâul Nou) river basin is located in the central part of the Transylvanian Depression,
in the southern part of Hartibaciu Plateau, having a surface of 232,21 km2. Drainage basins or basins
should be the study area for the better understanding of the hydrologic system. The analysis of drainage
system is an important aspect of characterization of watersheds. In this analysis, GIS was used for
assessing various terrain and morphometric parameters of the drainage basins and watersheds from the
digital data that was manipulated for different calculations and Horton’s laws of stream numbers and
stream lengths also were used. The influence of drainage morphometry is very significant in
understanding the processes that occur within the basin, soil physical properties and erosional characteristics.

1. Introduction remote sensing and GIS methods. All these

Morphometry represents the topographical
expression of land by way of area, slope, shape,
length, etc. Morphometric analysis of drainage
basins thus provides not only an elegant
description of the landscape, but also serve as a
powerful means of comparing the form and
process of drainage basins that may be widely
separated in space and time (Easthernbrook,
1993).
The basin morphometric characteristics
have been studied by using conventional and
methods were effective tools to overcome most
of the problems of land and water resources
planning and management on the account of
usage of conventional methods of data process.
The present study area, Săsăuș river basin, a
part of the Olt river system, drains a variety of
agricultural fields and is also a source for the
water supply to the region. The objective of this
study is to offer a classical yet new and
improved river basin analysis for a watercourse
such as Săsăuș.

Figure 1. Location of the Săsăuș river basin within Romania

78 Raluca ALEXANDRU, Marius Mihai PAISA, Georgian CĂTESCU
Săsăuș river basin is located in the southern
part of Hârtibaciu Plateau (Transylvanian
Depression) and it is enclosed between latitudes
45°56'50" N and 45°47'48" N and longitudes
24°47'23" E and 24°32'10" E, covering an area
of 232,21 km2 . Geologically, the area under
study is formed by a package of Neogene
sediment rocks, dated from the Sarmatian and
Badenian, uncimented rocks such as sands and
gravel or loosely cimented such as friable
gritstone, thin layers of conglomerate rocks,
clay and marl rocks. The area is well
represented by structural surfaces, cuests,
landslides and torrents.
2. Materials and Methods
As reference the Romanian topographic map at
scale 1:25.000 was used for the study area
which was georeferenced to world space
coordinate system using digital image
processing software (ArcGis ver: 9.3, Global
Mapper ver: 11, Surfer ver: 9) .This is a large
scale map which is highly recommended for a
study of this nature. The assigned projection
system was Stereo 70, S-42 Romania datum.
Digitization work has been carried out for
entire analysis of basin morphometry using GIS
software (ArcGIS ver: 9.3). The order was
given to each stream by following Strahler
Figure 2. Drainage pattern and their order identified from the study area
(1964) stream ordering technique. The
attributes were assigned to create the digital
data base for drainage layer of the river basin.
Hydrological response of a drainage basin is
defined by the production of runoff against a
given rainfall, which in turn is characterized by
basin morphometric properties, soil characteristics
and landuse pattern.
3. Results and Discussion
In the drainage basin analysis the first step is to
determine the stream orders. In the present
study, the channel segment of the drainage
basin has been ranked according to Horton-
Strahler’s stream ordering system. According to
Strahler (1964), the smallest fingertip
tributaries are designated as order 1. Where two
first order channels join, a channel segment of
order 2 is formed; where two of order 2 join, a
segment of order 3 is formed; and so forth. The
trunk stream through which all discharge of
water and sediment passes is therefore the
stream segment of highest order. The study area
is a 6 th order drainage basin. The total number
of 406 streams were identified of which 312 are
1 st order streams, 73 are 2 nd order, 13 are 3 rd
order, 5 in 4 th order, 2 in fifth, 1 in sixth order
streams.
 Morphometric aspects in Săsăuș river basin
Stream length is indicative of chronological
developments of the stream segments including
interlude tectonic disturbances. Mean stream
length reveals the characteristic size of
components of a drainage network and its
contributing surfaces (Strahler, 1964). Stream
length is one of the most significant
hydrological features of the basin as it reveals
surface runoff characteristics streams of
relatively smaller lengths are characteristics of
areas with larger slopes and finer textures.
Longer lengths of streams are generally
indicative of flatter gradients. Generally, the
total length of stream segments is maximum in
first order streams and decreases as the stream
order increases. The number of streams of
various orders in the basin are counted and their
lengths from mouth to drainage divide are
measured with the help of GIS software. From
the results it is evident that the length of first
order streams constitute 170,69 km of the total
stream length with second order (66,937 km),
third order (27,26 km), fourth order (27,25 km),
fifth order (15,24 km) and the sixth order (4,53
km). The total length of 1st and 2nd order
streams constitutes over 246 km of the total
stream length.
Drainage patterns of stream network from
the basin have been observed as mainly
dendritic type which indicates the homogeneity
in texture and it is characterized by a tree like
pattern. While in some parts of the basin
Figure 3. Hypsometric values map
79
represent parallel and radial pattern types
indicating that the topographical features are
dipping, folded and highly jointed in the hilly
terrains. A parallel drainage pattern consists of
tributaries that flow nearly parallel to one
another and all the tributaries join the main
channel at approximately the same angle.
Parallel drainage suggest that the area has
gentle, uniform slopes and with less resistant
bed rock. A radial drainage pattern forms when
water flows downward or outward from a hill
or dome. The radial drainage pattern of
channels produced can be linked to a wheel
consisting of a circular network of parallel
channels flowing away from a central high
point (Jensen, 2006). The properties of the
stream networks are very important to study the
landform making process (Strahler and
Strahler, 2002).
Concerning the hypsometric values, about
1,85% is under the 400 m absolute altitude, in
the 400-450m altitude values there is a
percentage of 33,46%. The 450-500 m altitude
range there is 82,5% with the largest
developpment within the hypsometric structure
of the basin, closely followed by 71,33% of the
500-550 value range. For the 550- 600m range
the percentage is anout 31,64% where the relief
shapes are dominated by hills and with low and
medium altitudes and he last altitude step, over
600m has a percentage of 10.42% and includes
the high hills within the basin limits.
80 Raluca ALEXANDRU, Marius Mihai PAISA, Georgian CĂTESCU

Figure 4. Slope orientation map

Figure 5. Slope map

 Morphometric aspects in Săsăuș river basin 81

The high altitude relief is found mostly in
the North-Eastern part of the basin, represented
by a series of hills such as Potter’s Hill, New
Hill, Goats Hill, Gheleracu Hill. The lower
altitudes under 400 m are characteristic for the
river meadow following the main river courses.
Slope inclination reflects the geological
structure, the slope evolution and the past and
present relief molding. The medium slope is
quite low of 7m/km, which favours a high
degree of river curving, enforced by the
sinuosity coefficient of 1.73. In the basin the
values of the slope inclinations vary from 0°
and maximum 28,7°, with a clear distinction
between the low areas (under 6 degrees) and the
higher hill areas (10-15 and over 15 degrees).
The slope orientation in relation with the
sun reflexion influences the heat regime, the
atmospheric precipitation, the air and soil
moisture and humidity, triggering a whole
range of morphodynamic processes. The
northern orientations are about 12,17%, the
north-eastern and north-western have a
percentage of 13,93% respectively 11,32%
from the total slopes surfaces, meanwhile the
southern ones have 12,86%, the south-eastern
and south-western have only 10,51% and
13,47%. The eastern orientated slopes have a
higher percentage than the western ones
(13,59%-12,15%).
Conclusions
The drainage basin is being frequently selected
as an ideal geomorphological unit. Watershed
as a basic unit of morphometric analysis has
gained importance because of its topographic
and hydrological unity. GIS techniques
characterized by very high accuracy of
mapping and measurement prove to be a
competenttool in morphometric analysis.
The analysis of morphometric parameters is
found to be of immense utility in river basin
evaluation, watershed prioritization for soil and
water conservation, and natural resources
management at micro level. Drainage network
of the basin exhibits as mainly dendritic type
which indicates the homogenity in texture and
lack of structural control. In some parts of the
basin, the dipping and jointing of the
topography reveals parallel and radial pattern.
The linear pattern of the graphical representation
indicates the weathering erosional
characteristics of the area under study.

REFERENCES

GRECU, FLORINA (1992), Bazinul Hârtibaciului. Elemente de morfohidrografie, Editura Academiei, Bucureşti.
GRECU, FLORINA, MĂRCULEŢ, I., MĂRCULEŢ, CĂTĂLINA, DOBRE, R. (2008), Podişul Transilvaniei de sud şi
unităţile limitrofe. Repere geografice, Edit. Universităţii din Bucureşti.
GRECU, FLORINA, COMĂNESCU, LAURA, (1998), Studiul reliefului, Îndrumător pentru lucrări practice, Edit.
Universității din București, București.
GRECU, FLORINA, PALMENTOLA, G., (2003), Geomorfologie dinamică, Edit. Tehnică, București.
JENSEN, J.R.,(2006) Remote Sensing of the Environment, Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1 st edition,
2006.
STRAHLER, A.N., (1964) Quantitative geomorphology of drainage basins and channel networks In. Handbook of
Applied Hydrology, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, Section 4II.
STRAHLER, A.N., (2002), A Text Book of physical geography, John Wiley & Sous, New York.
EASTHERNBROOK, D.J. (1993), Surface Processes and Landforms, Macmillian Publishing Co., New York, 325pp.

*
Main Author – University of Bucharest,
Faculty of Geography,
Simion Mehedinți Doctorate School
satalihti@yahoo.com

Invest in human resources!

This work was supported by project:
POSDRU/88/1.5/S/611SO „Doctoral Studies in the field of life an earth sciences”, project co-financed thnough
Sectorial operational Program for the Development of Human Resources 2007/2013 from European Social Fond.
 EA RC H C
ES E
R

N
TR
THE INFLUENCE OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
E
TH

E
AND LITHOLOGY IN THE TOPOGRAPHY
OF MISLEA BASIN
AN
S
D
GE
L O

IC
MOD DEG O N AN M
A
GEORGIAN CĂTESCU, RALUCA ALEXANDRU,
I
RP H RADAT DY N
L OGIC AL MARIUS PAISA

Keywords: Mislea basin, geological structure, lithology, differential erosion.

Abstract: Mislea River Basin is located on Romanian territory in the south-east and overlaps Prahova
Sub-Carpathians. It is part of the river basin and runs Teleajen an area of 175,6 km2. The limits of basin
are given by: Vǎrbilǎu Basin, in the north and east sector, Doftana Basin in the west and Dâmbu Basin in
the south. From the geological point of view of the north basin flysch overlapping spurs paleogene
represented by the Paleogene Homorâciu-Prǎjani and Buștenari -Vǎleni and central and southern sector of
the basin per unit of molasses. In the basin structural and petrographical Mislea relief is the result of
geological structure and lithology which have made some specific reliefs some local character.
Among these impose the relief on monoclinal structure, the relief on folded structure, the relief
moulded on sandstone, clay and marl, the fluviatil relief and the relief developed on salt. Differential
erosion is the main process modeling that highlight the main types of relief is determined by the tip of the
structure and the nature of the rock.

Mislea Basin is located in Romania in the
south-east at the intersection of parallel 450
degrees N 260 degrees meridian of longitude E.
The basin has an area of 175 km2 and is
developed in the easthern sector of Prahova
Subcarpathians. It is part of Teleajen basin and
Horton-Strahler ranking system is the size 6.
The basin relief runs from 815 m in the north-
west sector in Mǎcesu Hill to 207 m at the
junction with Teleajen River.

Fig. 1 Mislea basin

84 Georgian CĂTESCU, Raluca ALEXANDRU, Marius PAISA
Petrographic variety of Subcarpathians,
degree of cementation, physical and mechanical
properties, alternation and thickness stratification
imposed a varied number of petrographic
reliefs. Some of them have a local character.
The structural relief forms have emerged as
interfluves fragmentation by the network
valleys. Tectonics and geological structure
imposed the major forms of relief which enter
in the composition of Mislea Basin.
From the geological point of view, Mislea
Basin is developed on the following structural
units: the Tarcau and the pericarpathian
molasses (V. Mutihac, 1990).
In the northern part, the external flysch is
surrounded in the Tarcau which is formatted by
Eocene and Oligocene formations : Tarcau
sandstone, Kliwa sandstone (quartzitic) and
Fusaru (massive micaceous). In the basin the
Tarcau is represented by :
The syncline of Slanic (M. G. Filipescu,
1936), is developed from Teleajen valley to
Ialomita valley. In this basin come across on
Vǎrbilǎu - Mislea watershed and is formed by
formations of Helvetian age.
Homorâciu – Prǎjani spurs is developed
south of the syncline of Slǎnic and is formed by
Paleogene formations (Fusaru sandstone,
breccia, marl). South of the spurs of Homorâciu
– Prǎjani is developed Drajna syncline which
descend to Vǎrbilǎu valley. Between Vǎrbilǎu
valley and Prahova valley come across
Melicești syncline.This is developed in the
basin, in the northern sector between
Homorâciu spur and Vǎleni spur.
Vǎleni – Buștenari spurs come across at the
south of Melicești syncline where appears
under the form of islands north of Buștenari
and Telega, from where at west of Prahova is
covered by the pericarpathian molasses.
The syncline of Slanic (M. G. Filipescu,
1936), is developed from Teleajen valley to
Ialomita valley. In this basin come across on
Vǎrbilǎu – Mislea watershed and is formed by
formations of Helvetian age.
Homorâciu – Prǎjani spurs is developed
south of the syncline of Slǎnic and is formed by
Paleogene formations (Fusaru sandstone,
breccia, marl). South of the spurs of
Homorâciu – Prǎjani is developed Drajna
syncline which descend to Vǎrbilǎu valley.
Between Vǎrbilǎu valley and Prahova valley
come across Melicești syncline. This is
developed in the basin, in the northern sector
between Homorâciu spur and Vǎleni spur.
Vǎleni – Buștenari spurs come across at the
south of Melicești syncline where appears
under the form of islands north of Buștenari
and Telega, from where at west of Prahova is
covered by the pericarpathian molasses.
The central and southern sector of the basin
is developed on the pericarpathian molasses
which is represented by mio – Pliocene
formations (marls, clay, limestone marl,
sandstone, sand). They occupy the center, east
and south of the basin. In the south of Mislea
basin is distinguished Mǎgureni syncline,
formed from sediments which belong to the
upper Pliocene and Quaternary that corresponds
to Mislea depression.
The structural relief of Mislea basin is the
result of geological structure and tectonic
which has leaded to wrinkle layers in anticline
type structure corresponding to the hills and
syncline types structure specific to the
depressions. Landforms have appeared as the
interfluve fragmentation by the hydrographic
network. The local appearance of salt formation
of Badenian age from Telega – Buștenari led to
the appearance of diapirs wrinkles.
From the tectonical and structural point of
view, the Mislea Basin overlaps to the
following morphostructural units :
- The morphostructural unit of the internal
Subcarpathians ovelaps to the Paleocene spurs
(Homorâciu-Prăjani and Valeni-Bustenari) and
Mio - Pliocene molasses which include :
Doftǎnețu Hills, Mǎlurosu region, Mǎgura
Trestioarei peak, and the depressions Telega,
Cosminele, Bustenari, Vâlcăneşti characteristic
being the relief of wrinkle structure (peaks and
valleys of anticline and syncline) and relief of
the monoclinic structure.
- The morphostructural of the external
Subcarpathians corresponds to Mislea
depression, which is focused on a broad
syncline, consisting of Romanian-Pleistocene
deposits (Magureni Syncline).
 The influence of geological structure and lithology in the topography of Mislea basin 85

Fig. 2 The morphostructural map. Mislea Basin

The relief of folded structures
Peaks and valleys of the anticline come across
in the north, north - east and east sector of the
basin. In this category are: Mǎluros peak, a
peak with altitudes of 600-700 m, that consists
of sandstones, marls and limestones of
Paleocene and Miocene age. On the southern
flank of this peak is a steep Cuesta with slopes
in excess of 250. Mǎgura Trestioarei peak
presents a steeper slope to Cosmina valley and
a slow version for Vărbilău Basin.
Rotundu (572 m) is a peak that is formed on
Paleocene formations and consists of Kliwa
sandstone layer. The summit takes place on a
length of 3 km between Cosmina valley and
86 Georgian CĂTESCU, Raluca ALEXANDRU, Marius PAISA
Măceşu massive. Presents steep slopes to the
north affected by landslide and ravine processes.
Peaks and valleys of syncline overlaps to
Melicești syncline of Sarmatian age and
Vǎrbilǎu – Trestioara syncline that consists of
Sarmatian – Pliocene deposits.
Mǎceșu Massif in a whole is a suspended
syncline flanked by steep cuesta to west and
south fragmented by rainfall erosion, collapses
and landslides. The resistant rocks that
contributes to the creation of the massif are the
Sarmatian limestones from Mǎceșu peak and
Kliwa sandstone from Mǎceșu peak.
Mǎgura Trestioarei Hill (655 m) is an
isolated hill, located in the western sector of the
basin, focused on a syncline of Sarmatian age
consisting of sandstones and limestones. To the
northwest is flanked by a steep which is shaped
by landslides, ravines and gullies.
Syncline valleys come across in the north –
west and west of the basin. The upper sector of
Fig. 3 Rotundu peak (left) and Mǎceșu Hill
(in the last plan)
Fig. 5 Cuesta front on the right of Cosmina valley
Lupǎria valley follow the Trestioara syncline
axis. The origin of Telega and Poiana Trestia
valleys overlaps the Melicești syncline.
The anticline valleys represents relief
inversions that appears in the folded areas
where progress in times led to a strong
deepening of the valleys and a fast evolution of
the slopes. In this category enters tributary of
the left of Cosmina valley in the upper sector.
The transversal valleys have a large
spreading in the folded areas of Mislea Basin.
These valleys are arranged perpendicular to the
axis of the syncline and anticline folds. The
most sectors of the transversal valleys belongs
to Cosmina, Telega, Runcu, Doftǎneț and
Mislea valleys in the upper sector.
Valleys on the flank develops on anticline
and syncline flanks. These valleys come across
on the south slope of the Mǎceșu Massif,
Mǎluros and Mǎgura peak.
Fig. 4 Cuesta and structural valleys in the upper sector
of Mislea valley
Fig. 6 Cosmina valley in the upper sector
 The influence of geological structure and lithology in the topography of Mislea basin 87

Fig. 7 Longitudinal profile on watershed of Mislea – Vǎrbilǎu

Fig. 8 Longitudinal profile on the heading Cosmina valley – Mislea Depression

The monoclinal structure relief is very adapted to this structure : obsequent,

well developed in the Pliocen and Quaternary
area south of the Mǎceșu Hill – Rotundu peak.
This develops in the conditions of an
alternating of layers different hardness (marls,
clay, sandstones, gravel, sandy clay). The
structural relief is characterized by large and
medium inclination slopes corresponding to the
fronts of cuesta or less appropriate
corresponding to the structural surfaces that
corresponds to the monoclinal. Characteristic
landforms are structural surfaces, angular and
linear cuesta, characteristic of the upper sector
of Mislea, Runcu, Telega and Doftǎneț valleys.
Typical of monoclical relief are the valleys
subsequent and consequent all this being in the
Mislea Basin.
The subsequent valleys are the front base of
cuesta influencing their evolution of these the
most important are: Doftǎneț valley in the
upper course and its tributaries R pa valley,
Cosmina in the middle sector. Most of these
valleys have torrential character due to marno –
clay and sandy facies.
The obsequent valleys are the most
numerous, but with the fastest development
characterizing the front of cuesta. Their
evolution leads through erosion processes to
withdrawal of the front of cuesta.

Fig. 9 Representation in block-diagram of hydrographic Mislea basin on base of numerical elevation model
(scale 1 : 25 000).
88 Georgian CĂTESCU, Raluca ALEXANDRU, Marius PAISA

Conclusion The monoclinal inclination of the layers of

The structural relief of Mislea Basin has
individualized on Paleocene, Mio – Pliocene
and Quaternary formations.
The relief on folded structure is developed
mostly in the northern sector and consists of a
series of anticline and syncline.
central - southern sector of the basin favourized
the appearance of monoclinical relief.
The evolution of hydrographic network and
modeling processes contributed to the
emergence derivative relief forms as cuesta,
structural surfaces, of obsequent, subsequent
and consequent valleys, syncline and anticline
valleys, subsequent depressions.

References

BADEA L., NICULESCU Gh. (1964), Harta morfostructurală dintre Slănicul Buzăului şi Cricovul Sărat. „St. şi cerc.
geogr.”, t. 11.
DINU Mihaela (1999), Subcarpaţii dintre Topolog şi Bistriţa Vâlcii, Editura Academiei.
ENE M., (2004), Bazinul hidrografic Râmnicu Sărat. Dinamica reliefului în sectoarele montan şi subcarpatic, Editura
Universitară, Bucureşti.
FILIPESCU M. G. (1934), Cercetari geologice între Valea Teleajenului si Valea Doftanei (Jud. Prahova), Tipografia
Curtii Regale F. Göbl Fii, Bucuresti.
GRECU Florina. (1992), Bazinul Hârtibaciu. Elemente de morfohidrografie, Editura Academiei Române.
HANGANU, E., (1966), Studiul stratigrafic al Pliocenului dintre văile Teleajen şi Prahova (regiunea Ploieşti).
St.Teh.Ec. Inst Geol., J, 2, 127 p., Bucureşti.
IELENICZ M. (1999), Reliefuri petrografice individualizate în regiunile dealurilor şi podişurilor României, Terra,
XXIX,
IELENICZ M., PĂTRU Ileana, GHINCEA Mioara (2003), Subcarpaţii României, Editura Universitară, Bucureşti.
POSEA Gr. (2002), Geomorfologia României, Editura Fundaţiei România de Mâine, Bucureşti.
MIHĂILESCU V. (1966), Dealurile şi câmpiile României, Edit. Ştiinţifică, Bucureşti.
MUTIHAC V. ( 1990 ), Geologia structurală a României, Edit. Tehnică, Bucureşti.
NICULESCU Gh. (1974), Subcarpaţii dintre Prahova şi Buzău. Caracterizare geomorfologică, SCGGG-G, XXI, 1.
NICULESCU GH. (2008) Subcarpații dintre Prahova și Buzǎu. Studiu geomorfologic sintetic, Edit. Acad. Române,
București.
* * * (1992), Geografia României, IV, Regiunile pericarpatice, Edit. Academiei, Bucureşti.
* * * (1963-1968), Harta geologică a R.S. România, sc. 1 : 200 000, foile Ploieşti (1967), Târgovişte (1968), IG,
București.

Main Author – University of Bucharest

Faculty of Geography
Simion Mehedinți Doctorate School
catescugeorgian@yahoo.com

Invest in human resources!

This work was supported by project: POSDRU/88/1.5/S/61150 “Doctoral Studies in the field of life and earth
sciences”, project co-financed through Sectorial Operational Program for the Development of Human Resources 2007-
2013 from European Social Fund.
 EA RC H C
ES E
R ASPECTS REGARDING TO ECOLOGICAL

N
TR
RECONSTRUCTION
E
TH

E
AT COPŞA MICĂ AREA

AN
MARIUS MIHAI PAISA*, RALUCA ALEXANDRU,
S
D
GE
L O

IC
MOD DEG O N AN M
A
GEORGIAN CĂTESCU
I
RP H RADAT DY N
L OGIC AL

Keywords: anthropic changes, renaturation, rehabilitation, ecological reconstruction, hyperaccumulators.

Abstract: This paper analyzes an important environmental problem: the heavy metal pollution in Copşa
Mică, a small town in Transylvania, which was considered to be one of the five worst polluted industrial
sites of the communist world. The main purpose is to present the principles and methods for
rehabilitation and ecological reconstruction of anthropogenic altered area. Classical methods cannot be
applied because of high cost.
Another possibility would be the phytoremediation, especially phytoextraction of these metals, but
this requires a very long time and the range of hyperaccumulators existing in Romania is very narrow. In
this aspect, there are many researches on finding affordable materials with low price, which are able to
immobilize great amounts of heavy metals. How long it will take for the soil to flush out its heavy metals
from farmlands is not known.

Introduction Generally, soil remediation are based on

Human activities have introduced numerous
potential hazardous trace elements into the
environment since the industrial growth. The
intensive use of waste water irrigation, sewage
sludge, pesticide and emissions from vehicle
exhausts, mining, smelting and the rapid
development of industries without effective
control has resulted in a large accumulation of
heavy metals in soil .
Heavy metal pollution of soils is an
increasingly urgent problem all over the world.
Heavy metals, unlike organic contaminants, are
generally immutable, not degradable and
persistent in soil . Although soils have a natural
capacity to attenuate the bioavailability and the
movement of metals through them by means of
different mechanisms (precipitation, adsorption
process and redox reactions), when the
concentrations of heavy metals become too
high to allow the soil to limit their potential
effects, contaminants can be mobilized,
resulting in serious contamination of
agricultural products or ground water. It is
necessary to take action to remediate polluted
soils.
two approaches: removal/extraction of the
heavy metals from the matrix by electrokinetic
and/or “washing” processes which are
characterized by high costs and laborious
management or reduction of metal mobility
with “in situ” techniques such as phytoremediation
(Lambert, Green, 2004) .
The town of Copşa Mică is situated in the
Northwestern part of Sibiu County, at the
crossing of the Târnava Mare and Visa rivers
(Fig. 1). The settlement extends on both sides
of the valley corridor and it belongs to
Dealurile Şoalei region. The Târnava Mare and
Visa valleys are creating a large corridor,
borderd by Târnava Mare Cuesta. Following
this corridor the air masses are channeld,
spreading the pollution all over the area
including the settlement. This phenomenon
occurs mostly along the corridor and less on the
adiacent interflows. In the same time the high
frecvency air flow along with medium altitudes,
slope fragmentation, urban topography and
multiple-store buidings are decreasing the
speed of air masses and contribuing to the
ceasement and accumulation of the pollutans
(Grecu, Niţă, Comănescu, 2003).
90 Marius Mihai PAISA, Raluca ALEXANDRU, Georgian CĂTESCU
Fig. 1 Location of the study area within Sibiu County (Romania)
Polution in the study area was almost
entirely caused by two factories : Carbosin
(wich produced carbon black for dies and tires
from 1936 until 1993) and Sometra (a non-
ferrous smelter plant that used ecological
hazardous technologies, being officially closed
in 2009).
The Copşa Mică plant initially produced
zinc for industrial purposes and was
modernized on various occasions over the years
(1950, 1960, 1967, 1975, 1984), including the
addition of a lead production unit. From this
point forward, the fate of the town was sealed,
eventually becoming Europe’s most polluted
location until the nuclear accident of Chernobyl.
SC SOMETRA SA was privatized in 1998
with the majority ownership going to the Greek
holding company, MYTILINEOS. Concurrently
with the plant’s privatization, a Conforming
Program was adopted. Article 11 of the
Program stipulated that the SOMETRA plant
should finance the stabilization of the right
branch of the Târnava Mare River through the
planting of trees on an area of 40 to 50 hectares
and the rehabilitation of the destroyed forest
ecosystem. Indeed, between 2002 and 2003, 35
hectares were planted using company funds.
The Conforming Program continues
through the Integrated Environment
Authorization, which covers the period from
2006 through 2011, and which contains an
action plan targeting both reduction of pollution
and ecological reconstruction.
Data analysis and evaluation
From a pedological point of view, the area is
characterized by acid soils which brings
forward the humidity excess and the retention
of the pollutans, however the soils in the river
meadow area are less acid allowing a more
intense vertical movement of water and
pollutans. The soil analysis from the Târnava
Mare river banks and sorrounding areas of
Copşa Mică reveal that the lead and cadmium
concentations are exceding by far the admitted
limits (Raport Starea Mediului, 2008-2010,
ARPM Sibiu) (Fig. 2) .
Beginning in the 1960’s, as the local
government became aware of the effects of
industrial pollution on soil and forests, areas
containing affected arboricultural zones
increased continuously. The rhythmic expansion
of polluted areas and associated intensity of the
pollution proceeded slowly at first, but then
grew more and more aggressive.
Beginning in 1961 the pollution
phenomenon had barely begun, covering
approximately 100 hectares located only in the
tree-covered area surrounding the pollution
sources. Five years later the affected area had
grown to cover over 5000 hectares. The last
two inspections of the forest range show that
almost the entire forest of the Mediaş Forest
Range was affected by pollution. Therefore,
the entire forest zone around Copşa Mică
exposed to pollution was larger than 30.000
hectares.
 Aspects Regarding to Ecological Reconstruction at Copşa Mică Area 91

Fig. 2 Levels of lead and cadmium concentration in Copşa Mică and surrounding villages

As far as the effect of heavy soil pollution
on plantings is concerned, such endeavors have
a very small chance for growth, if any, without
the assistance of special measures such as
mending, fertilizers, etc., which, in turn,
increase costs substantially. One very clear
example of the difficulties is reflected in the
reforestation efforts of 1994 to 1998. Even
when all assistance measures were applied, the
success percentage varied from 12% and 95%
with not one portion resulting in a complete
success. The effort, necessary for success, and
respectively, the risks of failure, are even larger
if soil erosion or landslides are included in the
picture.
Under the influence of certain factors –
steep slopes, fragile petrographic under layers,
alternating layers of various rock types, a lack
of water in the soil etc. – strong damage to, or
total disappearance of, the forest is the final
link in the chain reaction of degradation. In
addition to pollution, forest fires and
agricultural malpractice have sped up the
process of forest degradation.
The ecological disaster could be detected as
a large black stain on the satellite pictures taken
in 1986 (Fig. 3). Today, the Copşa Mică area is
presented as a clean area in the UN Atlas of
The World Environment Day. This is due to the
Romanian foresters efforts, especially those
from Sibiu, for the environmental reconstruction
of the most damaged areas from the ecological
point of view.
Ecological reconstruction
The ecological reconstruction through
reforestation covered an area of intense
pollution in the surroundings of Copşa Mică
totaling 644 hectares, from which 470 hectares
are within the forest range and 174 hectares
represent reconstructive efforts outside the
forest range (Fig. 4).
Ecological reconstruction took place on
degraded forested areas as well as areas owned
by various landowners where assembled
reconstruction occurred in precisely outlined
plots according to current legislation in force.

Fig. 3 Satellite images of Copşa Mică area within the period 1986-2004-2010
92 Mihai Marius PAISA, Raluca ALEXANDRU, Georgian CĂTESCU

TYPE OF Inside forestry fund Outside forestry fund

UM Total
WORK 1988-1998 1999-2008 Total 1993-1996 1997-2008 Total
Integral
ha 168 302 470 68 106 174 644
plantations

Fig. 4 Ecological reconstruction in the Mediaş Forest Range between 1988-2008

accacia, undebrush, silverberry, common

Fig. 5 Surface near Sometra in wich vegetation is
starting to regenerate
The folowing measurements need to be
taken for the ecological reconstruction to be
succesful:
- Undertaking ecological restoration
activitie of the polluted areas by controlling
erosion and landslides and by planting wodden
species resistent to present pollution (willow,
hawthron);
- Growing pollution resistent species
preferably the kind that is capable to perform
phytoextraction (corn, cabbage, juniper, poplar
etc.);
- Rendering impervious the taluses by
covering them with clay or fertile soils or by
creating a vegetal cover;
- Applying well fermented organics
fertilizers in order to alleviate soil pollution
effects .
The Sibiu Forestry Department continues
the process of ecological reconstruction of the
heavily polluted state-owned forested areas
through a project of ecological reconstruction,
financed through the state budget, which
stipulates reforestation of 30.8 hectares
combined with the careful tending of the same
land area (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6 Different stages of the ecological reconstruction in the area of study (Photos : Sibiu Forestry Department)
 Aspects Regarding to Ecological Reconstruction at Copşa Mică Area 93

Conclusions action to collaborate in order to obtain local,

Success in the process of ecological
reconstruction ultimately depends on the
application of all the requirements for
environment protection trough rehabilitation of
production lines and the installation of
nonpolluting equipment at SC Sometra SA in
order to reduce the toxic emanations to levels
below the imposed limit. The newly created
forests will have consideration for the end use
of the resultant timber. In order to continue the
ecological reconstruction of the affected area it
is imperious for everybody involved in this
national and (most important) international funds.
Based on three decades of experience in the
fight for reforestation within the industrial
pollution zone and the planting of new forests
in the Copşa Mică area, we can state that,
through constant reduction of toxic emanations
from their source, mainly sulfur dioxide, as has
occurred since 1990, there are viable solutions
for reintroducing vegetation in the majority of
the perimeters which, in the past, faced long
and intense pollution. It must be kept in mind,
however, that the respective solutions result
from both high effort and costs.

REFERENCES

ALEXA B., COTÂRLEA I., BĂRBĂTEI R., (2005), Poluarea pădurilor din Ocolul Silvic Mediaş şi lucrările de
recosntrucţie ecologică realizate, Editura Constant, Sibiu;
COMANESCU LAURA, NEDELEA A., PAISA M., (2010), Soil pollution with heavy metals in the area of Copşa
Mică town-Geographical considerations, Metalurgia International, vol.XV, no.4 ;
GEANANA M., OPREA R., SĂVULESCU I., (2005) , Geografia solurilor, ed. A II-a, Edit. Credis, București.
GRECU FLORINA, NIŢĂ SILVIA, COMĂNESCU LAURA, (2003), Semnificaţia geomorfologică a poziţiei
geografice a oraşului şi impactul asupra mediului. Studiu de caz: Copşa Mică, Revista de Geomorfologie, nr.
4-5, Editura Universităţii, Bucureşti;
LAMBERT M., GREEN R.M., (2004), New methods of cleaning up heavy metal in soil and water, Hazardous
substance research centers, New Jersey;
PAISA, M., (2008), Poluarea cu metale grele în arealul Copşa Mică, Lucrare de disertație, Universitatea din
Bucureşti.
***, (2006), Raport la studiu de impact pentru SCSometra, S.A., Copșa Mică, Institutul Național pentru Securitate și
protecție Antiexplozivă.
***, (2008), Raport starea mediului 2004-2008, ARPM, Sibiu.

*Main Author – University of Bucharest

Faculty of Geography
Simion Mehedinți Doctorate School
Mea_mde@yahoo.com
 EA RC H C
ES E
R THE GEOMORPHOMETRIC ANALYSIS.

N
TR
CASE STUDIES IN DRAINAGE BASINS
E
TH

E
REPRESENTATIVE
AS RELIEF
AN
S
D
GE
L O

IC
MOD DEG O N AN M
A
MARIA ALBU (DINU), DANIELA VLAD,
I
RP H RADAT DY N
L OGIC AL GEORGIAN CĂTESCU

Key words: hydrographic basin, relief, morphometry,hydrographic network hierarchy, evolution.

Abstract: This paper has as objective the comparative study of the rivers network belonging to three
drainage basins located in partial different morphogenetic conditions:
- Eşelniţa drainage basin, located in the mountain area of Banatului Mountains, Danube Defile;
- Mislea drainage basin having a Subcarpathian relief and plain relief;
- Călmăţuiul deTeleorman drainage basin, with plain relief, main drainage in Danube.
The analysis is based on morphometric method, the ranking of the drainage network in Horton –
Strahler system, elaboration of morphometric models, graphic and cartographic representation. The
specific targets are: identification of common particularities as well as the particularities of diversification
of the drainage network; check of some principles; explaining of the effects in relief dynamics, caused by
the morphometric elements expressed by means of certain indexes or parameters which are common to
drainage basins.
The size orders of the basins are 5 (Călmăţui, Eşelniţa) and 6 (Mislea), drained surfaces are 1375 km2 –
Călmăţui, 77 km2 – Eşelniţa and 175.6 km2 – Mislea). Although under different morphogenetic
conditions, the principles of the number of river segments,of summarized lengths, of average lengths as
well the ones of surfaces, perimeters and inclines are checked. The performance index (109 % Eşelniţa,
73 % Mislea, 98% Călmăţui) and the confluence ration vary from of one basin to another, being
influenced by dynamic factors (geology and tectonics, morphometry, basis level, hydrogeology, climate
conditions), proving their significance for the purpose of emphasizing the dynamics and the evolution of
the relief of a drainage basin (Grecu, 2004). The plain basins, such as Călmăţuiul, has a performance
degree quite high for its size grade, as well as high confluence ratio (6,54), as the cause consists in
elements of hydrogeological and geologic nature. Related to relief units, the density of drainage has
corresponding values, the highest values for mountain area, average values for hill areas and small areas
for plain areas.

1. Introduction Teleajen, having a surface of 175.6 km2 and

The study intends to perform a morphometric
analysis of three drainage basins located under
different morphogenetic condition. The main
objective consists in emphasizing some own
characteristics of each basin, resulted from
geographical position, geological and
geomorphological particularities.
2. Study area
The analyzed basins are: a) Eşelniţa located in
mountain area of Almăj, having a surface of 77
km2, b) Mislea located in Subcarpathian area of
c) Călmăţuiul teleormănean located in
Boianului plain, having a surface much bigger
as the other two basins, 1 375 km2 ( fig. 1).
Eşelniţa Basin is located on the south-
eastern side of Almăjului Mountains,
presenting a multistage arrangement between
the maximum altitude of 1107 m and the
minimal altitude of 64 m, at the confluence
with Danube, therefore having a level
difference of 1043 m. The basin has a surface
of 77 km2 and has a 5th degree hydrographic
network according to Horton-Strahler ranking
system, tributary to Danube by means of
Eşelniţa main collector (fig. 5).
96 Maria ALBU (DINU), Daniela VLAD, Georgian CĂTESCU

Dunarea

Fig. 1. The position of the analyzed basins in the country

 The Geomorphometry Analysis. Case Studies in Drainage Basins Representative as Relief
Fig. 2. Eşelniţa hydrographic basin in the central
course
Fig. 3. Mislea hydrographic basin in the lower course
Fig. 4. Călmăţui hydrographic basin in the lower
course
The geological components within Eşelniţa
basin belong to Danube Field (Bercia E.,
Bercia I., 1975), having a crystalline bed
consisting in crystalline schist represented by
crystalline of Poiana Mraconiei, crystalline of
Neamţu and crystalline of Corbu (Gunnesch K.,
97
Gunnesch M., 1978), eruptive rocks
represented by two granitoidic massifs with
intrusive character, inferior Paleozoic age:
granite body of Cherbelezu having a northern
development within the basin and granite body
of Ogradena (Mutihac V., Ionesi L. 1974). The
sedimentation formations arranged on the
crystalline bed do not cover a major surface, as
in the north-western area of the basin there may
be found formations belonging to inferior
Jurassic (conglomerates, sandstones, argillaceous
schist and coals) and in southern area of the
basin there are major sedimentary deposits
belonging to Neogene (marl, gravel,
organogene limestone) and Quaternary (gravel
and sands), belonging to Orşova Depression
and whose presence is connected to Danube’s
evolution.
Mislea Basin totally overlaps Teleajen
Subcarpathians, a sub-unit of Prahovei
Subcarpahians, having an area of 175,6 km2.
According to Horton – Strahler ranking system,
the basin is a 6th degree basin. The maximum
altitude is found in Măceşu Hill (815 m) and
the minimum altitude is found at the confluence
with Teleajen river (207 m), so that the level
difference is 610 m (fig. 6). From the
geological point of view, Mislea Basin overlaps
the individualized Carpathian sandstone as a
result of Moldavian movements in Sarmatian,
cropping out between the external tectonic line
and the Pericarpathian tectonic line (V.
Mutihac, 1990).
The bed is mixed consisting in external
flysch (marl-sandy Paleogene) at the contact
with the mountain and Proterozoic platform
crystalline with Neogene sedimentation
belonging to lower part of basin. The oldest
deposits are found in the basin belonging to
Paleogene, in the northern part of the region,
consisting in marl-sandy facies. The Miocene
aged deposits belong to central and eastern part
of the basin and are represented by: clay, marl,
sands and sandstones. In the southern sector,
along the main valleys (Cosmina, Mislea,
Doftăneţ and Telega) are found Pliocene and
Quaternary deposits, consisting in sands, marls,
gravel and clay.
98 Maria ALBU (DINU), Daniela VLAD, Georgian CĂTESCU

Fig. 5. Eşelniţa hydrographic basin

Călmăţui of Teleorman Basin is developed
within a relief of piedmont plain, sculpted in
loess deposits of Pleistocene age, consisting in
“Frăteşti Layers” of St. Prestian age (E.
Liteanu, 1961, P. Enciu, 2007). The
nonconformity between the Romaniene
deposits and Frăteşti Layers is caused by the
erosion bed of Paleo-Danube, in cone-delta
phase, after getting out from defile (E. Liteanu,
C. Ghenea, 1967). The altitudes are slightly
decreasing on NNW-SSE direction, from 163,5
m, in northern part of the basin to 20 m, at the
inflow in Suhaia Lake, presenting therefore a
level difference of only 143,5 m, and according
to Horton-Strahlerranking system, the basin is a
5th degree basin (fig. 7).
The Geomorphometry Analysis. Case Studies in Drainage Basins Representative as Relief 99

Fig. 6. Mislea hydrographic basin

100 Maria ALBU (DINU), Daniela VLAD, Georgian CĂTESCU

Fig. 7. Călmăţui hydrographic basin

Being located in different relief units, morphometric characteristics and implicitly

the analyzed drainage basins have different different morphogenetic conditions:
 The Geomorphometry Analysis. Case Studies in Drainage Basins Representative as Relief
Table 1. Morphometric characteristics of the three analyzed basins
The Maximum
Hydrographic Surface
order altitude
basin Km2
size m m
Eşelniţa 77 5 1107
Mislea 176 6 815
Călmăţui 1375 5 163
3. Data and methods
The measurements for this cartographic
analysis have been made using topographic
maps at 1:25000 scale, georeferentiated, using
the ArcGis-ArcMap software in 1970
Stereographic projection. For the purpose of
extracting the temporary and permanent
hydrographic network, there has been taken
into consideration the elimination of errors
consisting in including a river segment which is
not checked on the field or the omission of
external segment from the map. For analysing
the three basins, we have used the ranking
method of the hydrographic network in a basin,
in the form proposed by Horton (1945) and
completed by Strahler (1952), (quoted by
Grecu, 2003). Subsequently, the data have been
processed and analyzed using the Office Excel
software and there have been made
comparisons.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Analysis of drainage model for Eşelniţa
basin
In case of Eşelniţa basin, there has been
identified a total number of segments of 919
and as a result of totalizing the number of
segments having the same degree (in Horton –
Strahler ranking). there has been obtained an
array of 5 values. These values have been
represented in semi-logarithmic coordinates
and it has resulted a straight-line. The obtained
data observe the principle of number of river
segments indicating that: “the number of river
segments of successively increasing degrees
tends to form a decreasing geometric
progressing, wherein the first term N1 is the
101
Minimum Average Average Course
altitude altitude slope length
m % km
70 588, 5 35,4 26
205 396 18,7 29,5
20 104 1,75 139
number of 1st degree rivers and the ratio is the
confluence ratio Rc“, (I. Zăvoianu, 1978, Fl.
Grecu, 1980). The real number of 1st degree
valley segments (736) is exceeded by the ideal
one (933.2), therefore favouring the formation
of segments of higher degrees. The real number
of 2nd degree segments (142), is lower than the
one of calculated segments (172. 8), indicating
a sufficient share of segments of this degree, so
there is a surplus of 2nd degree tributaries. The
1st and 2nd degree segments are the most
numerous ones and the 2nd degree segments are
more uniformly distributed within the entire
surface of the basin. The real value of 3rd
degree segments (32) coincides with the ideal
value (32), indicating a balance in comparison
to the situation of the previous segments. The
4th degree real segments (8) are slightly over
made in comparison to the ideal ones (5.92),
the biggest share belongs to Frasinului, Cusa
and Criviţa Valleys. As the 5th degree real
segment regards (1) represented by Eşelniţa
river, formed at the upper course by uniting two
4th degree tributaries, one of them resulting
from the confluence of Vulpea Mare with
Vulpea Micǎ Valleys and the real segment
(1.09), there may be stated that there is a
balance in case of the highest degree segment
providing also the basin degree.
Eşelniţa basin is slightly over made from
the point of view of number of segments with
Ir = 109%, especially caused by the significant
branching degree (Rc = 5,4), from superior
segment. There is noticed a slight deviation
from the number of segments of 4th degree
segments, represented by eight valleys. In case
of totalized lengths RL =2.3, there is
established a deviation of 5th degree segment
(20,5 km), having a value much higher than the
totalized value of 4th degree segments, so that it
102 Maria ALBU (DINU), Daniela VLAD, Georgian CĂTESCU
does not observe the decreasing sense of
progression and therefore the basin has the
performance degree of only 30%. As the
average lengths regards, the ratio rl is 5,5 and
the performance degree is 147%, indicating that
the basin is over made, which is contrary to the
situation previously found in case of totalized
lengths. The rocks which are more resistant to
corrosion, such as the crystalline ones, do not
allow an easy erosive action, so that the average
lengths of the 1st degree segments have a
totalized length of only 0.3 km.
4.2. Analysis of drainage model for Mislea
basin
The morphometric analysis indicates that from
the 1793 thalwegs existing within Mislea
drainage basin, 1395 are 1st degree thalwegs,
322 segments are 2nd degree segments, 61
segments are 3rd degree segments, 11 segments
are 4th degree segments, 3 segments are 5th
degree segments and 1 segment is a 6th degree
segment. As a result of analyzing the map of
ranking the hydrographic network, there is
established that the highest density of the
hydrographic network may be found in the
superior and middle basin of Cosmina river and
at Doftăneţ - Cosmina–Mislea confluence. The
decrease of the number of river segments upon
passing from the superior and middle sector to
the inferior sector (corresponding to Mislea
depression) is connected to decrease of relief
energy being lower than 50 m. The high
number of 3rd (61), 4th (11), 5th (3) degree river
segments is explained by the circular form of
the basin, allowing the formation of a larger
number of segments of inferior degree and
because of tectonics and friability of rocks.
Mislea drainage basinis under made from
the point of view of the number of segments
with a performance degree (Ir) of 73%,
indicated that the basin is not totally made, as
there is the trend to branch without changing its
size grade. From the point of view of totalized
lengths, the basin is far from being made, its
performance degree being 47 %, as the real
length of the 6th degree segment is 7,46 higher
than the calculated value. The performance
degree of the average lengths is 45 % in case of
Mislea basin. Note that the average lengths of
segments of 5th degree segments presents a
deviation from the average of the lengths of
law,the average length of these being greater
than the 6th degree segment. The ratio rl is only
0,66 and the average length of the 1st degree
segments is 0,31 km.
4.3. Analysis of drainage model for Călmăţui
basin
The total number of segments belonging to
Călmăţuiului basin is 1731. Among these, the
1st and 2nd degree segments are the most
numerous ones (2nd degree is represented by
258 segments and the 1st degree is represented
by 1426 segments), short and have a torrential
character. Their transversal profile is
corresponds to a very widely open V profile,
presenting versants with soft inclinations. The
3rd degree is represented by 42 segments, have
shorter lengths and are direct tributaries of
Călmăţuiului or of other 4th degree segments
and by unifying the two 4th degree segments
(Călmăţuiul and Călmăţuiul Sec), it results the
5th degree segment. Călmăţuiul telormănean
basin is almost made from the point of view of
the number of segments, performance degree
Ir = 98%. The ratio value Rc = 6,4 is quite high
for the plain area, indicating both the presence
of positive neotectonic movements in the
region as well as the fact that the drainage basin
did not reach yet the maturity stage, as the
relief is still subject to erosion and
fragmentation (G. Desiderio, T. Nanni, S. Rusi,
2003). From the point of view of average
lengths, the basin is under made, Ir being 66%,
indicating the fact that the basin’s evolution did
not reach yet the maturity stage. The ratio rl is
3,24 and we have to remark the average length
of the 1st degree segment, reaching the value of
0,7 km, being double in comparison to the other
two analyzed basins.
 The Geomorphometry Analysis. Case Studies in Drainage Basins Representative as Relief 103

Table 2. The data for the morphometric drainage model

Hydrographic

performance
The order size

index %
basin

The
Parameter mm/c R Ratio
1 2 3 4 5 5 66

Number of mm 736 142 32 8 1 - RRc =

river cc 933.12 172.8 32 5.92 1.09 - 5.4 109
segments N
Totalized mm 227.7 70.4 32.5 9.2 20.5 - RRL =
Eşelnița lengths L 2.3 30
(km) cc 171.92 74.75 32.5 14.13 6.14 -

Average mm 0.3 0.5 1 1.2 20.5 - rrl =5.5

lenthsl (km) 147
cc 0.03 0.18 1 5.5 30.25 -

Number of mm 1395 322 61 11 3 1 RRc =

river 4.36
segments N cc 1159.58 265.96 61 13.99 3.20 0.73 73

Totalized mm 445.09 156.28 60.24 48.44 36.5 7.46 RRL=

Mislea lengths L 2.57 47
(km) cc 397.87 154.81 60.24 23.43 9.12 3.54

Average mm 0.31 0.48 0.98 4.40 12.16 7.46 rrl =

lenths l (km) 0.66 45
cc 0.42 0.64 0.98 1.48 2.24 3.40
Number of mm 1426 258 42 4 1 - RRc =
river 6.54 98
segments N cc 1796.40 274.68 42 6.42 0.98 -

Totalized mm 1003.29 320.29 192.79 152.77 74.84 - RRL=

lengths L 2.02 63
(km) cc 647.89 320.29 192.79 95.44 47.25 -
Călmăţui
Average mm 0.70 1.24 4.69 38.10 74.84 - rrl =
lenths l (km) 3.24 66
cc 0.45 1.44 4.69 15.20 49.25 -

Fig. 8. a, b and c. The drainage model for Eşelniţa, Mislea and Călmăţui basins
104 Maria ALBU (DINU), Daniela VLAD, Georgian CĂTESCU
The preparation of the morphometric model
of surfaces for the three analyzed basins was
obtained on the basis of the number of river
segments or number of basins of different size
grades, totalized surfaces and average surfaces.
For the purpose of establishing the surfaces of
the drainage basins of different size grades
within each analyzed basin, there have been
delimited the water levels and there has been
made the planimetry for each size grade,
resulting therefore a 5 values array for Eşelniţa
and Cǎlmǎtui basins and a 6 values array for
Mislea basin. The values obtained in this way
establish the Principle of totalized surfaces:
“the totalized surfaces of drainage basins of
successively increasing degree tend to form a
geometric progression, wherein the first term is
provided by the totalized surface of 1st degree
basins ( P1 ) and the ratio (RP) is resulted from
the ratio of totalized surfaces”, (quoted
Zavoianu, 1978).
The progression ratio for the three basins
was obtained by using the formula:
= ,
after Grecu F., Palmentola G., 2003
Model of perimeters is provided by the
principle of number of river segments, by the
principle of totalized perimeters and by the
principle of average parameters. On the
topographical map there have been delimited
the water levels of basins of different degree;
afterwards, they have been measured for each
degree and by totalizing them there was
obtained a 5 values array for Eşelniţa and
Cǎlmǎtui basins and a 6 values array for
Mislea. Principle of perimeters indicates that
“the sum of perimeters of basins of different
successively increasing degrees form a
decreasing geometric progression, having as
first term the sum of 1st degree perimeters (P1),
and as ratio (RP), the ratio of the sum of
perimeters of two adjacent terms.”,(quoted
from Grecu F., Palmentola G., 2003):
= .
By dividing the sum of perimeters to
number of basins of each degree, there may be
calculated the average perimeter. The values
array obtained in this way for each basin
confirms the Principle of average perimeters
indicating the fact that “the average perimeter
of successive degree basins form an increasing
geometric progression having as first term the
average perimeter of 1st degree basins (p1) and
as ratio (rp), the ratio of these perimeters”,
(Zavoianu I., 1978, quoted by Grecu F.,1992 ).
The ratio of progression representing the ratio
of two adjacent terms has been calculated for
Eşelniţa, Mislea and Cǎlmǎtui drainage basins
using the formula:
= .
For preparing the model of average level
differences, there has been identified the
number of river segments of successive
degrees, there has been calculated the sum of
level differences and the average of level
differences for each basin. In case of the model
of average level differences, there must be
established the maximum and minimum
altitudes within the basins of different degrees
so that subsequently there is obtained the
product of the difference between their values
using the formula:
ΔH =
Principle of average level differences
emphasizes that “the rivers of successively
increasing degrees tend to form an increasing
geometric progression, whose first term is the
value of average level differences of 1st degree
rivers”(quoted from Grecu F., Comanescu L.,
1998) . The ratio is indicated by the ratio
between two adjacent terms and was obtained
using the formula (after Grecu F., Comănescu
L., 1998):
= .
Inclinations model results from the ratio
between the length or surfaces parameters and
the level differences. The average inclination of
the surface of each three analyzed basins was
obtained using the formula (after Grecu F.,
1992):
= .
As a result of analyzing the values obtained
for courses of different degrees, there may be
applied the formula of principle of average
inclination “the average inclinations of the
river segments of successively increasing
 The Geomorphometry Analysis. Case Studies in Drainage Basins Representative as Relief
degrees tend to form a decreasing geometric
progression, wherein the first term is indicated
by the inclinations of the first degree segments,
and the ratio
Table 3. Parameters calculated on the basis of drainage data for analyzed basins
Hydrographic Frequency of
basin elementary
thalwegs N1/F
Eşelniţa 9.56
Mislea 7.94
Călmăţui 1.04
4.4. Check of principles of totalized
surfaces, perimeters, level differences and
average inclinations for analyzed basins
The totalized surfaces of Mislea (102 %),
Călmăţui (108 %) and Eşelniţa (91 %) basins
are made and their ratio (Rs) presents closed
values in all three analyzed basin, carrying
between 0.77 and 1.21. In case of Eşelniţa and
Mislea basins, there are established small
deviations from the semi-logarithmic straight-
line of totalized 3rd and 4th degree surfaces,
because there is a large number of 1st and 2nd
degrees segments directly tributary to 5th degree
segment. Also in case of Călmăţuiului, there are
noticed deviations from this straight-line in
case of 4th degree basin, because of their small
extension in comparison with the 3rd degree
which are more numerous and are collected in
5th degree segment, so that the surfaces existing
between basins are quite large in case of 4th
degree under-basins. By reporting the measured
values of the totalized surfaces to the number of
basins of different size grades, it results a new
progression, the one of average surfaces. Their
ratio has high values, varying between 5.0 and
8.5 , and the performance degree is 109 % for
Eşelniţa, 110 % for Călmăţui and 141 % for
Mislea. Eşelnita and Mislea basins have low
values in case of average surfaces because of
accentuated fragmentation degree causing their
extension in case of each degree, the increasing
of totalized surfaces and the diminishing of
spaces between basins.
Both the principle of totalized perimeters as
well as the principle of average perimeters
105
( ) is indicated by the average ratio of
inclinations of different degrees or by the
proportion of ratios of the two involved arrays
( = )”,
(after Zavoianu I., 2007).
Incipient Total Drainage density
Torrentiality Torrentiality L tot./F
L1/F (L1+L2)/F
2.96 3.87 4.68
2.53 3.42 4.29
0.73 1.03 1.27
observe without major deviations and the ratio
Rp has very closed values in case of the three
basins (1.9 – Eşelniţa, 1.95 – Mislea and 2.11 –
Călmăţui ). From the principle of average level
differences, the greatest deviation is noticed in
case of 4th degree segments belonging to
Eşelniţa basin, whose value is lower than the
one of 2nd and 3rd degrees segments.
In case of the three analyzed basins, the
principle of average inclinations is observed;
only in case of Călmăţui basin, there is noticed
a non-significant deviation from the straight-lie
defined by calculated values, of 4th degree
segments, for which the measured values of the
average inclinations are lower than the
calculated ones.
In case of analyzed basins, there is
established that the principle regarding the
density of drainage (Dd) is observed, in the
sense that the density of drainage has high
values in mountain and hill areas (4,68 km/km²
in Eşelniţa basin, respective 4,29 km/km² in
Mislea basin) and lower values in case of basin
located in plain areas, (1,27 km/km² - Călmăţui).
The incipient torrentiality (Grecu, 1997 ) is
high and is getting close to the value of 3
km/km² in case of Eşelniţa basin, exceeds the
value of 2,5 km/km² in case of Mislea basin and
is below 1 km/km² in case of Călmăţui basin.
The total torrentiality (Grecu, 1997) is
getting close to the value of 4 km/km² in case
of Eşelniţa basin, 3,5 km/km² in case of Mislea
basin and is 1 km/km² in case of Călmăţui
basin. The low values of torrentiality, specific
to plain area, is owed both to small inclinations
106 Maria ALBU (DINU), Daniela VLAD, Georgian CĂTESCU

as well as to high degree of permeability of
loess and loess deposits covering the surface of
the basin.
5. Conclusions
The principle of number of river segments, of
totalized lengths, of average lengths, of
surfaces, perimeters and inclinations proves to
apply in case of three analyzed basins, although
they have different morphogenetic conditions.
The geology, tectonics, morphometry, basis
level, hydrogeology and climate conditions
play an essential role regarding the dynamics
and evolution of the relief of a drainage basin,
this relation being emphasized by the
performance index and the confluence ration
varying from one basin to another basin (ex.
Eşelniţa basin has the highest degree of
performance (109 %) and a high confluence
ratio (Rc = 5.4), being followed by Călmăţui
basin having also a high performance degree
(98%), as well as the highest value of the
confluence ratio (Rc =6,54), while Mislea basin
has the smallest performance degree (73%) and
the lowest confluence ratio (Rc = 4,36).
As the drainage density regards, it has
values corresponding to relief forms. Therefore,
the highest value apply for mountains (4,68
km/kmp in Eşelniţa basin ), the average values
apply for hill (4,29 km/kmp in Mislea basin)
and the smallest values of this parameter apply
for plain, (only 1,27 km/kmp in Călmăţui
basin), where in because of the drainage
insufficiency, there are settling processes in
loess, leading to formation of tablelands.
Invest in human resources!
This work was supported by project:
POSDRU/88/1.5/S/61150 “Doctoral Studies in
the field of life and earth sciences”, project co-
financed through Sectorial Operational
Program for the Development of Human
Resources 2007-2013 from European Social
Fund.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BERCIA E., BERCIA I., (1975), Formațiunile cristaline din sectorul românesc al Dunării (Banat-Carpații
Meridionali), Anuarul Instit. de Geologie și Geofizică, vol. XLIII, Bucureşti.
COMĂNESCU L., (2004), Bazinul morfohidrografic Casimcea. Studiu geomorfologic, EdituraUniversitatii din Bucureşti.
ENCIU P. (2007), Pliocenul şi cuaternarul din vestul Bazinului Dacic. Stratigrafie şi evoluţie paleogeografică, Ed.
Academiei, Bucureşti.
GRECU FL., (1980), Modelulmorfometric al lungimiireţelei de râuri din bazinul Hârtibaciului, St. cerc. geol., geofiz.,
geogr., Geografie, t.XXVII, nr. 2, București.
GRECU FL., (1992), Bazinul Hârtibaciului. Elemente de morfohidrografie, Editura Academiei, Bucureşti.
GRECU FL., (1997), Fenomene naturale de risc (geologice și geomorfologice ), EdituraUniversitatiiBucuresti.
GRECU FL., ZĂVOIANU, I., (1997), Bazinulmorfohidrografic, Rev. de geomorfologie, Nr. 1, Bucuresti.
GRECU FL., COMANESCU L.,(1998), Studiul reliefului – Îndrumător pentru lucrări practice, EdituraUniversitatii
din Bucuresti, Bucuresti.
GRECU FL., PALMENTOLA, G., (2003), Geomorfologiedinamică, Ed. Tehnică, Bucureşti.
GRECU FL., (2004), Quantification of some elements of drainage basins in Romania, GeografiaFisica e Dinamica
Quaternaria, vol . 25.
GUNNESCH K., GUNNESCH M., (1978), Formatiunile cristalofiliene din sud-estul Muntilor Almajului, St. cerc.
geol., geofiz., geogr. Seria Geol, Tom. 23, Ed. Academiei, Bucureşti.
LITEANU E., GHENEA C. (1967), Harta neotectonică a României, Studii tehnice şi economice, Seria H, nr. 3, Bucureşti.
MUTIHACV., IONESI, L., (1974), Geologia României, Ed.Tehnică, București.
MUTIHAC V., ( 1990 ), Geologia structurală a României, Edit. Tehnică, Bucureşti .
ZĂVOIANU I., (1978), Morfometria bazinelor hidrografice, Editura Academiei, București.
ZAVOIANU I., (2007), Caracteristici morfometrice ale rețelei hidrografice din bazinul Slănicul Buzăului, Analele
Universității Spiru Haret, Seria Geografie, nr. 10, București.
*** (1976, 1977), Hartile topografice militare, scara 1 : 25000, editia a II-a, Editate de Ministerul Apărării Naționale al
Rep. Soc. România, Direcția Topografică Militară, București.
*** (1968), Harta geologică, scara 1 : 200000, Comitetul de Stat al Geologiei, Institutul Geologic, București.

University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography

albu_maria@yahoo.com, vladdaniela82@yahoo.com, catescugeorgian@yahoo.com
 EA RC H C
ES E
R

N
TR
AMENAJĂRILE HIDROTEHNICE DE PE RÂUL
E
TH

E
ARGEȘ: ÎNTRE NECESITATE ENERGETICĂ ȘI
IMPACT ASUPRA RELIEFULUI
AN
S
D
GE
L O

IC
MOD DEG O N AN M
A
REMUS PRĂVĂLIE
I
RP H RADAT DY N
L OGIC AL

Cuvinte cheie: râul Argeș, relief, impact, amenajare hidroenergetică.

Rezumat. În România sursele regenerabile reprezintă un potențial energetic important, acestea oferind
diverse posibilități de utiliare pe plan local și național. Astfel hidroenergia, pe lângă rolul de creștere a
siguranței naționale în alimentarea cu energie precum și de limitare a importului de resurse energetice,
aceasta asigură o energie curată, creând în ansamblu premisele unei dezvoltări economice durabile. La
nivelul sistemului energetic național procentul ocupat de aceasta este de aproimativ 30%, perspectivele de
viitor fiind promițătoare, întrucât tendința de valorificare a hidroenergiei este în creștere. Totuși, în multe
situații, modalităție tehnice de valorificare a aceastei forme de energii precum și amenajările hidrotehnice
rezultate periclitează anumite componente ale mediului înconjurător.
Scopul acestui studiu este acela de a scoate în evidență ambivalența hidroenergie – mediu înconjurător
existentă în cazul sistemului hidrologic de pe râul Argeș. Acest râu prezintă un important potențial
hidroenergetic în special in sectorul superior, acest lucru datorându-se condițiilor naturale favorabile
(debit relativ bogat datorită alimentării mixte și valori mari ale pantelor reliefului în special în sectorul
superior). Cantitativ, din totalul național al puterii hidroenergetice instalate de circa 6362 MW în prezent,
total deținut de S.C. Hidroectrica S.A., amenajarea hidrotehnică de pe râul Arges pe sectorul analizat
(Vidraru-Golesti, inclusiv amenajările Cumpăna și Vâlsan situate în amonte) prezintă un total al puterii
instalate de 417 MW, astfel participând cu aprox. 6.5 % la potențialul tehnic al țării de valorificare
hidroenergetică.
Deși este unul din râurile interioare cele mai valorificate din punct de vedere hidroenergetic, efectele
benefice resimțindu-se atât la nivelul sistemului energetic, cât și la nivelul sistemului agricol (irigații ș.a.),
social (reducerea inundațiilor catastrofale ș.a.) sau economic (locuri de muncă create etc), amenajarea
hidrotehnică concretizată prin apariția hidrocentralelor de-a lungul acestui râu a lăsat importante amprente
asupra unor componente de mediu cum este cazul reliefului.

Considerații generale Urmează o relativă stagnare în următoarele

Amenajarea hidrotehnică a râului Argeș
reprezintă un pilon important în valorificarea
hidroenergetică a României, astfel studii
importante în vederea cunoașterii potențialului
hidroenergetic național fiind realizate cu multe
decenii în urmă. Încă din anul 1929 se remarcă
lucrarea intitulată Forțele hidraulice ale
României, realizată de către inginerul Dorin
Pavel, acesta propunând numeroase soluții de
amenajare și valorificare hidroenergetică a
regiunilor montane, zone considerate cele mai
eligibile în acest sens. În 1936 autorul revine
asupra problemei cu lucrarea Resursele
energetice ale României, această lucrare
conținând abordări mai concrete asupra
valorificării hidroenergetice ale României, aici
fiind vizat și sectorul Argeșului superior.
decenii, pentru ca după 1970 studiile să se
intensifice simultan cu o reală activitate în
amenajarea hidroenergetică a bazinelor
hidrografice ale țării. Astfel, realizarea
galopantă după acest an a multor baraje pe
anumite râuri din România cu potențial
hidroenergetic ridicat, printre acestea
remarcându-se și râul Argeș ca fiind printre
cele mai importante, a generat expansiunea
rapidă a cercetărilor, principalele abordări fiind
legate de teme precum proiectare, exploatare,
evoluția morfodinamicii cuvetelor lacustre ș.a.,
toate aceste studii fiind condiții sine qua non în
realizarea oricărei amenajări hidrotehnice. Ca
exemplu pot fi menționate lucrări precum
Concepția generală de amenajare a bazinelor
hidrografice, (1976) de A. Filotti, Lacuri de
108 Remus PRĂVĂLIE
acumulare, (1976) de V. Chiriac și A. Filotti,
Considerații privind colmatarea lacurilor,
(1980) de Fl. Ionescu, Efectele barajelor în
dinamica reliefului (1986) de I. Ichim și M.
Rădoane, Geografie hidroenergetică (1996) de
G. Pop etc.
Prezentul articol urmărește analiza relației
om-mediu (relief) prin intermediul amenajărilor
hidrotehnice, realizându-se astfel un fel de
analiză swot în ceea ce privește construcția
hidrocentralelor de pe râul Argeș. Studiul
urmărește ambivalența dintre hidroenergie și
impact asupra reliefului pe segmentul Vidraru-
Golești, luându-se în considerare și amenajările
secundare din amonte Cumpăna și Vâlsan,
întrucât acestea se află în strânsă conexiune cu
hidrocentrala Vidraru.
Lucrarea este structurată pe șase părți, astfel
punându-se accent pe aspectele relevante ale
cadrului natural, dar mai ales pe analiza
importanță economică (energetică) - impactul
asupra reliefului, în final concluziile axându-se
pe proiectarea măsurilor de ameliorare a
impactului amenajărilor asupra reliefului și a
mediului în ansamblu.
Metodologie
În realizarea acestei lucrări, metodologia
utilizată constă în prelevarea datelor din diferite
surse și prelucrarea acestora cu diferite softuri,
observații în teren și utilizarea/consultarea unei
bibliografii de specialitate. O mare parte din
datele utilizate provin din cadrul Societății
Hidroelectrica Curtea de Argeș și Direcției
Apelor Argeș-Vedea.
Prelucrarea datelor a fost posibilă cu
ajutorul anumitor softuri specializate precum
cel de analiză spațială ArcGis 9.3 sau cel de
calcul tabelar Microsoft Excel, acestea
contribuind în mod direct la întregirea grafică a
articolului și, indirect, la descifrarea conexiunilor
și interrelațiilor dintre elementele naturale și
cele antropice, în cazul celor din urmă fiind
vorba despre amenajările hidroenergetice.
De asemenea, utilizarea bazei de date geo-
spațial a reprezentat o deosebită importanță în
realizarea articolului. În ceea ce privește
deplasarea în teren, aceasta s-a desfășurat
intinerant, astfel urmărindu-se identificarea
anumitor particularități în cazul conexiunilor
dintre construcțiilor hidrotehnice și mediul
înconjurător, aceste conexiuni fiind transpuse în
impactul acestor amenajări asupra reliefului.
Aspecte ale cadrului natural
Sectorul analizat al râului Argeș, cuprins între
Carpații Meriodionali și Câmpia Piteștilor, se
află în partea central-sudică a României (fig. 1),
acest sector fiind încadrat în bazinul hidrografic
al Argeșului superior și mijlociu. Acesta
corespunde văii Argeșului pe segmentul cuprins
între lacul Vidraru și lacul Golești, acest
segment desfășurându-se de-a lungul a trei mari
unități de relief (Carpații Meridionali, Subcarpații
Getici, Podișul Getic), finalizându-se la contactul
cu Câmpia Română (Câmpia Înaltă a Piteștilor).
Din punct de vedere geografic, unitatea
montană se remarcă prin prezența izvoarelor
râului Argeș în lacurile glaciare Capra și Buda,
dar și a unor afluenți importanți precum
Cumpăna, Valea cu Pești, Valea Călugăriței ș.a,
întreaga rețea hidrografică din acest sector
condiționând regimul hidrologic al râului
Argeș. În partea de S a Carpaților Meridionali
se remarcă depresiunea Loviștei și Cheile
Argeșului, sectoare propice dezvoltării primei
și celei mai importante amenajări hidrotehnice
de pe cursul râului Argeșului- lacul Vidraru.
Subcarpații Getici reprezintă a doua unitate
mare de relief a bazinului, constituind o treapta
intermediară între zona de munte și cea
colinară, aceasta fiind alcătuită dintr-o asociere
de depresiuni la contactul cu muntele și
muscelele. În acest sector se remarcă amenajări
hidrotehnice importante precum Oești,
Cerbureni și Curtea de Argeș. Unitatea
piemontană se remarcă prin largi platouri
interfluviale, prezența rocilor friabile (marne,
nisipuri) pe acest sector generând importante
probleme de colmatare lacurilor amenajate
(Zigoneni, Vâlcele, Budeasa, Bascov, Prundu-
Pitești). Ultima amenajare, lacul Golești, se află
situată la contactul unității piemontane cu zona
de câmpie (fig. 2), astfel condițiile naturale
(litologice) determinând una din cele mai mari
rate de colmatare.
 Amenajările hidrotehnice de pe râul Argeș: între necesitate energetică și impact asupra reliefului 109

Fig. 1. Localizarea amenajării râului Argeș (Vidraru-Golești) în cadrul României (prelucrare date geo-spațial.org)

Fig. 2. Localizarea lacurilor de acumulare de pe cursul superior al râului Argeș în cadrul unităților
de relief din România (prelucrare date geo-spațial.org)
110 Remus PRĂVĂLIE
Desfășurarea bazinului hidrografic al
Argeșului superior și mijlociu pe o suprafață
mare (3158 km²) și mai ales întru-un procent
ridicat (aprox. 30 %) în cadrul unității montane
(Teodor, 1999), reprezintă un aspect extrem de
important. Astfel se remarcă un potențial
energetic foarte ridicat datorită alimentării
mixte bogate și debitelor mari ale râului Argeș
în sectorul montan. De asemenea, valorile mari
ale pantelor coroborate cu un indice de
erodabilitate scăzut datorat prezenței rocilor
dure, determină viteze ridicate ale scurgerii
apei, acest lucru fiind esențial în viabilitatea
oricărei amenajări hidrotehnice.
În ansamblu, regimul hidrologic al
Argeșului se evidențiază printr-un maxim de
primavară şi perioade cu ape mici de iarnă
(Gâștescu, 1971), acest lucru datorându-se
alimentării mixte din zona montană în timpul
primăverii (fig. 3). Cele mai mici debite sunt
înregistrate în luna februarie cu un debit de 8,3
m³/s, datorită reținerii apei în cea mai mare
parte sub formă solidă, aceasta fiind cantonată
în zăpadă, astfel scurgerea lichidă fiind minimă.
Situația se prezintă cu totul altfel în timpul
primăverii, când în luna mai valorile debitelor
sunt cele mai mari (aproape 50 m³/s), acest
lucru datorându-se în cea mai mare parte topirii
zăpezilor. Este foarte important de corelat
regimul hidrologic bogat de primăvară cu
producția hidroelectrică mai mare în această
perioadă, între cele două componente existând
un raport direct proporțional.
Fig. 3. Hidrograful debitelor medii lunare în perioada
1988-1997 la st. hidrometrică Cumpăna
Importanța economică
În ansamblu, lacurile de acumulare reprezintă o
modalitate de valorifiare a resurselor de apă,
jucând un rol important și în gospodărirea și
amenajarea bazinelor hidrografice. Realizarea
amenajării râului Argeș a reprezentat o
oportunitate economică extrem de valoroasă,
avantajele economice din acest punct de vedere
fiind legate de valorificarea hidroenergetică,
regularizarea hidrologică a râului Argeș,
constituirea unor bazine de apă utilizate pentru
alimentarea unor orașe, irigații sau în scop de
agrement, precum și valorificarea potențialului
turistic, în special în sectorul superior al raului
Argeș (lacul Vidraru).
Dintre toate aceste aspecte, unul din cele
mai însemnate avantaje socio-economice îl
reprezintă hidroenergia. Odată cu elaborarea
planului general de electrificare a țării (1951-
1960) se remarcă creșterea necesității
energetice la nivel național, astfel punându-se
bazele dezvoltării moderne a hidroenergie
românești. Acest lucru a condus în deceniul
următor (1960-1970) la impulsul puternic al
dezvoltării hidroenergiei pe anumite sectoare în
România, astfel luând naștere uzine
hidroelectrice de mare capacitate cum ar fi
Porțile de Fier, Stejaru și Vidraru.
În cazul râului analizat, punctul de plecare
în valorificarea hidroenergetică l-a constituit
realizarea primei și celei mai mari amenajări
hidrotehnice și anume lacul Vidraru. Lacul
reprezintă amenajarea de bază pentru 2 unități
hidroelectrice situate în amonte (Vâlsan și
Cumpăna) și alte 15 unități situate în aval,
astfel în bazinul hidrografic superior și mijlociu
al Argeșului remarcându-se un număr total de
18 U.H.E. (Uzine Hidro-Electrice). Din punct
de vedere hidroenergetic, acestea se
caracterizează printr-o putere totală de 417 MW
și o producție electrică de aprox. 810 Gwh/an
(Societatea Hidroelectrica Curtea de Argeș). În
ceea ce privește amplasamentul, amenajările
situate în extremitatea nordică a arealului sunt
Cumpăna, Vâlsan și Vidraru, urmând în aval
alte 15 acumulări, printre acestea fiind incluse
și centrale pe canale de irigație.
 Amenajările hidrotehnice de pe râul Argeș: între necesitate energetică și impact asupra reliefului 111

În acest sens, din cele 15 U.H.E. (fig. 2005), volumul lacului reprezentând 78% din
4). situate în aval de lacul Vidraru, 7 aparțin stocul anual de apă al Argeşului. Odată cu
tipului de centrală-baraj (Oiești, Cerbureni, amenajarea Vidraru are loc și construirea
Curtea de Argeș, Zigoneni, Vâlcele, Budeasa, hidrocentralei Cetățuia sau Corbeni-Argeș,
Bascov, Prundu-Pitești și Golești) și 8 tipului prima hidrocentrală subterană din România
de centrală pe canal de derivație (Albești, Valea situată la 104 m adâncime sub albia râului
Iașului, Noapteș, Băiculești, Mănicești și Argeș, aceasta având cea mai mare putere
Merișani) (Teodor, 1999). totală instalată de pe râul Argeș și anume de
Aceste construcții hidrotehnice îndeplinesc 220 MW (Pop, 1996).
mai multe funcții importante, dintre acestea
remarcându-se funcții multiple sau complexe
(rezervoare de irigații, alimentări cu apă,
energetice etc) ce caracterizează amenajările
Vidraru, Curtea de Argeș, Zigoneni, Vâlcele,
Budeasa, Bascov, Prundu-Pitești și Golești,
precum și funcții singulare prezente în cazul
lacurilor Cumpănița, Vâlsan, Albești, Valea
Iașului, Noapteș, Băiculești, Mănicești și
Merișani (Teodor, 1999).
Construcția barajului Vidraru, cea mai
importantă construcție hidrotehnică de pe râul
Argeș, a fost începută în 1960 și a fost
finalizată în 1966 (foto 1). La vremea
respectivă (1967) barajul era, după înaltime, al
cincilea baraj în arc din Europa și al nouălea
din lume (Pop,1996).
Barajul este o construcție din beton în arc
dublu cu o lungime de 307 m și cu o înălțime
de 166 m, fiind cel mai înalt baraj din România
și unul dintre cele mai înalte din Europa.
Lacul Vidraru se întinde pe o suprafață de
870 ha și are un volum total de apă de circa Foto. 1 Construcția barajului Vidraru (1964)
465mil. m3 (Rădoane Maria și Rădoane N.

Fig.4. Amenajarea hidrotehnică a râului Argeș (prelucrare model Berkun, 2010)

112 Remus PRĂVĂLIE

În ceea ce privește celelalte uzine Vidraru acestea prezintă anumite caracteristici

hidroelectrice situate în amonte și aval de hidrologice și geotehnice prezentate în tabel 1:

Tab. 1 Caracteristici hidrologice și geotehnice ale amenajării râului Argeș

(prelucrare date Societatea Hidroelectrica Curtea de Argeș)
 Amenajările hidrotehnice de pe râul Argeș: între necesitate energetică și impact asupra reliefului 113

Prin aducțiunile realizate în lacul de situate în aval de uzina hidroelectrică Vidraru

acumulare Vidraru, debitul mediu al Argeşului
a crescut de la circa 7.5 m³/s la 19.73 m³/s,
acest lucru determinând amplificarea potențialului
energetic al râului Arges, de la circa 800
kW/km la circa 1500 kW/km (Dinoiu, 2004).
Astfel, dintre toate hidrocentralele anterior
amintite, cea mai importantă amenajare de pe
râul Argeș din punct de vedere energetic este
centrala subterană Cetățuia, în aval de aceasta
existând alte 15 hidrocentrale, fiecare cu un
debit instalat de 90 m³/s. Toate hidrocentralele
sunt prevăzute cu câte 2 turbine Kaplan,
puterea fiecărei hidrocentrale fiind cuprinsă
între 7.7 şi 15 MW (fig. 5). Puterea lor totală
este de circa 187 MW, iar producţia de energie
electrică de 377 GWh/an. În ceea ce privește
producția de energie/an a centralei subterane
Vidraru, aceasta se remarcă prin cele mai mari
valori dintre toate amenajările și anume cu o
producție totală de 410 Gw/an, această valoare
reprezentând peste 50 % din producția
energetică realizată pe râul Argeș (fig. 6).

Fig. 5. Puterea de instalare a centralelor hidroelectrice de pe râul Argeș

Fig. 6. Producția de energie anuală a centralelor hidroelectrice de pe râul Argeș

Raportată la nivel național, amenajarea hidroenergetică a țării. Mai exact, sistemul

râului Argeș pe sectorul analizat participă cu un hidoenergetic al țării, reprezentat aproape în
procent de 6.5% la potențialul de valorificare totalitate de Societatea S.C. Hidroelectrica
114 Remus PRĂVĂLIE

S.A., deține o putere instalată totală de aprox. amenajării râului Argeș pe sectorul analizat,
6362 MW (I.N.G.H.A.), în timp ce amenajarea astfel remarcându-se faptul că încă mai există
de pe Argeș deține un total de 417 MW, astfel un potențial nevalorificat de peste 40%.
procentul de participare a amenajării Argeș la Pe lângă beneficiile energetice, amenajarea
sistemul național fiind anterior amintit. hidrotehnică de pe Argeș a adus și alte avantaje
Totuși trebuie menționat faptul că puterea economice și sociale cum ar fi posibilități de
de instalare reprezintă o valoare constantă, de irigații, industriale, agrement, turism (zona
aceea e important de luat în considerare energia lacului de acumulare Vidraru, dar și în amonte
efectiv realizată, valoarea acesteia fiind de-a lungul șoselei Transfăgărășan), locuri de
dinamică de la un an la altul. Spre exemplu, la muncă create, posibilitatea alimentării cu apă a
nivelul anului 2010 S.C. Hidroelectrica S.A. a unor orașe printre care și capitala, precum și
înregistrat o producție energetică de circa reducerea debitelor catastrofale.
19.800 Gwh/an, în timp ce amenajarea Cele 7 lacuri de acumulare create reprezintă
hidrotehnică de pe Argeș a înregistrat o valoare
un adevărat rezervor de irigații pentru zonele
de 1076 Gwh/an (tab. 2), aceasta participând cu
adiacente, acestea oferind posibilități de irigare
aprox. 5.5% la economia hidroenergetică a țării.
Acest procent este variabil deoarece anul 2010 pentru mii de hectare în agricultură. De
a fost unul de vârf înregistrat de S.C. asemenea, alimentarea cu apă a unor orașe
Hidroelectrica S.A., de aceea sunt ani când reprezintă un alt efect socio-economic pozitiv,
amenajarea de pe Argeș, raportată la totalul orașele cele mai importante alimente cu apă
hidroenergetic național obținut, prezintă fiind Pitești și București. În cazul capitalei,
procente mai mari. cerințele de apă după 1930 au fost imposibil de
În România, conform Administrației Naționale satisfăcut doar din captarea de la Arcuda de pe
Apele Române, potentialul hidroenergetic al râul Dâmbovița, astfel pentru rezolvarea
țării este amenajat în proportie de circa 50%. problemei fiind prevăzută captarea râului Argeș
Particular, bazinul hidrografic al râului Argeș la Ogrezeni și aducerea apei printr-un canal
prezintă un grad actual de utilizare a deschis la o nouă stație de tratare amplasată în
potențialului de 58% (I.N.G.H.A.), acest comuna Roșu, de aici continuându-se sistemul
procent datorându-se în cea mai mare parte de alimentare cu apă spre București.
Tab. 2 Energia efectiv realizată în 2010 de către amenajările hidroenergetice de pe râul Argeș
(prelucrare date Societatea Hidroelectrica Curtea de Argeș)
Amenajare Putere Energie proiectată Energie efectiv produsă an
hidrotehnică instalată (MW) (GWh/an) 2010 (GWh/an)
Vidraru 220 400 515.7
Cumpăna 4.8 15.6 21.2
Valsan 5 14.7 18.1
Oesti 15 28.1 33.6
Albești 15 27.7 31.2
Cerbureni 15 29 35.6
Valea Iașului 15 28.8 36.5
C. de Argeș 7.7 15 20.4
Noapteș 15.4 30 36.7
Zigoneni 15.4 26 39.0
Băiculești 15.4 31 39.0
Mănicești 11.5 21.7 29.1
Vâlcele 15.4 28.3 20.5
Merișani 11.5 22.8 17.1
Budeasa 11.5 22.7 32.6
Bascov 7.7 14.3 24.7
Pitești 7.7 19.3 33.7
Golești 8 33 54.0
Total 417 808 1 039.6
 Amenajările hidrotehnice de pe râul Argeș: între necesitate energetică și impact asupra reliefului
De asemenea, amenajarea de pe Argeș a
condus și la reducerea inundațiilor și atenuarea
undelor de viitură catastrofale care au avut loc
de-a lungul timpului. Un exemplu în acest caz îl
reprezintă comunele Aref și Corbeni situate în
aval de cheile Argeșului care în 1941 au fost
puternic afectate, astfel acestea fiind inundate
în cea mai mare parte. Efecte devastatoare au
fost resimțite și la nivelul infrastructurii de
transport, aceasta pe sectoare de cateva zeci de
km fiind puternic periclitată.
Impactul asupra reliefului
Sectorul analizat al Argeșului superior cuprins
între lacurile Vidraru și Golești prezintă un înalt
grad de amenajare, lucru care poate reprezenta,
pe de o parte suport de bază pentru activități
socio-economice, iar pe de altă parte influență
nefastă asupra unor componente de mediu cum
este cazul reliefului. Deși hidroenergia este
considerată ca fiind una curată, regenerabilă,
problemele apar în special atunci când
infrastructura hidrotehnică necesară obținerii
acesteia este proiectată în general într-un mod
agresiv asupra mediului, neținându-se cont de
unele aspecte de mediu cum ar fi modificările
de relief, peisaj ș.a.
Deși toate componentele de mediu au
suferit un anumit grad de modificare prin
amenajarea hidroenergetică a râului Argeș,
influența asupra reliefului este una însemnată.
În ansamblu, relieful a suferit transformări
importante prin modificarea reliefului fluviatil
inițial, prin apariția țărmurilor de acumulare, a
treptelor de abraziune, a proceselor dinamice de
versant ș.a.
Prin modificarea reliefului fluviatil inițial se
remarcă în prim plan amprenta lăsată la nivelul
albiei râului atât în profil longitudinal cât și în
plan transversal. În profil lungitudinal amintim
dispariția totală a scurgerii naturale a râului din
albia minoră pe anumite segmente cum ar fi
cazul imediat în aval de barajul Vidraru.
Scurgerea naturală a râului se reface în aval, în
zona cheilor Argeșului prin alimentarea din
subteran și primirea unor mici afluenți.
De remarcat faptul că, înainte de
amenajarea lacurilor, relieful fluviatil se
evidenția prin existența albiilor minoră și a
115
majoră ale râului Argeș precum și a teraselor,
toate acestea prezentând anumite particularități.
După apariția lacului Vidraru, albia râului
(minoră, majoră) a fost inundate pe segmentele
lacurilor amenajate respective, intrând astfel în
aria submersă a acestora. Astfel are loc o
schimbare la nivelul patului albiei, inițial
aceasta fiind alcătuit din nisipuri și pietrișuri în
special, însă după amenajare, albia râului Argeș
fiind acoperită cu sedimente fine pe sectoarele
lacurilor existente.
Scurgerea naturală a râului este influențată
și de ritmul evacuărilor din lac, astfel
intervenind schimbări și în dinamica
fenomenelor hidro-geomorfologice: eroziune,
transportul aluviunilor, acumulare, infiltrația,
evaporația, dinamica verticală a albiei ș.a.
(Teodor, 1999). Dintre toate aceste modificări,
cele mai importante sunt legate de modificarea
tranzitul de aluviuni odată cu construirea
lacurilor de acumulare, acesta concentrându-se
în cadrul lacurilor și diminuându-se în aval.
Din punct de vedere al tranzitului de
aluviuni, dar și al viabilității acestor amenajări
cu implicații economice importante, trebuie
menționat un aspect deosebit de relevant și
anume starea colmatării lacurilor de acumulare
(fig. 7). Colmatarea acestora depinde în cea mai
mare parte de caracteristicile bazinului
hidrografic (hidrologice, geomorfologice,
geologice, litologice), dar și de influența
antropică. În acest fel, cu excepția lacului
Vidraru, lacurile din aval de acesta se găsesc pe
una din zonele din țară cu o scurgere solidă
destul de ridicată și anume peste 10t/ha.an
(Teodor, 1999), acest lucru datorându-se
situării acestora în zonele subcarpatică și
piemontană, zone cu un indice de erodabilitate
ridicat. Astfel, principalele cauze ale stării
avansate de colmatare (fig. 8) sunt legate de
litologie (roci friabile aval de cheile Argeșului),
acest lucru fiind coroborat cu gradul de
împădurire din ce în ce mai redus pe măsura
înaintării în aval.
Terasele au fost transformate în mare parte
fie prin inundare cu apă, fie prin presiune
antropică, omul contribuind semnificativ la
modificarea acestora în special prin dezvoltarea
infrastructurii hidrotehnice sau de transport de
la nivelul teraselor.
116 Remus PRĂVĂLIE

O altă modificare a reliefului o constituie
apariția țărmurilor de acumulare, acestea fiind
prezente în special la coada lacurilor de pe râul
Argeș, acestea datorându-se aluviunilor aduse
de râu. Tot la coada lacurilor un alt efect al
amenajării râului Argeș este apariția
sedimentării. Sedimentarea poate fi tipic
lacustră, aceasta datorându-se dinamicii liniei
țărmului (oscilațiilor de nivel) și fluvio-
lacustră, aceasta fiind cea mai accentuată.
Sedimentarea fluvio-lacustră a condus la
formarea unor noi forme de relief, astfel încât
în prezent putându-se vorbi de o așa numite
mini-delte, un caz concret fiind zona Cumpăna
din regiunea lacului Vidraru (Gâştescu şi colab.
1996, 2003). Situații asemănătoare se pot
remarca și în aval, un exemplu în acest caz
fiind mini-delta de la coada lacului de
acumulare Zigoneni (fig. 9).
Totodată se remarcă și apariția treptelor
(terasetelor) de abraziune, acestea fiind
generate de către acțiunea valurilor. Aceste
trepte pot avea efecte de subminare asupra
versanților, îndeosebi în cazul celor cu valori
mari ale pantelor, elementele de risc fiind
infrastructura de transport și așezările umane.
De asemenea, apariția lacurilor de pe râul
Argeș a provocat o discontinuitate în echilibrul
versanților, remarcându-se astfel procesele
dinamice de versant (alunecări de teren,
surpări). Aceste procese dinamice nu sunt de
mare amploare, ci au un caracter izolat
(sectorul nordic al râului Argeș), ele
evidențiindu-se în special primăvara (aprilie-
iulie) datorită topirii zăpezilor și ploilor
îndelungate.
Se poate vorbi și de o influență indirectă
asupra reliefului prin modificarea componentei
hidrografice, spre exemplu variația nivelului
râului Argeș fiind influențată de etapele de
amenajare a râului Argeș, astfel remarcându-se
o amplitudine a nivelului care variază direct
proporțional cu volumul de apă al lacurilor în
momentul umplerii.

Fig. 7. Gradul de colmatare al lacurilor de acumulare de pe râul Argeș

(prelucrare date Societatea Hidroelectrica Curtea de Argeș și Teodor, 1999)

Fig. 8. Depozite de aluviuni în cadrul lacului de acumulare Curtea de Argeș (Lazăr N., 2009)
 Amenajările hidrotehnice de pe râul Argeș: între necesitate energetică și impact asupra reliefului 117

profilului de echilibru al râurilor, depunerea

aluviunilor și chiar declanșarea unor procese
dinamice (Prăvălie, 2011).
De asemenea are loc și modificarea
bilanţului hidric iniţial (fig. 9), acesta
reprezentând raportul dintre ceea ce intră la
nivelul fiecărui lac de acumulare (privit ca un
sistem) și ceea ce iese (Prăvălie, 2011). Astfel,
după realizarea amenajărilor, se evidențiază
elemente noi atât în cazul input-urilor
(aducţiunile) cât şi în cazul output-urilor
Fig. 9. Mini-deltă prezentă la coada lacului de
(creşterea evaporaţiei de la suprafaţa lacurilor,
acumulare Zigoneni (Lazăr N., 2010) dimensionarea debitului uzinat în cazul
centralelor electrice cum este cazul centralei
Pentru a scoate în evidență acest aspect au subterane Vidraru). Aceste elemente noi
fost consultate anuarele hidrologice ale stației apărute, cum exemplul lacului Vidraru prin
hidrologice Curtea de Argeș privind nivelul apariţia galeriei subterane în cadrul output-
mediu al râului pe o perioadă de 10 ani. Astfel, urilor, au determinat modificări la nivelul
una din cele mai evidente discontinuități a avut reliefului fluviatil, situaţia dispariţiei totale a
loc în perioada 1966-1967, acest lucru albiei râului imediat în aval de Vidraru fiind
datorându-se inaugurării și punerii în funcțiune anterior amintită.
a barajului Vidrau în 1966, lucru ce a
determinat o scădere a nivelului prin umplerea
barajului (fig. 8). Situații similare au avut loc și
în cazul umplerii acumulărilor din aval,
oscilațiile la nivelul râului având o amplitudine
mai mare sau mai mică în funcție de capacitatea
amenajărilor respective.
Prin construirea barajelor și apariția
lacurilor au avut loc schimbări și în cadrul
nivelului de bază local, rezultând un nou nivel
de bază local în amonte și aval, implicit cu
modificarea proceselor de eroziune / acumulare
(Nedelea, 2006). Mai exact, modificarea Fig. 8. Hidrograful nivelurilor medii ale râului Argeș
(1958-1968, s.h. Curtea de Arges)
echilibrului natural al regiunii prin ridicarea
nivelului de bază local, are ca efect modificarea

WATER BALANCE BEFORE DAM WATER BALANCE BEFORE DAM

LAKE’S CONSTRUCTION LAKE’S CONSTRUCTION
Input Output Input Output
The river natural’s The river natural’s
Water adductions Turbine flow rate
flow flow
Direct impact
Rainfall Evaporation Rainfall
Higher Evaporation

Indirect impact
Underground water Infiltrations Underground Infiltrations
supply Water Supply

Fig. 9. Schema privind modificarea bilanţului hidric (L. Vidraru) după apariţia lacurilor de pe râul Argeș
118 Remus PRĂVĂLIE

Concluzii geomorfologice reprezentată prin modificarea

Deși amenajările hidroenergetice reprezintă o
reală oportunitate de valorificare a energiei
regenerabile în România, acestea determină
diverse impacturi asupra mediului (implicit
asupra reliefului) atât în faza de proiectare cât
și în faza de exploatare. Problema
enviromentală a amenajării râului Argeș s-a
evidențiat încă din momentul proiectării cu
câteva decenii în urmă, când, datorită
împrejurărilor politice, nu a fost luat în calcul
modul în care aceste amenajări vor pune
presiune asupra mediului, neținându-se cont de
caracterul sistemic complex al fenomenelor de
impact ale barajelor hidrotehnice asupra
mediului.
Unul din cele mai semnificative impacturi
asupra reliefului se evidențiază în cazul
reliefului fluviatil, dinamica fenomenelor hidro-
tranzitului de aluviuni constituind o reală
problemă atât în cazul scurgerii naturale a
râului cât și în cazul amenajărilor hidrotehnice.
Pentru asigurarea viabilității și funcționării
normale a amenajărilor hidroenergetice de pe
râul Argeș este absolut necesară intervenția
promtă privind diminuarea fenomenelor de
colmatare a acestora, acest lucru constituind și
un aspect de perspectivă durabilă.
Fiind o sursă de energie regenerabilă,
valorificarea hidroenergiei este în ansamblu
prioritară. Astfel, se poate afirma că amenajarea
hidroenergetică a râului Argeș este una
rentabilă, cu numeroase implicații socio-
economice, dar aceasta trebuie să țină cont de
variabilele de mediu implicate și totodată să
pună accent pe deprinderea modalităților de
identificare și de evaluare ale posibilelor
impacturi.

BIBLIOGRAFIE

BERKUN, M. (2010) Hydroelectric potential and environmental effects of multidam of dam hydropower projects in
Turkey, Energy for Sustainable Development 14, 320-329.
DINOIU, N., (2004), Lacul de acumulare Vidraru şi rolul său în gestionarea apei Bucureştiului, lucrare de dizertație.
GÂŞTESCU, P. (1971), Lacurile din România. Limnologie regională, Edit. Academiei Române.
GÂŞTESCU, P. și DRIGA, B. (1996), Lacul de baraj antropic-un ecosistem lacustru aparte, Revista Geografică, II-III,
Institutul de Geografie, Bucureşti.
GÂŞTESCU, P., DRIGA, B., SANDU, MARIA (2003), Lacurile de baraj antropic-între necesitate şi modificări ale
mediului, în vol.Riscuri şi catastrofe, vol.II,editor V.Sorocovschi, Edit. Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca.
NEDELEA, Al., (2006), Valea Argeșului în sectorul montan. Studiu geomorfologic, Edit. Univ. București.
POP, G., (1996), România-Geografie hidroenergetică, Editura Universitară Clujeană, Cluj Napoca.
PRĂVĂLIE, R. (2011), General considerations regarding the impact of the Vidraru Lake hydro facilities on the
environment (in press), Annals of the Academy of Romanian Scientists, Bucharest.
PRĂVĂLIE, R. (2011), Environmental Changes due to the Appearance of the Vidraru Hydro Facility, Lucrări
științifice studențești, vol. 1/2011, ediţia I, Iași.
RĂDOANE MARIA, RĂDOANE N. (2005), Dams, sediment sources and reservoirs silting in Romania,
Geomorphology 71, 112-125.
TEODOR, S. (1999), Lacul de baraj și noua morfodinamică. Studii de caz pentru râul Argeș, Editura Vergiliu,
București.
*** (2011), Sinteza studiilor de fundamentare a schemelor directoare de amenajare și management ale bazinelor
hidrografice, Institutul Național de Hidrologie și Gospodărire a Apelor.
*** Stația meteorologică Cumpăna, Administrația Națională de Meteorologie.
*** Societatea Hidroelectrica Curtea de Argeș.
*** geo-spațial.org
 WORKSHOP
HYDRO-GEOMORPHOLOGICAL SYSTEMS FIELDTRIP

DAY 1 – Saturday, 8 (Danube Defile: Orsova-Moldova Noua)

 Cazanele Mici (The Small Boilers)

 Ciucarul Mic

 Golubac Fortress

 Tabula Traiana Monument

 Dacian king Decebal stone

 Mraconia Monastery

 Cazanele Mari (The Big Boilers)

 Ciucarul Mare

 Ponicova Cave

 Veterani Cave

 Tricule Fortress

 Drencova Fortress

DAY 2 – Sunday, 9 (Orșova – Băile Herculane)

 St. Ana Monastery

 Băile Herculane

 Tasnei Valley (Gorges)

 EA RC H C
ES E
R

N
TR
E
TH

E
DANUBE DEFILE

AN
S
D
GE
L O

IC
MOD DEG N AN M
I O
RP H RADAT DY N A
L OGIC AL

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS eight countries (Germany, Austria, Czech

Danube, the second river from Europe (2 857
km) after Volga, in length as well as in debit,
has as source Black Forest Mountains
(Germany) and disgorges in Black Sea trough
its three channels: Chilia, Sulina si Sf
Gheorghe. In its way, passes several mountains,
Republic, Hungary, Serbia, Bulgaria, Ukraine)
and three capital cities (Vienna, Budapest and
Belgrade). In our country enters from western
Buzias and until the disgorging in the Black
Sea has a length of 1 075 km, which means
more than a third from the total length.

Figure 1 Pozition of the Danube Defile in european mountains sistem

Figure 2 Danube Defile. Geomorphological map

122 WORKSHOP FIELDTRIP
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
Between the localities of Bazias and Gura Vaii
the Danube flows through one of the regions
which, from a geological viewpoint, is highly
interesting.
Here one can find a wide range of
sedimentary, metamorphic and magmatic rocks;
of particular interest, however, is the
occurrence, throughout the Danube defile, of a
magnificent geological phenomenon, namely
the abnormal superposition of big geological
formations generated by the pushing and
sliding of older deposits over newer ones. By
these phenomenon's formed two tectonic units
big: Danubian Autochthonous and Getic
Nappe.
The granitoid and basic rock massifs are
also connected with the crystalline schists. The
area of the Danube Valley comprises three such
granitoid intrusive bodies, but only one of them
i.e. the Ogradena massif crops out along the
Danube proper. The other two, at Cherbelezu
and Sfirdinu, stretch out to the north. It is
admitted that these massifs represent the sialic
magmatism of the Baikalian orogenesis, which
led to the formation of most of the crystalline
schists in the Danubian Autochthonous.
Among the magmatic massifs connected
with the crystalline schists of the Danubian
Autochthonous there is a massif of basic and
ultrabasic rocks represented by the Iuti gabbros
and the Tisovita and Plavisevita serpentinites.
The picturesqueness of the Danube Valley
is due especially to the sedimentary formations
crossed by the river in its course downstream
Cozla up to the surroundings of Svinita, in the
Iuti bending area.
The area presents some particularly
interesting aspects, such as the fossiliferous
Liassic at Munteana, which enabled the detailed
stratigraphic horizoning of this level. Facies
transformation which started in the Middle
Jurassic, viz. the transition from limestones to
marllimestones, is also observable here; this
transition had been completed to the north
where a facies of Posydonia marls is found.
Downstream, in the vicinity of the village of
Svinita, at Greben in Romania, on the
Saraorschi gully, there is one of the richest
fossil fauna deposits of a middle Jurassic age,
the facies of Klaus strata. Some 50
Ammonoidea species of this deposit are known.
The village of Svinita is the only place in the
South Carpathians where the Barremian occurs
in a marl facies, very rich in ammonitic fauna.
It is in these deposits that the richest Barremian
ammonitic fauna in Romania has been found.
In the Cazane zone, Jurassic and cretaceous
sedimentary deposits crop out again. The region
is famous for its beauty; it is interesting also for
the geologist who investigates the depths.
If, dawn to the town of Orsova, the area of
the Danube defile is actually a natural
geological museum, displaying a wide range of
sedimentary, metamorphic and eruptive rocks,
hence forward, up to the Iron Gate, the
multimillenary erosive activity of the Danube
provides the most convincing visible proofs
about the great Getic Nappe.
Caught in the natural gorges of the Iron
Gates, which man has enlarged and diversified,
the Danube seems to launch a final attack, then,
devoid its millions of horse-power, it leads its
waters mildly through monotonous regions,
flowing through tablelands where only recent
deposits me visible. The area, known as the
Wallachian Tableland, covers the whole surface
between the Danube and the South Carpathians.
Tectonic situation
The whole geological structure of the area of
the Danube Valley is part of the architectural
frame of the South Carpathians. The Danube
valley intercepts all the major tectonic units of
this mountainous realm.
The present tectonic arrangement has been
shaped by the alpine orogenesis, more precisely
by the folding that took place in the Austrian
and Laramic stages and led to the abnormal
superposition of some big geological formations
in which enormous structures comprising the
Danubian Autochthonous, the Getic Nappe and
the Severin Nappe have originated.
Along the Danube valley this tectonic
superposition is most obvious e.g. in the
Ivanicici gully adjoining Cazanele Mari and at
Virciorova.
Behind this facade, there lies hidden a long
history stamped by strong disturbances and
transformations, the signs of which are masked
 WORKSHOP FIELDTRIP
by the events that took place during the
Laramic diastrophism.
In the Precambrian, a great many
formations that today form the Getic nappe or
the Danubian Autochthonous belonged to two
distinct realms: the present Getic realm to the
west, and the Danubian realm to the east. These
two realms evolved differently because an
obstacle, in the form of a great dividing
threshold, separated them. Both realms had
developed for a long time as geosynclines; the
Precambrian history of the latter proves that
each realm suffered the changes induced by at
least two tectomagmatic cycles. In the course of
those two cycles, the huge piles of sedimentary
and magmatic deposits underwent regional
metamorphism with the consequent formation
of the widely spread crystalline schists of
today. During the evolution of these old
geosynclines, simultaneously with the changes
suffered by the accumulated deposits, strong
magmatic processes took place at the bottom
resulting in the formation of granitoid massifs,
e.g. at Sichevita, Ogradena, Cherbelezu, etc.
The Lower Palaeozoic corresponds to the
development of a new tectonomagmatic cycle.
In the Upper Palaeozoic and in the
Carboniferous, in particular, a Continental
c1imate set on over vast emersed areas. The
abundant vegetation generated cool deposits,
e.g. the deposit of Baia Noua. The end of the
Palaeozoic era was characterized by general
exondation that continued till the Early
Mesozoic, in the Triassic.
Starting with the Jurassic, several north-
south elongated fossae occurred in the two
Danubian realms, perpendicular on the present
direction of the Danube. These were the site of
some important accumulations of sedimentary
deposits that form the present alpine cover of
the South Carpathians. These deposits build the
Resita-Moldova Noua zone in the Getic realm
and the Svinita-Svinecea Mare and Cerna-
Mehedinti zones in the Danubian
Autochthonous. All these zones are crossed in
the south by the Danube. There were also some
other such fossae but their contents were
dislocated from their original site and carried
by tectonic route eastward, forming the present
Severin nappe.
The events that generated such tectonic
disturbances took place in two stages. In a first
123
stage, during the Middle Cretaceous, the
Austrian foldings caused the dislocation and
pushing of the Getic realm from the west over
the Danubian realm in the east. In a second
stage at the end of the Cretaceous, as a
consequence of Laramic movements, the Getic
Crystalline and its sedimentary cover were
again disturbed, involving at their basement a
series of Lower Cretaceous sedimentary
deposits from the westernmost fossa of the
Danubian realm. Thus enlarged, the Getic
nappe covered the whole of the Danubian realm
in the form of a vast sheet, the Getic sheet
which in its turn overlay another sheet made up
of Lower Cretaceous deposits. These deposits
dislocated from the west and carried eastward
generated the Severin nappe or the Para-
autochthonous which, preserved over large
areas in the Mehedinti Tableland, is intercepted
by the Danube at Virciorova.
In general, after the tectonic arrangement
produced by Laramic diastrophism no essential
architectural changes occurred. As a whole, the
South Carpathians behave like a rather rigid
block.
The movements that took place in the
Tertiary caused some tectonic sinking on very
small areas only, being subsequently covered
by Tertiary sediments. We refer to the post-
tectonic depressions of Sichevita and Bahna
through which the Danube flows.
More recent movements led to the mass
elevation of the mountain structure, shaping out
its present aspect.
Parautochtonous of Severin
They are widespread in the tectonic window of
the Cosustea Zone, where Azuga, Sinaia and
Comarnic Beds have been distinguished:
Azuga Beds. In the base of the Severin
deposits, calcareous schists and reddish,
greenish or grey phyllitic schists, associated
with green rocks of serpentinite, gabbrro
diabase spillite and tuffite types associated with
jasper have been separated. It is difficult to
establish the age of these layers, but since they
are overlain by Neocomian, they have been
assigned to the Upper Jurassic.
Sinaia Beds. This complex is made up of
platy calcareous marls, in alternation with
calcareous microconglomerates with greenschists
124 WORKSHOP FIELDTRIP
and argillaceous schist elements. Among the
calcareous marly intercalations in this complex
are cited species of Calpionella, indicating the
Berriasian - Hauterivian (130 millions of years)
age of these deposits.
Comarnic Beds. In the upper part of the
Severin Parautochtonous deposits, in Dalbocita,
a complex made up of marls and brown platy,
frequently conglomeratic calcareous marls is
found. The conglomerates contain Getic
Crystalline elements, numerous fragments of
Orbitolines (Barremian-Aptian) (120 millions
of years).
Morphometry and morphology of the
Danube channel
In the Natural Park area the Danube gets many
tributaries that have their sources in the
Semenic, Locva, Almaj, Cerna and Mehedinti
Mountains. From west to the east, the main
tributaries are: Nera, Ribis, Radimna, Moldova,
Liborajdea, Camenita, Orevita, Berzasca,
Sirinia, Stariste, Tisovita, Liubotina, Plavisevita,
Mraconia, Mala, Eselnita, Cerna, Bahna and
Jidostita.
The defile of the Danube in the Iron Gates
area, long of some 130 kilometers between
Bazias and Gura Vaii, covers a wide range of
petrography elements deeply involved in
shaping out the present morphometric aspect of
the valley and of its minor channel, in the
course of geological times. In the sectors in
which the river runs through rocks resistant to
erosion, its channel is usually larger, shallower,
with many rocks in low waters that impede
navigation. In the sectors where rocks less
resistant to erosion occur, e.g. limestone's, the
channel is very narrow, with impressing depths
standing proof to an intense activity of river
deepening.
Between Bazias and Pescari the river bed is
cut into the crystalline schists of the Locvei
Mountains.
Between Pescari and Liuborajdea, in the
calcareous zone, the channel presents quite
another picture, substantially changed.
The most spectacular sector in the Danube
gorges is the calcareous zone of Cazane. Here
the channel, compressed between vertical walls,
is deepest (approximate 100 m), and only 150-
200 m broad in some places. Lowest depths
recorded in the Cazane area: 22 m, in the small
basin of Dubova.
Downstream Orsova to Gura Vaii, the
Danube flows through crystalline schists,
limestones and the Sinaia strata. Most
impressing is the area between Varciorova and
Gura Vaii, where paragneiss rocks and the
Sinaia strata on the left bank of the river formed
the famous Iron Gate of the Danube. Before the
construction of the "Iron Gates I" Hydro-
electric Power Plant, in order to facilitate the
navigation in this sector, a canal, long of 3 km,
was dug on the Yugoslav bank through which
ships are dragged upstream with the help of a
train engine.
Hydrological characteristics
After building the Iron Gates Dam and filling
the reservoir, all the river mouths of the
Danube’s tributaries were flooded and
transformed into gulfs. The largest gulfs are
Cerna, Bahna and Mraconia. In the Bazias –
Camenita sector raising the water level caused
the flooding of the debris fans formed by the
tributaries (Liborajdea, Brestelnic, Camenita,
Berzasca, Sirinia, Stariste). As a consequence,
the aquatic surface increased and new aquatic
and wetland habitats appeared.
The Iron Gates I Reservoir is the greatest
hydro technical achievement from Romania and
from the entire Danube’s course. It extends
behind the 60,6 m high Dam for about 130 km,
having an average surface of 700 sqkm and an
average volume of 12 ckm.
Building the Iron Gates I Hydropower and
Navigation System determined the displacement
of several localities (Orşova, Svinita, Eselnita)
and the disappearance of others (Tisovita,
Ogradena, Plavisevita, Ada-Kaleh) because the
old hearths were flooded by the reservoir.
Presently, the Iron Gates I reservoir is used
for different purposes: production of electrical
power, regulation of the Danube’s flow,
fishing, navigation, leisure; in the same time it
represents the habitat for numerous aquatic
birds.
 WORKSHOP FIELDTRIP 125

Saturday, 8 October

DANUBE DEFILE (Serbian Banatska Klisura, Банатска Клисура)

The defile develops on a length of around 144
km from Bazias until Gura Vaii. Between these
limits are a series of sectors of narrow valley as
the ones from Pescani, Cazanele Mari,
Cazanele Mici, Porile de fier, as well as the
sectors of large valley (depressions) at Moldova
Veche, Dubova, Svanita, Orsova (fig. 3).
This territory bordered by mountains is a
real open-air show, representing a true harmony
between the mountains and the river. The area
is declared unique monument of nature in
Europe, the climate here being mild and the
vegetation is Mediterranean.
By Danube’s Boilers it is understood the
defile’s part between the river mouths of the
rivers Plavisevita and Ogradena. They consist
of two different parts: the large boilers and the
small boilers, separated by a semicircular gulf,
the Dubova bassinet. This area has been
declared natural reservation in 1980 but the
importance of this space was acknowledged a
long time ago.
The region is inhabited by Romanians and
Serbs, some settlements having a Serbian
majority. It is the case of Socol, Pojejena and
Sviniţa. There is also a significant Czech
community around Garnic, and especially in
Bigăr and Eibental villages. On the other hand,
in the city of Orşova, German ethnics are rather
numerous.
The Danube Defile differs markedly from
the rest of the Danube’s course, because on this
stretch the valley is squeezed between
mountains that tower over the river, rising up
several hundred meters. In addition, the highly
dissected slopes fall in steps towards the river’s
channel and the base level is very low: 70 m at
Baziaş and 43 m at Gura Văii.

Figure 3 Danube Defile map

Between the previously mentioned
settlements, the Danube has carved one of the
most spectacular defile in Europe, which is 130
km long; within it, the river’s channel is incised
into a tectonic and erosion corridor, more than
200 m deep and between 3 and 10 km wide.
The left bank, lying on the Romanian territory,
is represented by the Locvei Mts. (794 m in the
Tâlva Cornului peak), followed by the Almăj
Mts., as high as 1226 m (Svinecea Mare peak),
the Mehedinţi Tableland, with mean altitudes of
500 m, and the Mehedinţi Mts. (maximum
126 WORKSHOP FIELDTRIP
elevation 1466 m in the Varful lui Stan peak).
The right bank, which is on the Serbian side, is
represented by the Debrianske Planina Mts.,
averaging 800 m altitude, and farther
downstream by the Miroci Planina Mts., with
mean elevations of 500-550 m and culminating
in the Veliki Strbac peak (768 m). Due to
geology and tectonics, the watercourse along
the defile is made up of a sequence of stretches
that differ in morphology and structure, some
being narrow and some others wider and
looking like small depressions.
The Cazanele (the Boilers), represent the
most spectacular part of the Danube Defile.
They are composed of two distinct stretches,
namely the Cazanele Mari (the Big Boilers),
between Plavişeviţa and the Dubova
depression, 3.8 km long, and the Cazanele Mici
(the Small Boilers), with a length of 3.6 km.
The Cazanele are carved into the level of
Romanian deposits lying at an elevation of 300-
320 m, which in the area of the Ciucarul Mare
peak shows well-developed surface and
underground karst topography. As far as the
Ciucarul Mic peak is concerned, this is
dissected on a northwest-southeast direction by
the Mraconia valley, which following the
creation of the Iron Gates dam has been turned
into a small inlet, 1,5 km long and 250 m wide.
The area presently attracts many tourists,
especially after the figure of Decebal (a famous
ruler of Dacia) has been carved into a
calcareous cliff watching the entrance into the
Mraconia gorges. The Dubova depression,
about 600 m in diameter and lying at 55-60 m
altitude, has become in its turn a semicircular
inlet with a diameter of 1.5 km.
In the aftermath of the creation of the Iron
Gates hydropower station, water level rose and
consequently, the whirls and rough waters that
menaced the Danube Defile, and especially the
Cazanele area, became a thing of the past. In
fact, the name Cazanele (the Boilers) was
inspired by the dark foamy waters that roared
through the corridors and fjord-like inlets.
Upstream of Orşova, near the Eşelniţa
village, is the entrance into the Cazanele Mici
(the Small Boilers) (fig. 3), a stretch flanked by
the Ciucarul Mic summit (313 m), on the left,
and Mali Strbac (626 m), on the right, both
representing Mesozoic calcareous massifs. On
this reach, which is about 3.6 km long, the
width of the channel is the lowest (150 m). The
vertical walls of the Ciucarul Mic exhibit a
castellated relief, but bushes of wild lilac
(Syringa vulgaris), hornbeam (Carpinus
orientalis) and wig trees (Cotinus coggygria)
can be seen on their calcareous benches.
Farther downstream, the calcareous walls are
split by the Mraconia brook. The road
accompanying the bank has been cut here and
there in the hard rocks. From its height, one can
see a rock spur emerging from the water, where
sailors used to stop and say their prayers before
engaging in the dangerous crossing of the fierce
Cazanele stretch. On the other hand, looking up
from the bottom of the valley one is impressed
by the vertical cliffs, falling in steps to the
water surface.
The Golubac Fortress (foto 2) was built
seven hundred years ago on a strategic position,
at the upstream entrance into the Danube’s
Cazane and the Iron Gates. Presently, they
belong to the Djerdap National Park, stretching
out on the Serbian territory. The fortress was
meant to safeguard the terrestrial and river
traffic and at the same time, it served as a
tollgate. In order to fulfill its mission, it was
equipped with a huge iron chain, which could
be lifted whenever necessary in order to stop
the boats that might have tried to pass without
paying. A similar method was employed by the
Byzantines in their endeavor to protect
Constantinople from being taken by the Turks.
The fortress was erected on the site of a
Roman settlement lying not very far away from
the Tabula Traiana, a Roman memorial stone
plaque dating from the time of Emperor Trajan,
and the Bridge of Apolodor. The Romans
called the place Columbria and the Serbian
name also suggests a place where pigeons used
to live. The fortress, surrounded by strong
stonewalls, ten towers and a mote was heavily
disputed and used in turns by Serbs,
Hungarians and Turks, either as a last refuge or
as an outpost of the Ottoman Empire. The
stronghold, which seems to grow by itself from
the mountain rock, was once inhabited. This
explains the name Stari Grad (the old city) by
which it is designated by the locals, so that to
distinguish it from the present Golubac city and
resort, lying 4 km downstream, on the Danube
bank.
 WORKSHOP FIELDTRIP
Foto 1 The Small Boilers (foto Carablaisa S.)
Foto 2 The Golubac Fortress (source, Internet)
The most popular landmark from the
Boilers is represented by the stone sculpted face
of the Dacian king Decebal, situated in the
Small Boilers, on the Mracunei Valley at the
confluence with the Danube, between the
villages Eselnita and Dubova, at about 18 km of
Orsova. This stone sculpture is the biggest of
Europe, with a height of 55 m and a width of 25
m. It was done after the model of the Rushmore
Mountain cliff and has 6 m less than the Statue
Foto 3 Tabula Traiana (left) and Dacian king Decebal stone (right) (foto Carablaisa S., 2011)
127
of Liberty and about 10 m more than the height
of the legendary Colossus of Rhodes. Its
construction lasted 10 years (1994-2004), the
idea belonging to the business man Constantin
Dragan, who invested over 1 million dollars in
it. Besides, under Decebal’s face you can find a
latin inscription: “Decebal Rex – Dragan Fecit”
(“king Decebal – made by Dragan).
In the same area you can find also the
Tabula Traiana (foto 3, left), a monument of
almost 2000 years old, when leaving the Small
Boilers, on the Serbian bank, not far from
Decebal’s statue. The monument was built by
the enemy of king Decebal, the Roman emperor
Traian in order to mark the triumphal march of
the Roman imperial troupes towards Dacia and
to commemorate the Roman Empire’s victories
over the dacian kingdom in the year 105.The
most popular landmark from the Boilers is
represented by the stone sculpted face of the
Dacian king Decebal, situated in the Small
Boilers, on the Mracunei Valley at the confluence
with the Danube, between the villages Eselnita
and Dubova, at about 18 km of Orsova.
This stone sculpture is the biggest of
Europe, with a height of 55 m and a width of 25
m. It was done after the model of the Rushmore
Mountain cliff and has 6 m less than the Statue
of Liberty and about 10 m more than the height
of the legendary Colossus of Rhodes. Its
construction lasted 10 years (1994-2004), the
idea belonging to the business man Constantin
Dragan, who invested over 1 million dollars in
it. Besides, under Decebal’s face you can find a
latin inscription: “Decebal Rex – Dragan Fecit”
(“king Decebal – made by Dragan”) (Foto 3,
right).
128 WORKSHOP FIELDTRIP

Mraconia Monastery (foto 4). On Mraconia which have survived the Ice Age. Here, one can
Valley, there was an old monastery called see bushes of wild lilac (Syringa vulgaris),
"Mracu-na", flooded by the reservoir lock hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis), maple (Acer
water. The old halidom was positioned in front monspessulanum), flowering ash (Fraxinus
of the old Roman road from the Serbian shore, ornus) and wig tree (Cotinus coggygria), as
where "Tabula Traiana" still exists. Today, a well as irides (Iris germanica), bluebells
church was built on the Danube River shore in (Hyacinthoide non-scripta), tulips (Tulipa) and
order to remind to the people about the old ferns (Pteridophyta), which have found shelter
among the inhospitable rocks of the defile.
halidom and fishermen-monks.
From the Dubova inlet and as far as the
confluence with the Plavişeviţa brook, the
Danube enters the second narrows, the
Cazanele Mari (the Big Boilers), flanked by the
calcareous cliffs of the Ciucarul Mare peak
(318 m) and its Serbian neighbor, Veliki Strbac
(786 m). The walls of the Cazanele Mari are
more than 200 m high, whereas the channel
width is 150 m. Here and there, the cliffs are
pierced by caves, of which the most important
are Gura Ponicovei and Veterani. The karst
topography is well represented by surface
forms (dolines, grykes, the short and wild
Foto 5 The Big Boilers (foto Carablaisa S., 2011)
gorges of the Ponicova brook) and endokarst
forms (a few avens and several caves). The
entire area is part of the Iron Gates Natural Ponicova Cave (foto 6, fig 4) the largest in
Park, created in order to protect the the entire Danube Defile (the galleries total
Submediterranean species and the exceptional 1660 m) can be accessed from land or by boat
landscape, which is unique in Europe. on the Danube. It is located in Cazanele Mari of
the Danube. It's accessible even to less
experienced people, the equipment can be one
of circumstances. We recommend the active
gallery (of the river Ponicova) and the archaic
one (Hall of Columns of the Great Snake).

Foto 4 Mraconia Monastery (foto Carablaisa S., 2011)

The Cazanele Mari (foto 5) area is

endowed with a diversified flora, with Central
and East-European elements, but also
Submediterranean, endemic and relict species,
drought tolerant and heat resistant, some of Foto 6 Ponicova cave (foto Carablasia S., 2011)
 WORKSHOP FIELDTRIP
Figure 4 Ponicova cave map
Foto 7 The Veterani cave (by Carablaisa S., 2011)
Gura Ponicovei Cave presents several levels
of galleries, the lower ones being active. From
the galleries of fossils, the most spectacular is
Concretionara Gallery and the Room of
columns. Here, water and time have created the
stalactite and stalagmite of different shapes and
sizes, domes and columns, floor of white
calcite, cave pearls, curtains etc. Also in this
cave were found bones of bear and cave hyena.
Enthusiasts can visit the Bat gallery with guano.
An informed companion is recommended for
those that come first. Structure of rock:
limestone. Maximum wall height: approx. 80 m.
The Veterani cave (foto 7), 87 m long, is
known since ancient times. It was worshipped
by the Dacians as the sanctuary of the supreme
god Zamolxis. The name derives from an aide
named Veterani, who served under Ianovici, the
129
commander of the Austrian army, who
strengthened the cave at the end of the 17th
century. Due to its strategic position on the
Danube Boilers, but also to the generous size of
the Great Hall, the cave was used as a military
garrison, being disputed by the political powers
of those times. At the entrance, as well as inside
the cave, fortifications, walls and dwellings
were built, and later on maps were drawn, thus
making of it the first charted cave in the world.
Most of these constructions, the water tank and
numerous inscriptions can be seen even today.
The access is possible from the Danube. The
tourists may step on a small mooring pontoon
lying at the base of the access wall, from where
must climb a short declivity to reach the cave’s
entrance.
The Tricule fortress (foto 8), or the
medieval stronghold Tricule (also Tri Kule or
Triculi), which is lying about 4 km downstream
of Sviniţa, on the left bank of the Danube, dates
from the 15th century. It was erected with the
clear purpose to stop the Ottoman expansion
north of the river.
Initially, it boasted with three towers, but
one of them was subsequently destroyed by the
floating ice chunks and what was left of it was
covered by the waters. At present, the towers
are flooded and the southern one, lying on the
right bank of the river, is totally submerged.
However, when water level drops during the
hot summer days it becomes hardly visible.
130 WORKSHOP FIELDTRIP
Foto 8 The Tricule fortress (by Carablaisa S., 2011)
The Drencova fortress or the Dranko’s
Tower (Castrum Dranko) (foto 9) is found 2
km downstream of Berzasca, right in the
middle of the Danube. Its ruins evoke wonder
and curiosity to the travelers, who rightly ask
themselves what secrets they hide. The
stronghold is a historical monument. It dates
also from the 15th century, when it was built on
top of a former fortress in order to protect and
control the boat traffic. The information about
this place is rather scarce, but it is highly
probable that a Roman construction existed
here before, between the 1st and the 3rd
centuries A.D., as part of the Roman
fortification system along the Danube. It had its
first documentary mention in a court order
issued at Timişoara in 1451, by which Iancu of
Huedoara reconfirmed the mastery over this
territory to Mihai de Horna, the Ban of Severin,
to his son Nicolae and to a knight named
Nicolae of Byzere. In fact, this was a renewal
of the acts issued by King Albert I of Hungary
Foto 9 The Drencova fortress or the Dranko’s Tower
(Castrum Dranko) (by Carablaisa S., 2011)
(1438-1439), who had donated the Dranko
camp to the three people, in exchange for their
contribution to the fight against the Ottomans.
Later on, the fortress was destroyed by the
Turks and in the modern days, after the creation
of the Iron Gates I dam, its ruins were covered
by waters.
The Gaura cu Musca cave (foto 10) also
known as the Columbaca cave, was formed in
the left side of the Danube Defile, 3 km
downstream of Coronini and 28 m above the
water level. It has a dry tunnel, as well as an
active one, the latter showing two lakes, 1 and 2
m respectively deep. These are drained by a
small stream, the waters of which are collected
at the resurgence point located on the side of
the road going to Moldova Nouă. The flies that
seem to get out of the cave are a species of
Chironomidae. As a matter of fact, they do not
really get out of the cave, but come here to lay
their eggs in the waters that emerge from it and
flow away to the Danube. It is worth
mentioning that these Chironomidae eat eggs,
larvas and Simulidae nimphs. Legend goes that
the flies come from the head and blood of the
dragon killed a long time ago by Iovan
Iorgovan, a local folk hero. In his turn, Abbot
Grisselini mentioned a Vlachs’ legend
according to which the flies come also from a
dead dragon, but supposedly killed by Saint
George. The legend was firstly published at
Vienna, in 1867, by A. M. Marinescu, who
made reference to the popular ballad „Iovan
Iorgovan and the Snake”, which says that an
emperor’s son, seeing the effect of the thermal
waters on the dragon, took himself a bath and
became stronger. The ballad was also resumed
by V. Alecsandri in his poetry volume „Poezii
populare ale românilor” (Şelău N).
Foto 10 The Gaura cu Musca cave (surce, Internet)
 WORKSHOP FIELDTRIP 131

Sunday, October 10
(Baile Herculane, Saint Ana Monastery, Tasnei Valley)

St. Ana Monastery is situated on the place is a monastery of nuns having a parish
Danube Defile, one of the most beautiful natural life, in Orsova, Mehedinti County, which has
places in our country (foto 11). Danube Defile is the patron St. Ana, celebrated on July 25.
rich in signs of christendom. The monachal

Foto 11 Saint Ana Monastery (by Şelau N.)

St. Ana Monastery is located on Mosului
Hill, a place that offers an unique landscape.
The monastery was founded by the journalist
Pamfil Seicaru, fighting here as a lieutenant in
the First World War; he wanted to express his
gratitude to God because he survived after it
had been buried here by a bomb explosion. For
the facts of his courage, Pamfil Seicaru was
granted the title Knight of the Order of "Mihai
Viteazul."
St. Ana Monastery was built in traditional
wooden churches style, between 1936-1939, the
church was in the center of the monastery,
complex of cells for the nuns was on the sides.
The interior paintings were erased during the
communist period, keeping only the paintings
of the tower.
During the communist regime, St. Ana
Monastery was a sanatorium for patients
suffering from tuberculosis and camp for
children, the church being transformed for a
while in a bar then in a motel reception. Nearby
was built a restaurant, building which passed in
management of the monastery in 1993. The
dedication of the monastery took place on 2
December 1990, and was carried by the bishop
Damaschin Severineanu. Between 1993-1997
were carried out extensive restoration works,
the iconostasis and wall paintings being
restored, which have been sanctified by the
holiness Nestor Vornicescu in 1999.
The monastic complex was originally
constructed from a wooden church, with
elements of traditional Romanian style, and
cells on both sides, the essemble forming the
letter U. In the last decade the steeple with a
summer altar and a former public nutrition
block in which currently works Pamfil Seicaru
Memorial Museum, the library, the refectory
and a sewing workshop were built.
Băile Herculane (foto 12). The city and spa
of Băile Herculane is situated in the
southwestern part of Romania (the Caraş-
Severin County), on the Cerna Valley, between
the Mehedinţi Mts., to the east, and the Cernei
Mts., to the west. The settlement lies at 168 m
132 WORKSHOP FIELDTRIP
altitude above sea-level and spreads along both
sides of the Cerna River, on the bottom of a
narrow depression, bordered to the west by the
Mehadiei Ridge (with the summits Coronini,
Doda and Ciorici) and to the east by the
Domogled and Suscului cliffs, which tower
over the city by as much as 1000 m.
The calcareous mountains shelter the
depression and keep it warm during the cold
season and consequently the climate is very
much alike the Mediterranean one. On both
sides of the Cerna River are dwarf tree forests
Foto 12 Baile Herculane (left) Țăsna Gorges (right) (by Carablaisa S.)
After conquering Dacia, the Romans paid
particular attention to the hot springs, building
here a large spa, famous throughout the empire,
where important officials used to come for
healing and recreation. It is believed that the
Roman baths were chaining along the river’s
banks, taking advantage of the manifold
sulphurous hot springs, which popped from the
mountain rocks on a distance of about 7 km.
The presence of the Romans on this territory is
testified by the ancient coins discovered here,
but especially by the votive inscriptions left as
a sign of gratitude by some of those who were
healed by the hot springs. From what is known,
at that time the spa was called Thermae Herculi
ad Mediam. In the aftermath of the Romans
retreat from Dacia, the hot springs at Herculane
continued to be used by the local people for
centuries. All the while, the periods of
reconstruction and development alternated with
destruction intervals, brought about by the wars.
From the point of view of anthropogenic
attraction the spa is clearly divided into two
composed especially of lilac (Syringa vulgaris),
while the black pine of Banat (Pinus nigra var.
banatica), with large umbrella-like canopy,
which can be seen on the steep crags, lends the
gorges an aspect of Mediterranean valley.
According to archeological discoveries, the
area of Băile Herculane seems to have been
populated since the Primitive Commune. It is
one of the oldest spas in Romania, first known
and turned to account by the Dacians and
subsequently by the Romans.
distinct parts: the old, Austrian part, with
beautiful and stylish buildings, true architecture
monuments, and the new area, made up of the
big communist hotels, which contrasts sharply
with the previous one.
Cheile Țăsnei (Ţăsnei Gorges)
The Ţăsna gorges (foto 12, right) are carved in
the right slope of the Cerna Valley, 12 km
upstream of Băile Herculane spa. In order to
visit them, from the upper end of the „Şapte
Izvoare” reservoir the traveler needs to go
about one kilometer upstream until he finds a
sign pole indicating the entrance in the Ţăsna
gorges. The itinerary is marked with a blue
cross, and the time one needs to reach the
gorges is two hours.
The Ţăsna gorges are among the most
beutiful valley stretches carved in limestones in
Romania, especially due to the wilderness of
the scenery and the spectacular cliff formations:
impressive cliffs, crags, needle-sharp peaks,
 WORKSHOP FIELDTRIP 133

troughs, screes and rock streams (foto 12,
right). The gorges are made of narrow stretches
in alternation with larger ones and here and
there rapids can be seen. Long ago, the Ţăsna
brook formed a part of the border between
Wallachia and the Austro-Hungarian Empire,
which followed the ridge of the Mehedinţi Mts.,
climbing then as high as the mouth of the
Craiova brook.
On its way, the river dissapears at times in
the ground, flowing beneath the limestone
deposits, but when the valley begins to widen
its waters come to light. The trail
accompanying the valley is flanked on the right
by a steep wall and on the left by a calcareous
amphiteather covered by patches of bushes
towered over by the black pine of Banat.
Gradually, the gradient becomes gentler and the
trail approaches the upper end of the gorges.
Unexpectedly, a water mill comes in sight, the
Devil’s Mill, the presence of which in this area
amazes and puzzles the traveler. Making a
detour to the right the trekker will leave the mill
behind and not very far away the gorges will
end up in a beautiful glade. Here, a cold water
source, the Stiubeiului Spring, may quench the
traveler’s thirst, and also here one can see a
sheepfold, where the shepherds use to wait for
the tourists to come in order to sell their
traditional products. The maximum elevation of
the Ţăsna Glade is 500 m.

Figure 5 Cerna Valley. Touristic map

REFERENCES

ANTONESCU, E., AVRAM, E., (1980), Corrélation des dinofloagellees avec les zones d'ammonites et des calpionelles
du Crétacé inférieur de Svinita-Banat. An. Inst. Geol., Geofiz., vol. LVI, Bucuresti, pp. 97-132.
AVRAM, E., (1976), La succession des dépôts tithoniques supérieurs et crétacés inférieurs de la région de Svinita
(Banat), D. S. Inst. Geol., Geofiz., vol. LXII, Bucuresti, pp. 53-71.
AVRAM, E., (1995), Svinita (Banat), regiune de importanta paleontologica si biostratigrafica internationala, in
Ocrotirea Naturii si a Mediului Inconjurator, T 39, nr. 1-2, Bucuresti, pp. 43-49.
BAICU, S., (2002), Din istoria navigației pe Dunăre la Porțile de Fier, DROBETA XI-XII, Muzeul regiunii Porților de
Fier, Drobeta Turnu Severin.
BLEAHU M., BRADESCU A L., MARINESCU FL., (1976), Rezervatii naturale geologice din Romania, Ed. Tehnica,
Bucuresti, 230 p.
COTET, P., (1954), Problema Defileului Dunarii la Portile de Fier si cercetarile geomorfologice din Campia Olteniei,
in Probleme de geografie, vol I, Edit. Academiei Romane, Bucuresti, pp. 98-119.
CURCAN, GHE., (2001), Dinamica reliefului Defileului Dunării între Orșova și Cazanele Mari dupa construirea
lacului de acumulare “Porțile de Fier I”, Comunicări de Geografie, Vol. V, București.
134 WORKSHOP FIELDTRIP

GALACZ, A., (1994), The age of the ammonite fauna from the classic Middle Jurassic Locality of Svinitza (Banat,
Romania), Palaeopelagos Spec. Publ. 1, Proceedings, 3rd Pergola Int. Symp., Roma , pp. 167-179.
GRIGORE, M., POPESCU, D., POPESCU, N., (1967), Relieful structural structural din zona defileului Dunarii si
Muntii Almajului, Rev. Natura, geogr-geol, XIX, 1.
IANCU, M., (1972), Valea carpatica a Dunarii, in Atlasul complex "Portile de Fier", Ed. Academica, R.S.R.,
Bucuresti, pp. 137-138.
MACOVEI, Gh., (1909), Basenul tertiar de la Bahna, An. Inst. Geol., Rom., t. III, nr. 1, pp. 57-164.
MARINESCU, FL., MARINESCU JOSEFINA, (1962), Contributii la studiul miocenului din Bazinul Bahna - Orsova
si culoarul Balta - Baia de Arama, D. S. Comit. Geol., T.XLV (1957-1958).
MIHĂILESCU, V., (1963), Carpații Sud – Estici, Editura Stințifică, București, 374 p.
MURGOCI, G., (1905), Contribution a la tectonique des Carpates meridionales, C. R. Acad. Sc. Paris.
MUTIHAC, V., (1972), Structura geologica si Situatia Tectonica, in Atlasul complex "Portile de Fier", Ed. Academica,
R.S.R., Bucuresti, pp. 134-136.
NASTASESCU, S., AVRAM, E., (1986), Une nouvelle dous-division de la Formation de Svinita: la sous-formation de
Paraul Tiganilor, D. S. Inst. Geol., G., vol. 70 - 71 (4), Bucuresti, pp. 79-85.
NECULA, C., (2011), Bazinul hidrografic Mraconia. Studiu geomorfologic, teza de doctorat, (coord. Prof. univ. Dr.
Florina Grecu).
PATRULIUS, D., POPA, E., (1971), The Lower and Middle Jurasic ammonite zones in the area of the Rumanian
Carpathians, Ann. Inst. Geol. Hung., 54 (2), Budapest, pp. 131-148
POPA, M. E., (2003), Geological heritage values in the Iron Gates Natural Park, Romania, Proceeding of the First
International Conference on Environmental Research and Assessment, March 23-27 2003, Bucharest, pp. 742-750.
POSEA, GR., GRIGORE, M., POPESCU, N., (1963), Observatii geomorfologice asupra Defileului Dunarii, Analele
Universitatii din Bucuresti, Şt. Nat., ser. Geol. – geogr., XII, 37.
SENCU, V., ZAVOIANU, I., (1972), Morfometria si morfologia albiei Dunarii, in Atlasul complex "Portile de Fier",
Ed. Academica, R.S.R., Bucuresti, pp. 138-139.
STEFANESCU, GR., (1876), Nota asupra bazinului tertiar si lignitului de la Bahna (jud. Mehedinti), Bul. Soc. Rom.,
geogr., nr. 9-10.
ŞELAU, N., (2010), Lacul Portile de Fier. Caracterizare fizico-geografica si functionala. Scurt istoric, Comunicari de
Geografie, vol XIV, Edit. Universitatii din Bucuresti, pp. 85-98.
ZAHARIA LILIANA, (2008), Impactul lacului de acumulare „Portile de Fier” asupra morfodinamicii malului si a
versantului romanesc (sectorul romanesc), Comunicari de Geografie, vol. XII, Editura Universitatii din
Bucuresti, pp. 223-228.
*** Harta geologica 1:200000 L-34-XXIX, Baia de Arama, 1968.
*** (1976), Geografia, seria monografica, Grupul de cercetari complexe „Portile de Fier”, ed. Academiei RSR,
Bucuresti.
*** (1983), Geografia României Vol. I, Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste România, București.
***http://www.portiledefier.ro – „Iron Gates” National Park.
 Tiparul s-a executat sub c-da nr. 3049/2012
la Tipografia Editurii Universităţii din Bucureşti