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Holocene fluvial history of Romanian Carpathian rivers

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DOI: 10.1016/j.quaint.2018.11.014

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Holocene fluvial history of Romanian Carpathian rivers

M. Rădoanea, F. Chiriloaeia,∗, T. Savab, C. Nechitac, N. Rădoanea, O. Gâzab
a
Department of Geography, Universitatii 13, 720229, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava (USV), Romania
b
Horia Hulubei National Institute of Physics and Nuclear Engineering (IFIN-HH), Reactorului 30, Măgurele, Romania
c
National Institute for Research and Development in Forestry "Marin Drăcea" (INCDS), Calea Bucovinei 73 bis, 725100, Câmpulung Moldovenesc, Romania

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Holocene fluvial history of rivers draining the Romanian Carpathians has been assessed using a database
Fluvial and lacustrine sediments resulting from the authors’ own field research at more than 50 sites comprising natural exposures (riverbanks),
Age determinations anthropogenic exposures (gravel pits) and manual boreholes carried out in floodplains, as well as on the analysis
Flood events of over 30 published sources. Thus, 196 dated fluvial units were obtained, of which, subsequent to filtering, 142
Holocene environmental changes
units were retained for application of Cumulative Probability Functions (CPFs). To this database we added 274
Romanian Carpathians
radiocarbon-dated lacustrine sedimentary units originating in small lakes and bogs linked to the fluvial network
of the study area. The resulting data bases were classified, processed and analysed under the methodological
framework of meta-analysis in order to reconstruct the phases of geomorphic activity of rivers during major
flood events and periods of low hydroclimatic intensity throughout the Holocene, and to understand the river
response in terms of dominant fluvial processes. Based on the analysis of probability frequency, 17 major
flooding episodes were identified, of which 12 (mostly from the last 4500 years) coincide with wet phases
determined for lacustrine sedimentary units from the study area. At regional scale, of the 17 centennial intervals
with flood events recorded in fluvial archives from Romania in the last 10 ka, 15 intervals are synchronous with
at least one area from Central or Eastern Europe, leading to the conclusion that the climatic factor manifested
dominantly in SE Europe, as well. At local scale, the orographic barrier of the Carpathians interfering with the
dominant circulation of western air masses has modified the magnitude and timing of flood events, resulting in
increased rates of hydroclimatic and geomorphic processes in western rivers compared to rivers east of the
Carpathian range. Other controls which have local influence on the evolution of hydroclimatic processes (i.e.
vegetation changes and human impact) determined an increase in the susceptibility of areas located between
700 and 1000 m asl throughout Romania and contributed to the acceleration of fluvial systems dynamics post ca.
4500 cal BP.

1. Introduction
One of the most acute challenges facing geoscientists is the fast pace
at which climate changes are occurring in the past decades (IPCC,
2013) and the interactions and interdependencies between climate
events and other natural phenomena and human activities. These
phenomena include fluvial floods with significant destructive potential
on fluvial system equilibria. To illustrate, in Romania, 13 extreme flood
events occurred in the 20th century and the beginning the 21st century
(Grecu et al., 2017), which, aside from the ample damages, resulted in
often irreversible changes in river channels. Of these, the floods of the
1970s were ranked as hydrological events with a 500-year recurrence
interval (Ujvari, 1972). In addition to the sheer scale of the destruction
caused by these catastrophic flood events and the record number of
human casualties (more than 215), river channels underwent general-
ised incision by more than 1 m (Diaconu and Șerban, 1994).
The means for knowledge of the long-term magnitude and fre-
quency of these phenomena are not numerous; moreover, the literature
has reviewed multiple shortcomings, such as the relatively short ob-
servational period (under 100 years) and the uneven spatial distribu-
tion of studied sites. Attempts have been made to build a data base of
historical flood events in Romania from 1900 to present (Chendeș et al.,
2015), which eventually attested to the scarcity of information in the
case of earlier flood events, as an illustration of the difficulties en-
countered for a time period as recent as the 20th century.
Based on the usage of historical documents, scientists were able to
expand the timespan of knowledge of flooding extremes in Europe to
500 years (Uribelarrea et al., 2003; Gregory et al., 2015). However,

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: francisca@usm.ro (F. Chiriloaei).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2018.11.014
Received 2 June 2018; Received in revised form 4 October 2018; Accepted 12 November 2018
M. Rădoane et al.
Fig. 1. Location of sites along the Carpathian drainage network with dated fluvial sediments: 1, Suceava R, Moldova R, Siret R in eastern part of the Carpathians; 2,
Someș R and 3, Someș Mic R in the Transylvania Depression area; 4, Someș R in the Western Plain area; 5, Mureș R in the alluvial fan area; 6, Danube R in the Iron
Gate defile reach; 7, Teleormanul R; 8 and 9, Danube R in the Danube Plain.
beyond that timeframe, direct records of fluvial dynamics are entirely
accidental, therefore solely palaeoenvironmental techniques are a
possible source of information to complement monitored records
(Gregory et al., 2006).
One of these techniques originated in fluvial geomorphology; sedi-
mentary archives are repositories of evidence regarding the links be-
tween climate variability, fluvial floods and morphological changes in
rivers. The progress made in deciphering these connections can be
traced in numerous studies published as early as the 1990s, mostly
based on the determination of numerical ages (Macklin and Lewin,
1993, 2003). The exponential increase in the number of age determi-
nations (Panin and Matlakhova, 2015) was almost synchronous with
the expansion of regional meta-analysis research of fluvial archives
(Jones et al., 2015) for the assessment of past hydrological events.
Studies covering ample regions, as well as continental-scale areas (i.e.
Europe, North Africa), are now available, as indicated by the map
published by Benito et al. (2015). However, Southeastern Europe ranks
among the least studied regions, including the geographical area of
Romania. A widely debated matter in the science of climate changes
impact is to which extent the Holocene climatic variability has affected
the spatio-temporal distribution of extreme hydrological events, and
whether there was any regional and continental-scale synchronicity
(Benito et al., 2015). In order to respond to this problem, studies are
needed that cover the regions in a quasi uniform way across the Eur-
opean continent. Thus, the present analysis was devised to meet this
need.
The year 2010 marks a milestone in the evolution of the knowledge
of fluvial processes and forms from the drainage area of the Romanian
Carpathians in terms of the objectives: (i) prior to 2010, fluvial geo-
morphology research focused primarily on current channel dynamics,
fluvial processes in relation to anthropogenic impact and other controls;
(ii) after 2010 significant attempts have been made to study the styles
and degrees of change of river channels throughout various timeframes
(centennial and millennial, Late Holocene, Holocene, Lateglacial and
Holocene transition). During the past years a number of studies based
on absolute dates of fluvial sedimentary archives were published, cor-
related with multidisciplinary investigations, whereas others are in
progress (Macklin et al., 2010; Kasse et al., 2010; Chiriloaei et al., 2012;
Kiss et al., 2014; Rădoane et al., 2015; Perșoiu and Rădoane, 2017).
Based on these relatively few quantitative studies the response of fluvial
systems to local and regional controls was determined for a timeframe
spanning the past 45,000 years (Perșoiu and Rădoane, 2017). The cli-
mate changes marking the transition from glacial to interglacial con-
ditions were the main cause for large-scale river channel metamor-
phosis, ranging from vertical dynamics (i.e. braiding, large-scale
meandering ensued by smaller-scale meandering) to horizontal changes
(aggradation to incision). The process was hardly uniform, as numerous
complications were introduced by landform traits, tectonics, geological
substrate, large-scale changes of the vegetation cover and even the
climate warming itself. However, secondary climate variations (in-
cluding short abrupt climatic changes: 10–100 yrs) along with local
conditions (tectonics, land erodibility) generated comparable
M. Rădoane et al.
sensitivity in river channels (Perşoiu and Rǎ doane, 2011; Rǎ doane
et al., 2008, 2013).
The main purpose of this study is to provide data regarding the
Holocene changes of the fluvial system and the magnitude of hydro-
morphic processes responsible for the former throughout the Romanian
Carpathian region such that these data can be linked to results from
other European regions. The obtained results are expected to contribute
with information to the broader scientific debate on the importance of
climate changes in changing frequency and magnitude of extreme hy-
drological events, and the importance of other local/regional natural
controls that could influence the river/fluvial system sensitivity to
them.
2. Regional setting
The relief of the Romanian territory is dominated by the Carpathian
range (Fig. 1) which encloses the Transylvanian Depression. The length
of the Carpathian range within the Romanian territory is 910 km,
whereas the maximum elevation rarely exceeds 2500 m at a few peaks.
The landforms surrounding the Carpathians are shaped as descending
steps, pertaining to the Subcarpathians (500–1000 m), the plateaus and
piedmonts (360–400 m) and the plains (under 350 m). The main Car-
pathian divide separates the major directions of the drainage network,
which is Carpathian by origin and Danubian by main-stem.
The drainage network has a radial pattern around the Carpathian
arch and consists of rivers with small and medium-sized drainage basins
(mostly below 10,000 km2), with a few notable exceptions, including
rivers: Someș (A = 15,740 km2, 388 km length, Q = 120 m3/s), Criș
(A = 27,537 km2, 128.6 km, 100 m3/s), Mureș (27,890 km2, 761 km,
184 m3/s), with westward drainage; Siret (A = 44,835 km2, 706 km
length, 220 m3/s) with east- and southeastward drainage; Olt
(A = 24,050 km2, 615 km, 174 m3/s) with southward drainage. The
drainage network of the Romanian territory is tributary to the Danube
(A = 817,000 km2, Q = 6500 m3/s) to a degree of nearly 98%.
Landforms have influenced the characteristics of the temperate
continental climate of the Romanian territory (i.e. mean temperatures
of 11 °C and average precipitation of 750 mm) through the orographic
barrier configuration and the interference with the prevalent western
air mass circulation. Therefore, in WNW Romania the climate is influ-
enced by the western circulation, whereas continental influences are
predominant in the eastern and southeastern regions, Mediterranean in
the SW, and the Black Sea impacts on the climate of the SE extremity.
The relief and climate characteristics have in turn resulted in the
altitudinal zonation of the other physical traits of the territory, such as
the hydrology, vegetation and land cover. In terms of hydrology, the
river regime is dominated by the Carpathian system through its eleva-
tion, while the volume of surface runoff is additionally affected by the
Carpathian barrier to the circulation of oceanic masses. To illustrate, at
1200 m asl, the value of the runoff ranges from 25 to 30 l/s/km2 in
western Romania, which is two to three times as high as the value
documented at the same elevation in eastern Romania (i.e. 10 l/s/km2)
(Gâștescu et al., 2005).
To summarize, the physical geographical diversity generated by the
warped configuration and the elevation of the Carpathian range further
complicate the hydrological response to climate changes and, evidently,
to past climate changes. In order to overcome this difficulty, at least to a
partial extent, we focused on two basins draining the opposing flanks of
the Eastern Carpathians, i.e. rivers Someș and Siret, both of which are
briefly described in Table 1. The streams from these drainage basins
have been the focus of our fluvial geomorphological research for a
significant period (Ichim and Rădoane, 1990; Rădoane et al., 2003,
2008; 2013, 2015; 2017; Perșoiu, 2010; Chiriloaei, 2012; Robu, 2018;
Perșoiu and Rădoane, 2017), therefore explaining why the majority of
dated fluvial sedimentary structures, either published or in progress,
pertain to the two basins.
The circular layout of the relief steps has also influenced the
characteristics of stream valleys which cross more than one relief unit,
resulting in morphological traits which include: the shape of long-
itudinal profiles with high concavity in the mountainous area and
tectonically or structurally-generated thresholds, the thickness of
Quaternary deposits and layout of fluvial terraces, the downstream
variability of bed material (grain size and petrography), and the mor-
phological variety of channels.
The floodplains of Carpathian rivers have morphologies and struc-
tures of the sedimentary deposits which reflect the fluvial evolution of
the Late Quaternary, which is common to all rivers from Central and
Eastern Europe (cf. Starkel et al., 2015; Perșoiu et al., 2017). The oldest
formations identified and dated so far cover mainly the Middle Ple-
niglacial – Late Glacial (MIS3, MIS2; ca. 59,000–11,700 yrs BP). An
exceptional situation has been documented in the SE Carpathians,
where the upward tectonic movements resulted in the 250 m incision of
the river network since the late Middle Pleistocene. Thus, the age of
fluvial formations pertaining to these valleys dates back to the Eemian –
Early Pleniglacial (MIS5, MIS4) (Necea et al., 2013).
Some hundreds of hydrotechnical and geotechnical boreholes
available for the floodplains of river Siret and its Carpathian tributaries
(Suceava, Moldova, Bistrița), on one hand (Fig. 2A, B and C), and along
Someșu Mic, on the other (Fig. 2D), have shown that the long profiles of
fossil channel beds are not regular, but consist of an alternation of
deepening reaches (up to 18–20 m in this case), separated by sectors
where the suballuvial bed is more shallow (4–8 m). The suballuvial
morphology was further complicated by the contribution of vigorous
junctions (particularly visible in the case of the Eastern Carpathian
tributaries of river Siret) and multiple faults and tectonic movements
comprising horst-graben and diapir structures (in the case of river
Someșul Mic). The ages of these suballuvial morphologies of Eastern
Carpathian valleys are considered older than 20–25 ka.
An additional trait of the Transylvanian Depression consists in the
presence of large valleys typical for the small tributaries, with few
terraces, covered by thick deposits of materials originating on the
slopes, often comprising lakes and marshy terrains. A succession of
boreholes performed along one of these valleys (A = 18 km2 upstream
of Lacul Stiucii, see Fig. 1) has revealed that the thickness of the sedi-
ment pack within the floodplain is 12 m upstream of the lake and 6 m
downstream (Perșoiu and Feurdean, 2013). The sediment dating in-
dicated an age of 51.3–52.5 ka, which shows that the incision of the
fossil bed of this minor valley is much older than most major valleys,
including Someșul Mic, the main-stem of this microtributary.
The same large number of boreholes previously mentioned were
used to summarize a general stratigraphic layout of the sediment pack
filling the valleys: a complex of gravel and boulders typically located in
the bed of the alluvial valley underlying a complex of finer-grained
deposits at the top of the floodplain. In the longitudinal disposition of
alluvial complexes along Eastern Carpathian rivers, Ichim et al. (1989)
identified a sequence of two up to three generations of large alluvial
fans from the exit from the mountainous area downsteam to the junc-
tion with the main-stem, Siret. This type of sediment accumulation on
the outskirts of the Carpathians is not exclusive to the Holocene.
Moreover, sediments have been building up since the Sarmatian, par-
ticularly along the Eastern Carpathian drainage network, which is re-
cognized as one of the oldest (14.5 M yrs) from this region to maintain
approximately the same drainage paths (Donisă, 1968). The mor-
phology of large alluvial fans was identified as recently as the past 100
years by studying the behavior of the channel of river Moldova. The
variation of the braiding index, measured based on successive maps
between 1910 and 2010, showcased the position of these large struc-
tures as sedimentation zones, highly dynamic horizontally, separated
by nodes where the channel has maintained relative stability
throughout time (Chiriloaei and Rădoane, 2015).
In summary, the shape of suballuvial valleys, the thickness and
disposition along the longitudinal profiles of floodplain sediments re-
flect, at least for the exemplified rivers, the proximity of the Carpathian
M. Rădoane et al.

Table 1
General overview on rivers Someș and Siret (data at the river mouth).
River Drainage basin area River length Average channel Discharge, mean Discharge, maximum, Suspended load, mean Bed material median
(A, km2) (L, km) slope, S (m/km) annual, Q (m3/s) Qmax (m3/s) annual, Qs (kg/s) diameter, D50 (mm)

Someș 18,146 388 NA 125 3342* 136 7.5 … 0.08

Siret 44,835 706 0.94 …. 0.04 254 2884** 275 11.2 … 0.11

*in May 1970; ** July 2010.

source area and the intensity of tectonic movements. These are the two
main causes responsible for the irregular morphology of valley incisions
(i.e. the alternation of 20 m deep reaches with sectors where the fossil
bed is close to the surface) and the thickness of floodplain sediments. A
particularity of sediment accumulation in Eastern Carpathian rivers is
the mechanism of buildup of successive alluvial fans along rivers which
is still active at present.
3. Methods
The data based on which the results of this study were derived come
from two major sources: (i) the authors’ own research and extensive
fieldwork in 50 sites spread along rivers from Siret (n = 23) and Someș
(n = 27) basins consisting of anthropogenic exposures (gravel pits) as
well as natural exposures (river banks) and manual boreholes in
floodplains (Table 2 includes unpublished datings); (ii) the analysis of
more than 30 published sources in order to collect the absolute datings
of fluvial sedimentary structures or associated deposits (i.e. channel
infills, fine overbank deposits, paleosoils). The data base comprising the
numerical ages is composed of 196 datings of fluvial sedimentary
structures (147 radiocarbon, 42 OSL and 7 tree-ring based ages - the
latter type was applied to subfossil oak trunks embedded in floodplain
sedimentary structures). Of these, after filtration, 142 dates were re-
tained for application of Cumulative Probability Functions (CPFs). The
selection of the 14C and OSL datings was made in relation with the
stratigraphic setting, such that it would indicate a “change after” date.
According to Benito et al. (2015), a “change after” date is defined as a
dated sample lying immediately below a marked sedimentary dis-
continuity identified by a grain-size reversal in a floodplain fining-up
sedimentary sequence, or where a peat or soil is overlain by a mi-
nerogenic sediment unit. The types of alluvial units and assemblages
which can be identified in fluvial deposits were discussed by Lewin
et al. (2005). Furthermore, the argument of Panin and Matlakhova
(2015) regarding the definition of the term “palaeofluvial” represented
a good clarification of the major types of processes involved, of river
palaeohydrology and river channel morphodynamics in the past. Thus,
the term “palaeofluvial event” implies both geomorphic (channel
avulsion, limited lateral migrations of a channel, etc.) and sedimento-
logical phenomena (formation of floodplain soil, its burial) that exhibit
high or low fluvial activity.
These results were corroborated with the data derived from other
sedimentary archives (mainly sediments from small lakes, peat bogs

Fig. 2. Suballuvial morphology and sedimentary fill of some Carpathian rivers: A. River Siret, middle reach (no 2 in panel E where is located Piedmont of Moldova
area); B. River Suceava, out-Carpathian reach; C. River Moldova, out-Carpathian reach; D. River Someșul Mic (no 1 in panel E), Transylvania Depression (modified
after Perşoiu and Rǎ doane, 2011); E. Exemplified rivers and their location in the geographical area of Romania.
M. Rădoane et al.

Table 2
14
C ages of the samples collected along the studied river systems*.
14
River Sample site Lab.no. Dated material Depth (m) C Age(years Calibrated age BP (2δ) Significance
BP)

Suceava Milișăuți RoAMS605.31 Oak wood 4 470 ± 30 550-480 (95.4%) Active sedimentation
(channel-bed sediments)
Costâna RoAMS606.31 Oak wood 4 490 ± 30 550-500 (95.4%) Active sedimentation
(channel-bed sediments)
Verești RoAMS600.31 Oak wood 4 880 ± 30 910-850 (25.5%) Active sedimentation
830-730 (69.9%) (channel-bed sediments)
” RoAMS601.31 ” 5.4 2040 ± 30 2110-2080 (6.5%) ”
2070–1920 (88.0%)
1910–1900 (0.9%)
” RoAMS602.31 ” 3.5 490 ± 35 550-490 (95.4%) Active sedimentation (gravel
bar and bed form)
” RoAMS603.31 ” 4.5 1030 ± 30 1050-1030 (5.4%) Active sedimentation
1000-910 (89.3%) (channel-bed sediments)
840-830 (0.6%)
” RoAMS604.31 ” 5.7 2200 ± 30 2320-2130 (95.4%) ”
Moldova Soci ROMAG-30/23 SC1 Oak wood 4 950 ± 45 950 (0.3%) Active sedimentation (gravel
940-760 (95.1%) bar and bed form)
Soci ROMAG-30/23 SC4 ” 4 890 ± 31 910-840 (33.8%) Active sedimentation
835-731 (61.6%) (channel-bed sediments)
Soci ROMAG-30/23 SC5 Elm wood 3 780 ± 50 800-660 (95.4%) ”
Miroslavesti ROMAG-30/23 Sessile oak wood 3 1040 ± 30 1050-1020 (6.6%) ”
MR2 1010-910 (88.8%)
Tupilați RoAMS20.31 Oak wood 6 8880 ± 40 10180-9890 (90.6) ”
9880-9870 (0.6%)
9850-9790 (4.2%)
” ROMAG-30/23 TP1 Oak wood 5 2890 ± 45 3160-2920 (91.5%) ”
2910-2890 (3.9%)
” ROMAG-30/23 TP3 Oak wood 5 1300 ± 30 1290-1180 (95.4%) ”
” ROMAG-30/23 TP4 Oak wood 2.5 890 ± 35 910-730 (95.4%) ”
” ROMAG-30/23 TP5 Oak wood 3 2260 ± 35 2350-2300 (37.1%) ”
2270-2160 (58.3%)
Botești ROMAG-30/23 BT1 Oak wood 4 3450 ± 40 3830-3610 (95.4%) ”
” ROMAG-30/23 BT5 Sessile oak wood 4.5 4560 ± 30 5440-5420 (3.2%) ”
5320-5260 (39.0%)
5240-5240 (1.0%)
5220-5210 (1.3%)
5190-5050 (51.0%)
” RoAMS433.31 Poplar wood 4.5 5080 ± 30 5910-5750 (95.4%) ”
” RoAMS439.31 Oak wood 4 3730 ± 30 4150-3990(95.4%) ”
Nisiporești RoAMS432.31 Oak wood 3 1670 ± 25 1690-1680 (3.1%) ”
1620-1530 (92.3%)
” RoAMS434.31 Oak wood 2.5 1010 ± 25 970-910 (89.6%) ”
860-830 (5.1%)
810-800 (0.7%)
” RoAMS435.31 Oak wood 8 7990 ± 35 9000-8720 (95.4%) ”
” RoAMS441.31 Oak wood 8 8490 ± 35 9540-9460 (95.4%) ”
” RoAMS440.31 Oak wood 2 830 ± 25 790-690 (95.4%) ”
” RoAMS438.31 Oak wood 8 8580 ± 35 9600-9570 (4.3%) ”
9560-9490 (91.1%)
” RoAMS436.31 Oak wood 2.5 1030 ± 35 1050-1030 (6.0) ”
1010-910 (87.1%)
850-830 (2.3%)
” RoAMS437.31 Oak wood 4.5 4680 ± 30 5570-5560 (4.1%) ”
5470-5320 (91.3%)
Siret Liteni ROMAG-30/23 RLI Leafs 4.5 2480 ± 30 2720-2430 (94%) Paleochannel fills
” ROMAG-30/23 Leafs 4.5 2120 ± 35 2300-2270 (4.9%) ”
RLII 2160-1990 (90.5%)
Lespezi RoAMS431.31 wood 3 2250 ± 30 2340-2300 (36.5%) Active sedimentation
2260-2160 (58.9%) (channel-bed sediments)
(continued on next page)
M. Rădoane et al.

Table 2 (continued)
14
River Sample site Lab.no. Dated material Depth (m) C Age(years Calibrated age BP (2δ) Significance
BP)

Someș Florești FL01 Alder wood 2 Trunk reworked during AD 1970 catastrophic floods. buried under 2 m flood deposits
” FL02 Alder wood 4 Trunk reworked during AD 1970 catastrophic floods. buried under 4 m flood deposits
Mogoșești MG01 Alder wood 4 ”
Măluț RoAMS9.31 Archaeological elm 3.5 290 ± 20 430-360 (60.0%) Channel aggradation
wood 330-290 (35.4%)
” RoAMS16.31 Pine wood 4 3530 ± 30 3880-3710 (95.4%) Active sedimentation
(channel-bed sediments)
” RoAMS13.31 Oak wood 2.5 1050 ± 25 1050-1030 (5.6%) ”
990-930 (89.8%)
” RoAMS18.31 Archaeological oak 2.5 130 ± 25 270-190 (33.8%) High velocity laminations
wood 180-170 (0.6%)
150-60 (46.2%)
50-10 (14.9%)
” RoAMS19.31 Oak wood 4.5 5820 ± 35 6730-6530 (95.4%) Active sedimentation
(channel-bed sediments)
Reteag RoAMS12.31 Oak wood 2 880 ± 25 910-850 (27.2%) ”
830-730 (68.2%)
” RoAMS11.31 Oak wood 3 2810 ± 30 2300-2850 (95.4%) ”
Valea Luncii RoAMS14.31 Oak wood 5 8820 ± 25 10120-10060 (11.6%) ”
10000-9990 (0.8%)
9940-9730 (81.9%)
9720-9710 (1.1%)
Cicârlău RoAMS10.31 Oak wood 6 7370 ± 30 8320-8160(85,1%), 8140-8130 (0,1%), ”
8120-8110 (1,4%), 8090-8050 (8,6%)
Berindan RoAMS15.31 Oak wood 4 1150 ± 20 1170-1160 (7,2%), 1150-1100 (12,8%), ”
1090-980 (75,4%)

*The wood samples were dated using the accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) method (https://tandem.nipne.ro/RadioCarbon/) at RoAMS Laboratory Tandem
Accelerators Department, Horia Hulubei National Institute for R&D in Physics and Nuclear Engineering (IFIN-HH), Ilfov, Romania. Radiocarbon dates were calibrated
using the OxCal 4.3 calibration program (Bronk Ramsey, 2009) and the IntCal13 calibration curve (Reimer et al., 2013).

and marshes linked directly to the fluvial drainage network, compiled
from almost 60 studies published in the past 30 years). A list and details
of the publications used in this study is presented in Supplementary
Material Section.
Each dating was accompanied by the following information: geo-
graphical location (relief unit, drainage basin, river, coordinates); data
regarding the elevation, distance to the river headwaters, area of
drainage basin upstream of the site; data regarding the type of organic
material collected, stratigraphic position, depth of dated formation in
relation with the floodplain level. Based on the experience accumulated
in terms of carefully selecting the age determination (Macklin and
Lewin, 2003; Johnstone et al., 2006; Benito et al., 2015; Rossato et al.,
2015; Faust and Wolf, 2017) we recorded in each case the sedimentary
context from which the sample was selected. The majority of age de-
terminations pertain to floodplain deposits opened by gravel pits (44
gravel pits) or steep river banks (63 river bank exposures), whereas the
remaining ones were performed on drill samples (13 manual boreholes
with depths ranging between 0.7 and 10 m). All the selected pits and
exposures have been documented and drawn exactly. Each exposure
was mapped and drawn at scale in order to identify and describe the
sedimentary facies and architectural elements according to the ap-
proach of Miall (1985).
In the process of selection of the data base we also took into con-
sideration archaeological sites, but only those appropriate to the sedi-
mentological context, i.e. dates that give age of a stratigraphic unit
rather than age of human activity. Of the many available archaeological
datings we only selected 17 cases where detailed studies existed on the
sedimentary stratigraphy of the site.
An additional source of information regarding the reconstruction of
Holocene palaeoenvironments consists of the studies on lacustrine se-
diments from small glacial lakes, ponds which formed in minor land-
slide depressions or resulted from the dissolution of salt in diapirs, small
floodplain lakes etc. Over the past two decades the rising number and
amount of data yielded by palaeolimnological studies for Romania al-
lowed for the construction of a wide network of well-dated records
which enabled comparison with other environmental archives, such as
fluvial deposits (Mindrescu et al., 2017). Of the open lake and peat bog
sites located throughout the Romanian territory, 33 were selected for
this study. Their location is shown in Fig. 1. The selection criterion was
the direct connection with the drainage network. 274 radiocarbon dates
were derived from these sites, of which 140 account for the 14C ages of
sedimentary horizons accumulated during wet and cold phases (ac-
cording to the results published for each site).
For data base processing we applied simple statistical techniques for
ranking and classifying datings according to parameters such as the size
of drainage basins, site elevation or distribution of datings per location.
The next stage consisted in plotting the frequency curves and prob-
ability distributions. Radiocarbon ages were calibrated using IntCal13
calibration curve (Reimer et al., 2013). We used the online version of
the OxCal 4.3 software (Bronk Ramsey, 2009) to add up the probability
density functions (PDFs) of individual datings, thus deriving the cu-
mulative probability density function (CPDF). The relative probability
curve was obtained using the method introduced by Hoffmann et al.
(2008). The resulting probability curves were then normalised by di-
viding each date by the highest probability in the data set. The ad-
vantages of this method reside in the comparability of relative prob-
ability results for the entire Holocene (Macklin et al., 2010). The use of
OSL ages for deriving probability distribution functions was in agree-
ment with the procedure described by Panin and Matlakhova (2015).
4. Results
In presenting the results we focused on: (a) analysing the data base
structure and classifying the data according to various criteria, which
enabled us to detect errors and dating outrange in some instances; (b)
interpreting the probability density plots in order to identify palaeo-
fluvial events in rivers draining the Romanian Carpathians.
M. Rădoane et al.
Fig. 3. Distribution of age determinations of fluvial and lacustrine archives in Romania: A. Number of datings in each sampling site; B. Dating frequency per size class
of drainage basins where investigated rivers and lakes are located; C. Dating frequency per relief elevation class; D. Dating distribution per types of fluvial deposits.
4.1. Data base analysis
The age determinations of fluvial units selected for this analysis
originate in 68 sites, the majority of which (75%) are located in the
drainage basins of rivers Siret and Someș, whereas the remaining ca.
25% are distributed on other rivers throughout Romania (to see Fig. 1).
From the fluvial deposits sampling sites we collected one (in most
cases) to as many as 9 or 10 dating samples (at two sites on rivers Siret
and Suceava where complex exposures in floodplain deposits were
available) (Fig. 3A). By comparison, in the case of lacustrine sediments
the distribution of dated sedimentary structures (n = 274) per location
ranges from a minimum 3 to 19 horizons in the 31 inventorized sites.
The pattern of age distribution per location is closely related to the
specific type of sedimentary archive; whereas dated fluvial sedimentary
structures are dispersed along the drainage network, lacustrine ones are
amassed within lacustrine basins. The distribution is reflected in the
distinct aspect of histograms showing the number of datings per loca-
tion (Fig. 3A): right-side asymmetry (fluvial environment) vs. quasi-
symmetry (lacustrine environment).
Drainage basins (as fundamental geomorphic units) control the
geomorphic processes ternary (i.e. erosion-transport-sedimentation) in
both sedimentation environments, lacustrine and fluvial. The area of
the drainage basin acts as one of the most significant control variables
in terms of the geomorphic processes occurring in the respective basin
(Ichim, 1987), therefore the variability in this regard is relevant to
observe. The majority of datings are located along rivers with drainage
basins ranging between 103 and 105 km2, ranking as 6th, 7th or 8th-
order streams in the Strahler system. These rivers typically have clearly
contoured floodplains, with ample development of channel systematics
and adjacent morphologies, while their fluvial archives reach maximum
potential. Determined ages of lacustrine deposits are connected to small
(< 100 km2) catchments, with a dominant catchment size is 1–5 km2
(Fig. 3B). The small lakes dispersed mostly in the mountainous area
(> 600 m asl, Fig. 3C), such as the Eastern Carpathians (Maramures,
Rodna and Călimani Mts) and the Southern Carpathians (Făgăraș,
Șureanu, Retezat Mts), in the upstream sectors of drainage basins of
major rivers. The fewest ages originate in small lakes from the Sub-
carpathians and the Transylvanian Depression (Fig. 1).
Based on the shape of age frequency distributions in the two sedi-
mentation environments, their bimodal character becomes evident.
Drainage basins which control medium to minor-sized rivers (4th and
5th-order in the Strahler system) have relatively few datings, illustrated
by the „double peaked” shape of the distribution within this range.
Considering the relative homogeneity of this geographical area con-
trolled by the Carpathians (where the elementary drainage of the net-
work is organized) in terms of climate, hydrology and geomorphology,
we can acquire a better understanding of the pattern of formation of
fluvial activity clusters on major rivers (cf. to the systemic view of the
M. Rădoane et al.
transfer of mass and energy described by Schumm (1977).
The distribution of datings per elevation class (Fig. 3C) provides
supplementary information. Whereas fluvial environment datings are
clustered at low altitude, below 400 m asl, where the drainage network
is composed mostly of channels and their depositional features, lacus-
trine datings cover the 800–2100 m asl range. Based on these data, we
may assess the role of altitudinal zoning on various flanks of the Car-
pathians in terms of the hydroclimatic signals captured by lacustrine
sediments and whether correlations exist with fluvial processes on
downstream rivers.
Lastly, the distribution of age determinations per category of fluvial
deposits (Fig. 3D) indicates that the 196 datings are relatively evenly
distributed per types of deposits which accumulated mainly following
dynamic fluvial events. A very small number of datings were applied to
deposits which resulted from uneventful periods of fluvial activity
which allowed for the formation of paleosols or small peat bogs within
the floodplains. The types of fluvial sediments identified in each in-
vestigated site can be easily combined into the five components sug-
gested by Lewin et al. (2005): channel-bed sediments, paleochannel
fills, floodplain sediments, flood-basin sediments and colluvial deposits.
From this perspective, we may conclude that nearly 98% of the dated
fluvial sediments fall into the 3 former components (Fig. 3D).
The following analysis of all dated units consisted in plotting the
cumulative distribution of calibrated dating ranks for the two sedi-
mentation environments (Fig. 4). These graphs allow for the assessment
of sedimentation patterns, distinguishing between periods of active
sedimentation (where the curve becomes steeper) and constant sedi-
mentation (smooth curve) based on the visualisation of distribution
plots. Thus, the age curve for the fluvial environment has a convex
shape with several gaps (especially at high ages) and thresholds
marking changes in curve inclination. The thresholds indicate shifts in
the rhythm of sedimentation in river floodplains, most likely as a result
of exceptional hydrological events which affected the sediment circuit
in the source area of the drainage basin. The thresholds marking
changes are more numerous after 4700 - 4400 cal BP to present; during
this period a major alteration occurred in the shape of the curve which
became more inclined and increasingly fragmented in recent years.
Prior to the indicated time frame, the sedimentation rhythm constantly
increased along a relatively low gradient until another shift in the
rhythm occurred (e.g. 9600 - 9400 cal BP is the most prominent).
By contrast, the curve depicting the sedimentation rhythm in small
lakes shows much less pronounced variability due to the continuous
sedimentation, undisrupted by hiatuses generated by sediment erosion
as is the case in fluvial environments. Ideally, if sedimentation had
occurred at a constant rate throughout this period, the curve would
have the shape of a simple straight line. However, even in this case
some thresholds indicating shifts in sedimentation rhythms can be de-
tected. Perhaps the most significant moment is marked by the inter-
section of the two curves at 4700-4500 cal BP, where changes in sedi-
mentation rhythms have been documented in both environments. High
sedimentation rates of lacustrine archives (compared to the fluvial en-
vironment) were recorded in the young stages of small lakes, after 11 ka
BP (a phenomenon which can occur regardless of the size of external
forces, cf to the threshold theory by Schumm (1979).
In summary, the following ideas should be retained from this ana-
lysis: fluvial and lacustrine sedimentary units considered for this study
are governed, at their source, by the same categories of geomorphic
processes acting at drainage basin scale; lacustrine sedimentation ar-
chives characterize, in this case, the processes specific to high elevation
environments and to the area of organization of the drainage network,
whereas the fluvial environment defines the middle and terminal sec-
tors of the drainage network; although the physical processes governing
sedimentation are common to the two environments, the rhythms of
sedimentation differ: more uniform in the lacustrine units as opposed to
more segmented in fluvial units; due to this signal, the sensitivity of the
fluvial environment to hydroclimatic changes in the basin is far greater
than that of the lacustrine environment of small lakes.
4.2. Interpretation of probability distributions of dated units in fluvial and
lacustrine environments
To estimate the episodes of hydrological activity of Romanian rivers
we employed the curves for relative probability and frequency dis-
tribution per 100-years classes for all datings of fluvial and lacustrine
units available (Fig. 5A and B). By comparing the variations of the two
types of curves, a series of clusters and peaks became evident, in-
dicating the time frames when most events (in this case, floods iden-
tifiable within the dated sedimentary record at the centennial and
multicentennial scale) occurred. These time frames are separated by
intervals wherein such events occurred much more infrequently or were
absent. From the experience accumulated thus far (cf Macklin et al.,
2010), episodes of flooding and river activity identified where the re-
lative probability exceeded the mean and where at least three dates
occurred within two centuries in the corresponding part of the date
Fig. 4. Cumulative plot of calibrated datings by rank age of
fluvial sedimentary units, compared to the calibrated datings
of small lake sedimentary units. Thresholds in the fluvial
sedimentation rhythm (red arrows) and lacustrine sedi-
mentation rhythm (black arrows). Other discussions in text.
(For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this ar-
ticle.)
M. Rădoane et al.

Fig. 5. A. Summed relative probability curve for 142 fluvial dates plotted with frequencies per 100 years for all fluvial data (n = 196); B. Summed relative
probability curve for lacustrine dates plotted with their frequencies per 100 years (n = 274).

frequency plot. Another suggestion (Panin and Matlakhova, 2015) re- 12000-year timespan considered. In between the reported episodes, the
commends that the peak rise above ≥0.1 in relative PDs and it is not probability curve takes values close to zero which indicate periods of
less than a century-wide at the base. low activity in the dynamics of fluvial systems.
Therefore, overall, the analysis of probability frequency for 142 ages We proceeded in a similar manner with lacustrine dates, and Fig. 5B
selected indicates a tendency towards relatively stable fluvial systems in highlights the variation in the frequencies of dated units through time
the earlier Holocene as opposed to an increase in activity in the past and consequently the varying reliability of the relative probability
4500 years in the investigated area (Fig. 5A). Against this general trend curve. The structure of the frequency distribution for lacustrine en-
several episodes (at centennial scale) of fluvial activity (Table 3) stand vironment differs from the fluvial distribution, considering the much
out: 9540, 8190, 6500, 4750, 4150, 3670, 3300, 2900, 2200, 1300, more uniform style of sedimentation of solid particles. Both the fre-
929, 754, 514. The numbers in bold indicate the BP years with higher quency curve and relative probability average for the last 12000 years
probability and frequency which can be regarded as major phases of show a parabolic trend rather than an upward trend. This tendency is
fluvial instability; the numbers in italic correspond to lower relative the result, probable, of the high sedimentation rate in small lakes
probabilities and frequencies, albeit all exceed the average PDs for the during the Late Glacial-Holocene transition phase, when the history of
these small waterbodies debuted (particularly in the case of those with
Table 3 glacial origins). In the middle Holocene the relative probability curve
Paleofluvial episodes (major flooding and river activity) correlated to paleola- dropped under the average (with the exception of rare peaks), only to
custrine episodes in Romania based on age determination analysis of Holocene resume higher sedimentation rates in the Late Holocene.
fluvial and lacustrine units, cal yrs BP. The peaks of the 14C relative probability curve of lacustrine sedi-
ments reflect paleoenvironmental conditions at altitudes which typi-
Fluvial units Lacustrine Lacustrine Someș Siret drainage
(n = 142 units units drainage basin basin (n = 59 cally exceed 1000 m asl and in small catchments. The results regarding
dates) (n = 274 (n = 140 (n = 50 dates) dates) the peaks in the probability distribution (PD) indicate (Fig. 6, Table 3) a
dates) dates) series of major phases corresponding to years or time intervals when
lake tributaries carried larger amounts of mineral sediments compared
11200 11200
9870 10300 10300 9870 to other periods (9200, 8300, 6800, 5400, 4500, 3500, 2700,
9540 9540 9200 9500 9500 2320–2200, 1300, 930, 730, 500). The intervals listed above corre-
8190 8600–8400 8300 8200 spond to episodes of PD increase in fluvial units. In between these peaks
7900 that could indicate a more intense activity in the sediment circuit are
7300 7260
6650–6420 6700–6450 6800
interposed intervals with lower probabilities which account for di-
6200 6300 6200 minished sedimentation rates in lakes and finer-grained sediments with
5300 5400 5300–5200 5300 high biogenic content. The longest interval with low probability in the
4800–4700 4700–4400 4500 4800–4700 4800 lacustrine domain spanned from 6400 to 4800 cal BP, most of which
4200–4000 4000–3950 4000–3700 4300–4200 4150–4000
overlapped the interval determined in the fluvial environment. Another
3680 3500–3200 3500–3400 3500–3300 3600
3360 3100 period of reduced activity occurred between 8400 and 6500 cal BP,
2900 2760 2700 2900 albeit interrupted by several peaks. In more recent times (the past
2300–2180 2320–2200 2300–2200 2300–2200 2300–2200 4400 yrs), intervals with low probability show good correspondence
1900 2000–1900 with the ones determined in the fluvial environment.
1300 1300 1300 1300 1300
929 929 930 950–854 950–900
Based on the fact that most datings originate in two fluvial systems
754 724–674 730 750 (i.e. Someș and Siret) with drainage basins extending on opposite flanks
514 504 504 500 600–500 of the Eastern Carpathian range (see location in Fig. 1), we intended to
350 obtain relative probability curves of distinct fluvial units for these river
M. Rădoane et al.

Fig. 6. Relative probability curves for 274 14C datings of Holocene lacustrine sedimentary units (n = 140, sedimentary horizons accumulated during cold wet
phases). The years marked in blue (in ka) correspond to peaks exceeding the mean 14C relative probabilities. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

Fig. 7. Relative probability curves for 109 dates of Holocene fluvial units, of which 50 units on river Someș (draining the western flank of the Eastern Carpathians
and NW Romania) and 59 units on river Siret (draining, through its tributaries Suceava and Moldova, the eastern flank of the Eastern Carpathians to the contact with
the Moldavian Plateau). The years marked in blue indicate peaks with intense fluvial activity on rivers from the western basin, the years marked in red indicate the
same intensity in activity in the eastern basin, whereas the years marked in black correspond to close episodes for both drainage systems. (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

systems. The result is shown in Fig. 7. Although the number of datings is
relatively small, it is, nonetheless, roughly equal for both rivers,
therefore we can attempt a comparative approach. The common trait in
the variation of relative probability curves is the upward trend and its
threshold of change around the 4700 to 4500 cal BP interval in both
river systems. However, the traits that stand out are the ones which
distinguish between the variations of the two curves, namely: (i) albeit
the number of datings is roughly equal, the mean relative probability
for datings of fluvial units of western rivers is almost three times as high
as the value for eastern fluvial units; (ii) intervals with relative prob-
ability above average are longer in datings for western rivers compared
to eastern units; (iii) overall, the number of intervals exceeding the
probability average amounts to 17, although only 8 intervals are
overlapped by the peaks exceeding the average relative probabilities of
the two curves; (iv) the common/close intervals are 9800-9500, 6300-
6200, 4800-4700, 3500-3300, 2300-2200, 1300, 950-850, 600-500.
Ample variations of the probability curves occurred in the last 300
years, with numerous peaks, albeit the uncertainties are also high
during this period, thus we do not highlight them in particular; (v) in
addition to these common intervals, western fluvial units provided data
pointing towards increased activity during 12 more intervals (indicated
by the years marked in blue in Fig. 7), and eastern units for 8 intervals
(indicated by years marked in red in Fig. 7).
Relative probability peaks in fluvial sediments (which are composed
predominantly of channel bed sediments in both rivers) reflect an in-
crease of the sediment flux in the basin resulting from high-energy
transport processes. These are specific to high streamflow discharge
values, some of which are catastrophic, ranked as fluvial major flood-
ings. Their occurrence intervals are longer and more numerous in
western rivers compared to eastern units. Also remarkable are the
periods of relative fluvial stability when relative probability curves
varied below average, from 9450 to 8300, 6000 to 4500, 2850 to 2400,
2000 to 1500. Subsequently, stability intervals were much shorter in
recent years, with significant local flooding events (e.g. 1100 to 950).
In summary, several observations arise based on these results, re-
garding: (i) a tendency of increasing river activity in relation with in-
tensifying hydroclimatic processes, particularly in the Late Holocene;
(ii) the occurrence of 17 episodes of extreme fluvial instability against
the backdrop of the aforementioned tendency; these episodes varied in
terms of magnitude and timing in the geographical area of Romanian
rivers; (iii) the common/close points between the timing of clusters
with highest relative probabilities in lacustrine units and the corre-
sponding parameter in fluvial units, particularly in the last 4500 years.
We cannot expect maximum synchronicity between the two types of
M. Rădoane et al.
datings, considering the local external forcing; however, major episodes
marked on the relative probability curve exhibit a certain correspon-
dence.
5. Discussions
The results presented in this paper are an early attempt to use de-
termined ages of fluvial and lacustrine units from the Romanian terri-
tory according to a meta-analysis methodology which has been applied
in recent decades in other regions. The quality of such an approach
increases with the number of available datings and the diversity of the
geographical area covered by the datings. In this case, the 142 nu-
merical ages concentrated mainly in two fluvial systems prompted us to
also explore the information provided by sedimentation in lacustrine
systems connected to the drainage network. Thus, the confidence level
for the results obtained is acceptable for the last 7 ka in fluvial units and
11 ka in lacustrine units (with a minimal requirement of 14 datings per
millenium, cf. Michczyńska and Pazdur (2004). In discussing the results
we will address the evolution of paleoenvironmental indicators in the
study area, the progress made in applying meta-analysis techniques for
nearby regions, such as Central Europe (CE) and the Eastern European
Plain (EEP), as well as in continental-scale syntheses. The observed
differences will be discussed in relation to the impact of controls.
5.1. Evolution of Holocene fluvial activity indicators of rivers draining the
Romanian Carpathians and correlations with other paleoenvironmental
indicators
During an early stage we intended to verify to what extent the
chronology of fluvial activity determined in this study correlates with
other environmental chronologies from the same region. In this regard,
we are in agreement with some opinions (e.g., Faust and Wolf, 2017)
stating that the potential for interpreting sedimentary archives and for
identifying certain local controls increases if we compare and bring
together records that are indicative of different kinds of influences such
as geomorphological records, vegetation records, and further climate
records. The relief of Romania is dominated by the Carpathian range,
where 80% of the drainage network originates; thus, the formation of
water discharges modelling river channels and the amounts of trans-
ported sediments are controlled to a large extent by hydroclimatic and
geomorphic processes occurring in the upper drainage basins. The ra-
dial distribution of the drainage network restricts to a certain degree
the development of drainage basins, such that the size of the rivers (at
least in the case of this study) is comparable.
In Fig. 8 we summarized the fluvial activity chronological results
opposite other chronologies of paleoenvironmental indicators in the
study area (sediment age in small lakes, vegetation history, human
impacts, paleoclimate records). Furthermore, we intended to highlight
the response patterns to controls in Someș and Siret fluvial systems
comparable in terms of size but located in different areas.
This synthesis reveals that the Holocene, which is regarded as a
period of climate improvement (increasing air temperatures, dimin-
ishing precipitation) was far from dull in terms of the fluvial activity.
For the early Holocene, up to 7000 cal BP, the number of datings lower
than 3 per millenium was insufficient for delineating several phases of
fluvial activity. However, the shape of the cummulated relative prob-
ability curve for all fluvial units (Fig. 8A) is adjusted according to past
climate reconstructions for the study area (Perșoiu, 2017). Warm, re-
latively dry periods were prevalent during the early and middle Holo-
cene and extended to 4700 cal BP, when an abrupt change occurred in
the climate regime (Perşoiu et al., 2017). From 4700 cal BP onwards
cold wet periods became dominant. Flooding events manifested
throughout the Holocene, albeit their intensity increased in the Late
Holocene (Fig. 8A and D). Against the backdrop of this general trend,
17 clusters stand out, marking maximum probability for the occurrence
of extreme fluvial events.
Next to the general PD curve for all fluvial units from Romania were
plotted the PD curves for the two fluvial systems with eastern and
western drainage related to the orientation of the Eastern Carpathian
range (Fig. 8B). Ca. 75% of datings for fluvial units originated in these
two drainage basins (Siret and Someș), such that the shape of the PD
curves is rather close to the one shown in Fig. 8A. However, a detailed
analysis reveals considerable differences, including: the density of
flooding periods (Fig. 8D) is higher in the western basin compared to its
eastern counterpart; even during periods of low fluvial activity, event
years, such as the 9.5–9.3 ka event (Tǎ maş et al., 2005; Tanţǎ u et al.,
2014; Bonsall et al., 2015) or the 8.2 ka event (Perşoiu et al., 2017;
Bonsall et al., 2015) appear much more evident on the PD curve for
western rivers compared to eastern ones; the most significant differ-
ences are noticeable after 4700 cal BP when the largest number of
flooding events is recorded on western rivers, with the highest number
during Bronze Age, Iron Age, Migration Period, MCA, and particularly
in LIA (Fig. 8D); eastern rivers exhibit roughly the same large intervals
of fluvial activity as western rivers, but are much ”calmer” in terms of
forming high fluvial activity clusters (with the exception of Iron Age
and Migration Period, and of Medieval Climatic Anomaly (MCA) when
the two fluvial systems displayed similar dynamics).
Based on the common hydrological origin of the two basins (Someș
and Siret) in the same mountain range, we may assume that the or-
ientation of the drainage in relation to the Eastern Carpathian range
interferes rather strongly with the dominant climate factor, i.e. the
western atmospheric circulation. Thus, a larger amount of precipitation
is available in the formation of water discharges modelling river
channels on western rivers than on eastern ones. It should be noted that
this occurs despite the fact that (see Table 1) the drainage area of the
eastern basin is 2.5 times larger than the western basin. Undoubtedly,
the current ratio of the water discharge on the two Eastern Carpathian
flanks has been maintained, in general terms, throughout the Holocene.
As regards the paleoenvironmental signals recorded by the lacus-
trine units directly connected to the drainage network (Fig. 8C), it is
apparent that lacustrine archives have captured rather closely the
changes in their catchments due to the amount of displaced sediments.
The investigated catchments seldom exceed 50 km2 in area, most of
which are located above 1000 m asl. Therefore, these small catchments
exhibit increased sensitivity to environmental changes, as well as
higher complexity of the response of sediment dynamics. Conversely,
larger catchments tend to attenuate the variability of the response and
to retain only the events with the highest impact (Walling, 1983; Lewin
and Macklin, 2003). Thus, we can explain the differences in the tem-
poral variability of PD curves, which are much more pronounced in
lacustrine units compared to fluvial units. We may estimate, based on
these considerations, that at high altitudes and within the control of
small catchments, the alternation of cool wet phases with warm dry
phases occurred much more frequently than in the fluvial environment,
where the sediment circuit is controlled by large drainage basins (as
ample as 5000 km2). Even during the warmer periods prior to 4700 cal
BP, at higher altitudes were recorded events triggered by excessive
precipitation, often not perceived in larger downstream basins. Sub-
sequent to 4700 cal BP this tendency became more characteristic.
Flooding events and the fluvial activity identified in the PD curve of
fluvial datings, in general, indicate good correspondence with the la-
custrine environment. The Bronze and Iron Ages, Migration Period,
MCA and LIA all marked peaks on the PD curve with values above 0.6.
The teleconnection of lacustrine units with large climatic phases is
better emphasized by the PD curve for datings from wet periods
(Fig. 8C) identified in lakes and bogs source studies. Basically, these
filter the seemingly chaotic signals from the PD curve for lacustrine
units, focusing on the periods which combine (according to the opi-
nions of the authors of respective studies) the traits of wet, cold periods.
In addition to the climate, the vegetation cover and the human
impact were among the other relevant factors controlling flooding
events on rivers. Based on the recent syntheses published by Feurdean
M. Rădoane et al.

Fig. 8. Synthesis of Holocene fluvial activity indicators for rivers draining the Romanian Carpathians and correlations with other paleoenvironmental indicators. A.
Variation of relative probability curve for 142 age determinations of fluvial units from Romania; B. Relative probability curve for 109 age determinations of fluvial
units on rivers draining opposing flanks of the Eastern Carpathians; C. Relative probability curve for 274 14C datings of sedimentary units from small lakes (the blue
line depicts the relative probability curve for a selection of 140 14C datings of lacustrine units indicating wet periods); D. Distinction between fluvial flooding episodes
on western rivers and eastern rivers, in relation to the Eastern Carpathian range (the main paleoclimatic events and historic periods documented in various studies are
indicated); E. Schematic representation of trends in the main forest constituents in Romania over the past 12 ka (re-drawn after Feurdean and Tanţǎ u (2017): 1,
Quercus, Tilia, Carpinus betulus, Fagus silvatica, Corylus avellana; 2, Fagus silvatica, Carpinus betulus; 3, Fagus sylvatica, Abies alba, Carpinus betulus, Corylus avellana,
Quercus, Tilia, Fraxinus, Acer, Picea abies, Ulmus; 4, Picea abies; 5, Pinus, Betula, Juniperus, Salix; red crosses = the oldest anthropogenic pollen records from lakes and
peat bogs from Romania; F. Assessment of dominant fluvial processes on Romanian rivers as a response to the combined action of controls during the Holocene
(composite diagram based on cited case studies and the present study), (1) Rǎ doane et al. (2013); (2) Chiriloaei et al. (2012); (3) Rădoane et al. (2015); (4) Perșoiu
and Rădoane (2017); (5) Perșoiu (2010); (6) Perșoiu et al. (2017); (7) Howard et al. (2004); (8) Bonsall et al. (2015); (9) Perșoiu et al. (2018); (10) Gębica et al.
(2016). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

and Tanţǎ u (2017) and Mindrescu et al. (2017) we generated the dia-
gram in Fig. 8E. The elevation of the Romanian territory is shown on
the x-coordinate, while the y-coordinate indicates equal time intervals
up to 12,000 cal BP. Within this frame is shown the position of the
altitudinal zones of forest vegetation and the curve of the human impact
(based on anthropogenic indicators from lake and bog sediments). The
pollen records indicated that the forest composition changed dynami-
cally throughout the Holocene with changes in tree diversity and dis-
tribution, which were grouped in five temporal categories (cf. Fig. 8E,
Feurdean and Tanţǎ u, 2017). The altitudinal zone which underwent the
most numerous and significant changes in vegetation assemblages was
the 700–1000 m asl range (shown as a grey belt in Fig. 8E). From the
onset of the Holocene (11.7 ka) to the present no less than 4 vegetation
assemblages were documented in this elevation range. The sensitivity of
vegetation to climate changes occurring at this elevation coincides with
the area which exhibits the highest efficacy in displacing sediments
(due to a combination of slope gradients and rock friability, typical for
the Subcarpathians and the piedmonts at the contact with the outer
plains). Conversely, the transition from coniferous to deciduous forest
has decreased the rate of surface erosion by up to 2 times (Dumitriu
et al., 2017), albeit for a short time. From 7.5 ka onwards the presence
of man became a factor, starting with lower elevation territories (with
Lake Știucii sequence in the Transylvanian Plain revealing the most
continuous and sustained impact of human on the vegetation -
(Feurdean et al., 2013). Whereas most of the Romanian landscapes
were previously forested, after 7.5 ka, a large proportion of forested
area from low to mid elevations was gradually cleared and changed into
pasture and cultivated land. Pollen records of crop plant species become
more numerous during the middle and late Holocene at the sites located
at 250 m–1700 m asl within the Romanian territory. Using the oldest
anthropogenic pollen records from lakes and peat bogs from Romania,
based on which we drew a generalised evolution curve of human im-
pact on land. The shape of the curve shows the rate at which humans
intervened to obtain cropland with land elevation; the highest defor-
estation rates occurred in the Bronze Age, and particularly during the
Roman period.
The transition from forest to cropland resulted in another increase
of erosion rates (e.g., current measurements on erosion plots showed an
augmentation of surface erosion rates of up to 10 times at the transition
from vegetated land to cereal crops - (Dumitriu et al., 2017), with
displaced sediments entering the sediment circuit, from source to the
river network.
Ultimately, vegetation dynamics, human intervention and landform
configuration of the Romanian territory were all secondary factors
M. Rădoane et al.

Fig. 9. I. Key site Tupilați on river Moldova: A. Geomorphological map of current channel dynamics, terrace extension and age estimates based on datings of
sedimentary packs from gravel pit exposures. B. Profile based on resistivimetry measurements in floodplain deposits and paleochannels. C. Representative lithos-
tratigrahic profile for this sector. II. Key site Măluț on river Someș: A. Geomorphological map of current channel dynamics and extension of floodplain terraces. B.
Representative lithostratigrahic profile for this sector (AD = anno domini; A = position of artefacts) (Ages = cal yr BP).
M. Rădoane et al.
adjusted by the primary factor, the climate. This resulted in the release
of variable amounts of sediments to the drainage network which has
subsequently been stored in floodplains and reworked through incision
and aggradation. By combining case studies tackling Romanian rivers
(particularly those pertaining to Someș and Siret drainage systems) we
were able to assess the dynamics of dominant fluvial processes along
7th and 8th order river channels (Fig. 8F).
The relief forms prevalent within floodplains are terraces with ele-
vations ranging from less than 1 m to 4–7 m above channel, which were
mapped in numerous sites where we conducted detailed investigations
(cf. Fig. 1, of which we selected an illustrative example, shown in Fig. 9,
IA, IIA). The presence of these terrace levels indicates the manifestation
of vertical incision (of 4–7 m) in the sedimentary deposits of the
floodplain which took place during the Holocene. Although we have no
concrete evidence of when the incision occurred, several age determi-
nations of floodplain terrace deposits are available which allow for
indirect hypotheses.
Thus, the numerical ages available for rivers pertaining to rivers
Siret and Someș, supplemented by other documented reports (Howard
et al., 2004; Perșoiu, 2010; Bonsall et al., 2015; Perșoiu and Rădoane,
2017) show that periods of alluvial sedimentation correlate well with
episodes of climatic cooling, higher rainfall and enhanced river activity.
Warmer periods with well vegetated lands and incipient human activity
were propitious for channel deepening particularly in the early Holo-
cene. However, the two categories of fluvial processes have not been
mutually exclusive over time; on the contrary, during cooler periods, in
addition to sediment accumulation processes, channel incisions and
greater lateral mobility (avulsions) were also documented, whereas in
warmer phases, aside from generalised incision, local phenomena of
sedimentation and reworking of alluvial sediments occurred. Fig. 9 is
illustrative in this regard, showcasing two floodplain sectors selected
from the previously mentioned fluvial systems, on river Moldova (tri-
butary of Siret) in the east and Someș in the west.
River Moldova drains the eastern flank of the Eastern Carpathians
and has a braiding channel typical for rivers with high gravel load.
Along the 10-km long floodplain reach, three floodplain terraces were
mapped whose ages were dated. In terms of tectonics, the eastern re-
gion of the Eastern Carpathians and Subcarpathians is relatively stable
(valid upstream of fault along the Trotuș valley), therefore the ex-
planation for the succession of distinct floodplain levels can only reside
in the climate conditions. The oldest gravels at the contact with the
bedrock (Sarmatian marls) are 9.5–10 ka cal BP (Fig. 9_IB) and account
for the bottom of the 4.5–5 m terrace level preserved on the left bank.
The lithostratigraphic profile (Fig. 9_IC) shows that the top part of the
sedimentary pack was heavily eroded after 9.5 ka, thus confirming the
incision occurring from early to mid Holocene. The lateral migration of
the river led both to channel incision and reworking of the sedimentary
material from the upper terrace. Following a long timespan lacking
sediment accumulation, from 3.7 to 3 ka we documented that alluvia-
tion with coarse material took place (gravel sheet dated 3.7–3 ka),
unevenly distributed along the valley (well illustrated by the re-
sistivimetry profile in Fig. 9B and the lithostratigraphic profile in
Fig. 9_IC). This alluvial pack was also removed subsequently, leaving in
place small floodplain levels of 1,5 - 2 m, linked to the current fluvial
couloir. Their ages were dated as 2.2–1.2 ka cal BP.
The next site is located on the western river, Someș; the floodplain
reach is traversed by a sinuous gravel-bed channel with alternate bars,
with three floodplain terrace levels (3 m, 4–5 m and 6 m) (Fig. 9II_A) for
illustration. In the Transylvanian Depression tectonics are somewhat
more active due to diapir activity, thus river Someș often cuts through
the bedrock. The thickness of floodplain deposits ranges between 4 and
8 m (Fig. 9_IIB). The exposures in the floodplain deposits (most of which
were generated by gravel pits) point to the manifestation of very active
vertical morphodynamics due to discontinuities in sediment accumu-
lation and sediment reworking. The coarse gravel horizon at the contact
with the bedrock was dated to 9.8 ka cal BP (i.e. a sedimentation
phase). This was ensued by an erosion phase, above which we identified
lobes of finer-grained gravel (6.7 ka cal BP); further on, the succession
was once more interrupted by an erosion level. Until 960 cal BP and
again 1815 AD (i.e. two levels comprising of sediments rich in artefacts)
no sedimentation level was preserved, as the entire amount of accu-
mulated material was subsequently removed. A consistent 2-m thick
pack of fine-grained sediments (sand) completes the depositional se-
quence. The latter accumulated during the catastrophic flood events of
the 1970s (dated based on remnants of objects and materials embedded
in these deposits). The surprising finding that a historic flood event
could result in the accumulation of a sediment pack thick enough to
match the deposits identified 7 ka years ago led us to the observation
that sedimentation and erosion processes were similarly active during
the Holocene. Thus, the 3 terrace levels (3 m, 4–5 m and 6 m) are
composed of sediments with ages which cannot be correlated along the
river, as they have been subjected to intensive erosion and reworking.
Based on these examples we conclude that the variability of fluvial
processes in Romanian rivers illustrated in Fig. 8F suggests a general
trend which results from a combination of factors favorable to mobi-
lizing larger amounts of water and sediments during some periods and
smaller in other intervals. Our own results, as well as those documented
in other studies, indicate that channel incision was dominant in the
early and mid Holocene, whereas sedimentation processes, avulsion
and incision occurred at a much faster rate in the Late Holocene. Se-
diment reworking was much more pronounced on western rivers nearly
throughout the Holocene; the explanation likely resides in the higher
water discharges and the relatively smaller amounts of finer-grained
sediments influencing river mechanics. This context was further com-
plicated by diapir tectonics, typical for the Transylvanian Depression.
The rivers from the eastern basin received comparatively lower
amounts of water, albeit the sediments entering the channel systems
were coarser and in higher amounts. By comparing event chronologies,
we concluded that during the Holocene, if we overlook the period prior
to 10 ka BP (for which insufficient datings were available), several
periods with ample fluvial processes manifesting on the rivers draining
the Romanian Carpathians were documented: 9500-9200, 8200 (par-
ticularly on western rivers), 6300 (particularly on eastern rivers); 5300-
4600, 3800-3600, 2300-2200, 1300 (Migration Period), 900-700
(MCA) and 600-500 BP (Little Ice Age). We avoided including post-LIA
datings due to larger degree of uncertainty that is obtained for samples
of this age, an effect which resides in the wiggled profile of the IntCal13
calibration curve in this period (Reimer et al., 2013).
5.2. Comparison with flood activity databases from Eastern and Central
Europe
Independent data collection coupled with processing using the same
methodology allow for comparisons between various regions in terms
of extreme hydrological events. Such a parallel was possible for the data
obtained in this study to determine whether they synchronize with data
from Central and Eastern Europe. We verified this aspect in Fig. 10,
using as reference the results regarding flood activity in three regions:
the East European Plain (EEP) (Panin and Matlakhova, 2015), Poland
(PL) (Starkel et al., 2012) and Germany (D) (Hoffmann et al., 2008), to
which we added Romania (RO) with the present study. For comparison
with the general situation of flood events during the Holocene as de-
termined by Benito et al. (2015) for all the climatic regions of Europe
we included in the background the curve obtained by the authors. The
average synchrony at European scale was of 2.6 regions/100 years,
according to the cited source.
Therefore, of the 17 centennial intervals with flooding events re-
corded in fluvial archives from Romania during the past 10,000 years,
15 intervals are synchronous with at least one region from Central or
Eastern Europe. Individually, these periods are:
(i) 9500 cal BP was synchronous in Romania and Poland, while other
M. Rădoane et al.
Fig. 10. Synchrony of flood periods across SE Europe (Romania), East European Plain, Central Europe (Poland and Germany) and the comparison with all European
climatic regions (the latter redrawn after Benito et al., 2015). On a temporal scale divided in 100-year intervals we plotted flood periods from each region, allowing
for visualisation of timespans where they overlap. In the black labels we included the years when major flood events coincided for all four regions or solely three
regions (typically, EEP, RO, PL).
European regions showed average sensitivity. Another period
marked by major floods was reported around 9000 in EEP and
Germany. It appears that fluvial events from these periods are
linked to the short cooling phase at 9.3 ka BP identified by IRD
(ice-rafted debris) events in the North Atlantic Ocean (Macklin
et al., 2006).
(ii) 8200 cal BP is the following period of sensitivity in Romania,
synchronous with Germany. At European scale this interval does
not particularly stand out in terms of major flood events, with
nearly no events in the Mediterranean area and disparate events in
the temperate area. In Romania, the 8.2 ka event was documented
in Scărișoara cave based on stable isotopic analysis of an ice core
(Perşoiu et al., 2017), as well as in the reconstruction of flood
events on the Danube, in the Iron Gates area, based on archae-
ological evidence (Bonsall et al., 2015).
(iii) 7500-7200 cal BP was a period of generalised flooding events at
continental scale, which, naturally, included all four regions (RO,
D, PL, EEP);
(iv) 6600-6400 cal BP was synchronous for RO, PL and EEP, and fairly
distinguishable throughout the continent but with a low prob-
ability; instead, the 5600 cal BP moment was noted with a higher
probability in all four regions;
(v) the 4700 cal BP mark was regarded as a moment of fundamental
change in the atmospheric circulation, mainly a shift from NAO−
to NAO+ in the North Atlantic, the latter becoming dominant
since ∼4.7 kcal BP. This strongly influenced climate patterns in
East-Central Europe (Perşoiu et al., 2017). According to the general
curve (Fig. 10) of flooding event frequency, this interval was
propitious for several European regions, including Southeastern
Europe;
(vi) in the Late Holocene, synchronous periods of flood events are more
numerous: 4000, 3300, 3000-2900, 2300-2000, 1300, 900-700,
500-400, 300 cal BP. The synchrony is documented with regions
from Central and Eastern Europe, but also with peaks determined
at continental scale. These periods of incidence of major floods also
coincided with changes in the general atmospheric circulation.
Whereas in the early to mid-Holocene the climate was more con-
tinental, with a marked contrast between cold winters and warm
summers, in the late Holocene, post-4700 cal BP, the continental
character of the climate diminished, with cooler summers and
warmer winters (Perşoiu et al., 2017).
The correspondence between the major climatic events of the
Holocene (particularly cooling phases) and the river response through
flood events has been widely debated (Macklin et al., 2006; Benito
et al., 2015; Perșoiu et al., 2017) and shows the dominant character of
the climatic factor. Against this background, local controls (such as the
orographic barrier of the Carpathians interfering with the circulation of
oceanic air masses, the history of vegetation changes or the human
impact) have generated local variations in the river response in the
form of flood events, which distinguish the Holocene fluvial history of
Carpathian rivers.
6. Conclusions
This study marks the first instance when a database comprising
numerical ages of fluvial deposits of rivers draining the Romanian
Carpathians has been collected, classified and analysed in order to re-
construct the phases of geomorphic activity of rivers during major flood
events and periods of low hydroclimatic intensity throughout the
Holocene. The main purpose of this work was to link the results de-
termined in our study area (the Carpathians, SE Europe) to data from
other European regions and to assess the role of local controls in the
magnitude and timing of hydrogeomorphological phases. Based on the
analysis of probability frequency distributions for 142 selected ages
(out of 196 records), 17 major flooding episodes were identified
(Table 3), of which 12 (mostly from the last 4500 years) coincide with
wet phases determined for lacustrine sedimentary units from the study
area (Table 3, Figs. 5 and 6).
At regional scale, of the 17 centennial intervals with flood events
recorded in fluvial archives from Romania in the last 10 ka, 15 intervals
are synchronous with at least one area from Central or Eastern Europe
(Fig. 10), leading to the conclusion that the climatic factor manifested
dominantly in SE Europe, as well.
At local scale, the orographic barrier of the Carpathians interfering
with the dominant circulation of western air masses (Table 3, Figs. 7
and 8) has modified the magnitude and timing of flood event phases as
follows: the average relative probability for datings of western fluvial
units is nearly three times higher than the parameter for eastern units;
the intervals with relative probability above average are longer in
datings for western rivers compared to eastern rivers; overall, the
number of intervals surpassing average probability is 17, of which only
8 time intervals coincide with peaks exceeding the relative probability
averages of the two curves.
M. Rădoane et al.
Other controls with local influence in terms of the local dynamics of
hydroclimatic processes, such as vegetation dynamics and human im-
pact, have indicated that the areas located between 700 and 1000 m asl
exhibited the highest susceptibility to the stress of Holocene vegetation
changes, whereas the rate at which human interventions occurred in-
creased since the Bronze Age (post ca. 4500 cal BP). Both factors (i.e.
vegetation dynamics and human impact, in particular, see Fig. 8E)
overlapped with the action of the dominant climatic factor, and their
response was visible in the manifestation of fluvial processes of incision
and/or aggradation and avulsion (Fig. 8F).
The process of channel incision was prevalent in the Early and Mid-
Holocene (4700 cal BP was a turning point), while sedimentation,
avulsion as well as incision occurred at a much faster rate during the
Late Holocene. Sediment reworking was much more pronounced along
western rivers almost continuously throughout the Holocene, as fluvial
processes were controlled by water flows as high as 3 times larger
compared to eastern rivers and fewer, finer-grained sediments, and
further complicated by the diapir tectonics of the Transylvanian
Depression. By contrast, eastern rivers had to adjust their activity to
comparatively lower streamflow discharges, whereas the sediment
input was larger and coarser-grained.
The event chronologies documented the following periods with the
amplest fluvial processes manifesting on the rivers draining the
Romanian Carpathians for the past 10 kyr: 9500-9200, 8200 (particu-
larly on western rivers), 6300; 4800-4700, 3600-3300, 2300-2200,
1300 (Migration Period), 950-700 (Medieval Climatic Anomaly) and
600-350 BP (Little Ice Age). For the last 200 years, investigations re-
garding river channel dynamics (especially planform configuration
changes) indicated an unprecedented increase in the role of the an-
thropogenic component in the causality of the phenomenon. Thus,
anthropogenic impact competes with climate changes for the control of
fluvial processes (Perşoiu and Rǎ doane, 2011; Rǎ doane et al., 2013;
2017).
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by funds from the Exploratory
Research Projects PN-II-ID-PCE-2011-3. Also, this work was supported
by a grant from the Romanian National Authority for Scientific
Research and Innovation, project number PN-II-RU-TE-2014-4-0855.
We are also grateful to Andrei Panin for invaluable help in processing
and interpreting databases, his comments bringing substantial im-
provements to this article. Special thanks to Ioana Perșoiu (for stimu-
lating discussions and for providing data). We are thankful to Ionela
Mindrescu, Andrei Mursa, Delia Robu and Corina-Anca Simion for their
help in different stages of elaboration of the paper.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2018.11.014.
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Further Reading
Tandem Accelerators Department, RoAMS Laboratory, ”Horia Hulubei”, National
Institute of Physics and Nuclear Engineering, Bucharest. https://tandem.nipne.ro/
RadioCarbon.