Professional Documents
Culture Documents
in Petroleum
Exploration
Geochemistry
in Petroleum
Exploration
Douglas w. Waples
BROWN AND RUTH LABORATORIES, INC.
DENVER, COLORADO
INTERNATIONAL HUMAN
RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
CORPORATION
Boston
For Bob Witters
and all other excellent teachers
Cover illustration: Core 13 from Hole 550 of Leg 80 of the Deep Sea
Drilling Project, Goban Spur, North Atlantic. Black, bioturbated clay-
stones of probable Turonian to Coniacian age grade upward into green
and finally red claystones, reflecting the gradual increase in bottom-
water oxygen content in the Late Cretaceous. The sequence is capped by
a white chalk turbidite. See also figure 2.13.
Series Editor
George deVries Klein
Department of Geology
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Consulting Editors
Michael A. Arthur
Graduate School of Oceanography
University of Rhode Island
Thomas W. C. Hilde
Department of Geophysics
Texas A(]i'M University
W. Stuart McKerrow
Department of Geology and Mineralogy
University of Oxford
J. Casey Moore
Earth Sciences
University of California-Santa Cruz,
Contents
Dedication iv
Preface ix
1. Introduction 1
Philosophy of Hydrocarbon Exploration
Formation of Oil and Gas
Applications to Hydrocarbon Exploration
Suggested Readings
2. Organic Facies 5
The Carbon Cycle
Factors Influencing Organic Richness
Examples of Rich and Lean Sediments
General Models for Source-Rock Development
Summary
Suggested Readings
4. Kerogen 31
Introduction
Kerogen Formation
Kerogen Composition
Kerogen Maturation
Summary
Suggested Readings
vii
viii
Factors Affecting Composition ofBitu1nen and Petroleum Factors Affecting Thermal Maturity
Comparison of Bitumen and Petroleum Interpretation of TTl Values
Natural Gas Applications to Hydrocarbon Preservation
Summary Applications to Exploration
Suggested Readings Comparison of Several Maturity Models
Potential Problems with Maturity Calculations
6. Migration 63 Conclusions
Definitions Suggested Readings
Primary Migration Practice problems
Secondary Migration Solutions to Practice Problems
Accumulation
Effects on Oil and Gas Composition 10. Correlations 155
Significance for Exploration Introduction
Suggested Readings Correlation Parameters
Correlation Parameters for Gases
7. Analytical Techniques 73 Case Studies
Introduction Conclusions
Chemical Characterization for Correlations Sugsested Readings
Source-Rock Evaluation Practice Problems
Contamination and Weathering Solutions to Practice Problems
Analytical Costs
Summary 11. Surface Prospecting 181
Suggested Readings Philosophy of surface Prospecting
Surface-Prospecting Techniques
8. Source-Rock Evaluation 93 Summary
Definition of Source Rock Suggested Readings
Principles of Source-Rock Evaluation
Interpretation of Source-Rock Data 12. Integrated Applications to Exploration 189
Examples of Source-Rock Evaluation Philosophy of the Model-Based Approach
Summary Qualitative Models of Hydrocarbon Systems
Suggested Readings Quantitative (Volumetric) Models
Practice Problems Summary
Solutions to Practice Problems Suggested Readings
ix
x
pIes of geochemical interpretation. My interpretations are there is a short list of recent articles that will be of general
not guaranteed to be the very best possible; they could interest to a nonspecialist. At the end of the book is a
serve as focal points for classroom discussions. longer list of references cited in the text or figure legends.
Because of its design as a textbook for independent Many chemical and geochemical terms are italicized
study, graduate courses, or short courses, this book is not where they are first introduced. These and many other
intended as a reference volume or encyclopedia. Readers terms are defined more formally in the Glossary.
who want to delve more deeply into various aspects of Developing the ability to apply organic geochemistry
petroleum geochemistry should consult the primary liter- intelligently and effectively in exploration is not difficult,
ature that I have cited, or the reference volumes Petro- even if one does not have a strong chemistry background.
leum Formation and Occurrence by Tissot and Welte This text is designed to foster the development of those
(1978) and Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology by Hunt skills. If after reading the book you can find ways to make
(1979). geochemistry work for you, then you and I will have
The literature cited in this book represents only a tiny succeeded.
fraction of that available. At the end of most chapters
Chapter 1 Introduction
1
2
. . ATURE
0..
cation of organic geochemistry, we must understand not ~
ILl
only how oil and gas are formed in the subsurface, but ~
(cal.genes ~)
1. What was the original hydrocarbon-source potential of our analyses miss the deepest rocks in a basin, and often
a particular rock? Does it have any remaining source do not include the most basinal facies (fig. 1.2).
potential at the present time? A second problem with the analysis-based approach is
2. What depositional environments are conducive to the that it generally lacks the ability to extrapolate measured
formation of kerogens having high hydrocarbon- data through time and space. In theory, in order for an
source potentials? Can we predict their occurrence? analysis-based approach to be valid, we would need to
3. Which types of kerogen are converted to oil? to gas? have enough data coverage in the area of interest to allow
4. What factors influence oil gravity and composition? interpolation between points, rather than requiring ex-
5. What thermal conditions are required for hydrocarbon trapolation beyond data control. In many regions, partic-
formation? Can we predict when and where genera- ularly frontier areas, adequate data coverage is simply
tion has occurred? impossible. By adopting the analysis-based approach in
6. Can we correlate several samples with each other to such cases, we force ourselves to extrapolate meager mea-
decipher genetic relationships? Can we distinguish sured data across large unsampled voids.
biogenic methane from thermal methane? The only way to intelligently extrapolate (or even inter-
7. Can we predict the direction, timing, and efficiency of polate in many cases) is to adopt a model-based ap-
hydrocarbon migration in a particular area? proach, in which a conceptual geological model is
8. What conditions are required for hydrocarbons to be developed for the area of interest. Such a model must take
preserved against the destructive forces of oxidation, both local measured data and data from analogous
cracking, and biodegradation? Can we predict where geological settings into account, and must be continually
destruction will occur? revised as new information becomes available. The model
can be based on all types of relevant data, including grav-
Because traditional applications of organic geochemistry ity, magnetics, seismic, surface geology, subsurface geol-
have been analysis-based, they are critically dependent ogy, paleontology, and geochemistry data. It may also
upon sample availability. As a consequence of drilling on include whatever data are available in other areas that
structural highs, however, sampling programs are inevi- were selected to serve as analogs.
tably biased toward shallow and young samples. Thus Geochemical models form an important part of the
4
SUGGESTED READINGS
5
6
Toe (%)
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5
0
••
•
100
200
6
u;
a:
w 300
I-
w
!
CARBONATE
SEDIMENTS :I: •• •
(64,000,000) I-
a.. 400
•••
w
0
••
500
FOSSIL FUELS
(10,000)
600
is already highly oxidized when it arrives in the sed- Although oxidative decay destroys most of the yearly
iments. production, over vast amounts of geologic time the small
Although some destruction of organic material occurs fraction that escaped the carbon cycle has built up ex-
during transport to the depositional environment, a great tremely large quantities of organic matter (20,000,000 bil-
deal of the oxidation of organic matter occurs within the lion t) dispersed in fine-grained sedimentary rocks. Only
sediments themselves. Figure 2.2 illustrates a typical a small fraction of this (10,000 billion t, or about 0.05%)
diagenesis curve for organic carbon deposited in an occurs in economic deposits of fossil fuels. When we con-
oxidizing pelagic environment. Total-organic-carbon sider inefficiencies in discovery and recovery, only one
(TOe) values decrease monotonically through the first molecule out of about every one million successfully nego-
300 meters (m) of burial before leveling out at about tiates the journey from living organism to the gasoline
0.1 %, suggesting that either depth or organic-carbon con- pump.
tent eventually limits diagenesis. Depth could interfere
with microbial diagenesis when compaction reduces pore FACTORS INFLUENCING ORGANIC RICHNESS
sizes and nutrient fluxes in interstitial waters. On the In order for organic-rich rocks to be formed, significant
other hand, the low Toe values could indicate that the amounts of organic matter must be deposited and pro-
remaining organic matter has no more nutritional value, tected from diagenetic destruction. The three primary fac-
and that the microbes ,have given up trying to digest it. tors influencing the amount of organic matter in a
Each factor may be dominant under different conditions. sedimentary rock are productivity, preservation, and dilu-
2. ORGANlC FACIES 7
TERRESTRIAL AQUEOUS
STEPPE ESTUARIES
DESERT GR ASS LAND fOREST AGRICULTURE ALGAL BEDS
REEfS
...
294 l / km'
... ...
2!>OO Ilkm' 2798 l / km'
...
... 6429 IIkm'
7927 IIkm'
20.000 l / km' ~
FIGURE 2.3 Global distribution of primary photosynthetic rooments, where there is local recycling of nutrients from
productivity, showing the great variations among marine en-
decaying organisms and influx of fresh nutrients from
vironments. Adapted from Huc, 1980, by permission of the
Societe des Editions Technip. terrestrial sources, are therefore much more productive
than the open ocean (fig. 2.3).
In relatively unrestricted marine environments, water-
tion. Productivity is the logical place to begin our analysis, circulation patterns are particularly important for supply-
because without adequate productivity, accumulation of ing nutrients and thus controlling productivity. Bodies of
organic-rich sediments cannot occur. water naturally develop density stratification, with a pref-
erence for horizontal water movement within each den-
PRODUCTIVITY sity layer. Nutrients dissolved in waters below the photic
A partial listing of the many factors influencing produc- zone therefore go unutilized, because under normal cir-
tivity would include nutrient availability, light intensity, cumstances they cannot move upward into the zone of
temperature, carbonate supply, predators, and general photosynthesis. Only where there is upwelling of subsur-
water chemistry. Each of these categories could in turn be face waters can these nutrients return to the photic zone.
further subdivided. For example, nutrient availability Upwelling occurs where bulk movement of surface wa-
would depend on such factors as water-circulation pat- ter away from a particular area allows deeper water to
terns, orogeny and erosion, volcanism, paleoclimate, and ascend to replace it. If this deeper water is enriched in
recycling by organic decay. nutrients, high photosynthetic productivity will occur at
Nutrient availability is, in fact, one of the critical pa- the site of upwelling. In the modern world there are zones
rameters governing productivity. Shallow-marine envi- of intense seasonal upwelling off the west coasts of
8
r.Jl
t:::J pwelling
California, Peru, Namibia, and northwest Africa that re- FIGURE 2.4 Atmospheric circulation and upwelling patterns
sult from the movement, induced by the Coriolis force, of in northern summers during the Maestrichtian (Late Creta-
surface waters away from these coasts. There is another ceous). Reprinted by permission of Elsevier Science Publishing
Company from Parrish and Curtis, 1982.
zone of seasonal upwelling off the Horn of Africa in the
Indian Ocean as a result of monsoonal winds that drive
ervation (Bralower and Thierstein, 1984). There are
surface waters away from the coast. All these areas ex-
many more organic-rich facies resulting from excellent
hibit high productivity when upwelling occurs.
preservation than from extremely high productivity. After
Theoretical models have been developed to predict up-
all, if on the average only 1% of organic matter is pre-
welling (and consequent productivity) in ancient seas
served, increasing preservation rates is a very efficient
from input data on continental configurations, land
way to increase organic richness. Secondly, the accuracy
masses, wind- and water-circulation patterns, and pa-
with which we can reconstruct continental positions,
leoclimates (for example, Parrish, 1982; Parrish and Cur-
paleoclimatic conditions, and all the other factors that
tis, 1982). An example is shown in figure 2.4 for the
influence upwelling loci is severely limited, especially in
Aptian stage of the Early Cretaceous. The accuracy of the
the Paleozoic. Parrish (1982) recognized this problem,
models was tested by comparing predicted occurrences of
and therefore allowed herself an inaccuracy of 5° in
upwellings with rock facies known to be associated with
evaluating the success of her predictions. Whether an ac-
upwelling systems (organic-rich, phosphatic, glauconitic,
curacy limit of 5° is acceptable, even in the earliest stages
cherty). Parrish (1982) reported an encouraging correla-
of exploration in a frontier area, is a question worth
tion betwen predicted and reported occurrences of up-
considering.
welling facies for the Paleozoic.
Such models are interesting, and may in fact prove
PRESERVATION
useful in future exploration efforts. There are, however,
some problems associated with their application. First, Introduction. The principal control (in my opinion) on or-
productivity is probably not as important a factor as pres- ganic richness is the efficiency of preservation of organic
2. ORGANIC FACIES 9
matter in sedimentary environments. Three factors affect vated TOC values (generally above 2% and always above
the preservation (or destruction) of organic matter: the 1%). However, many oxic sediments also contain large
concentration and nature of oxidizing agents, the type of amounts of organic matter, especially of woody origin.
organic matter deposited, and the sediment-accumulation TOC values alone must therefore be used with caution.
rate. Of these, oxidizing agents are probably the most The presence of undegraded marine organic material is a
crucial factor. strong indication of anoxia, because marine organic mat-
ter is consumed preferentially by organisms. Its presence
Anoxia. Because most of the oxidation occurring in the in rocks therefore indicates that diagenesis was stopped
water column, soils, and sediments is biological, and be- prematurely, most likely by an absence of oxygen.
cause most biological oxidation processes require Color is not a reliable indicator. All anoxic sediments
molecular oxygen (02 ), the simplest way to limit oxida- will be very dark gray or black when deposited. Many
tion is to limit the supply of oxygen. All large organisms black rocks, however, are not rich in organic carbon; they
require oxygen in order to live, although some species can often owe their dark color to finely divided pyrite or to
tolerate oxygen levels as low as 0.5 milliliters (mL) per particular chert phases. Color should be used mainly as a
liter (L) (compared to about 6 mLIL in surface waters). negative criterion: If a rock is not very, very dark, it cannot
At lower levels of dissolved oxygen, many species disap- represent an anoxic facies.
pear; the remaining individuals often become dwarfed in The presence of pyrite itself can also be deceptive. Al-
an effort to survive in a hostile environment. At dissolved- though pyrite does indeed form under anoxic conditions,
oxygen levels below about 0.2 mLlL, essentially the only and its presence indicates that the anaerobic reduction of
viable organisms are those that we call anaerobes- sulfate ion did occur, there is no guarantee that anoxia
microorganisms that utilize materials like sulfate or ni- was present at the sea floor; it may well have developed
trate ions instead of molecular oxygen as electron after burial. Furthermore, anoxia can be very local; in-
acceptors in their metabolic processes. tense pyritization of benthic bivalves is testimony to the
We call the zone in which oxygen contents are high the fact that pyrite is not a good indicator of bottom-water
oxic zone; the zone where oxygen falls below 0.2 mLIL is anoxia at the time of deposition.
called the anoxic zone. Processes that occur in these two Finally, anoxic sediments show preserved depositional
zones are called aerobic and anaerobic, respectively. The laminae on a millimeter or submillimeter scale. The lam-
term dysaerobic has been used to describe processes oc- inae prove that burrowing fauna were absent, and there-
curring in the transitional zone (0.2-0.5 mLIL), and we fore that dissolved-oxygen levels were below 0.2 mLIL.
could coin the term dysoxic to describe the zone itself Conversely, the presence of bioturbation indicates that the
The term "anoxic" literally means "having no oxygen," bottom waters were not anoxic, although stunted bur-
but because of the radical change in biota that occurs at rows can be used as evidence of dysoxia.
about 0.2 mLlL, its use in practice has been expanded to However, depositional laminae are also preserved in
include very low oxygen levels as well. some fine-grained but organic-lean rocks. For example,
Anoxia is of tremendous importance in the preserva- the diatomite from the Pliocene Sisquoc Formation at
tion of organic matter in sediments, because when the Lompoc, California, is finely laminated but almost pure
availability of oxygen is limited, diagenesis is restricted white and devoid of organic matter. It seems likely, by
to anaerobic processes. These anaerobic processes are analogy with the underlying Monterey Formation, that
inefficient compared with aerobic diagenesis, and are this diatomite was deposited under anoxic conditions and
usually limited in scope by the availability of sulfate or was originally organic rich. The organic matter present
nitrate. Thus if anoxia can develop, preservation of or- was oxidized subsequent to deposition, perhaps by per-
ganic matter will be much enhanced. colating ground water. However, because the bulk per-
Anoxic sediments are not always easy to recognize, meabilities of the diatomites are very low, the mechanism
because some of the commonly used indicators of anoxia for this oxidation is far from clear.
may be misleading. Anoxic sediments always contain ele- The ultimate implications of anoxia for petroleum
10
/ {~
associated with continental rifting, especially during the
Triassic along the margins of the developing Atlantic Ocean,
......... ....... ................ ....
.............................. .. .
, .............................
.. ......... .............. . are anoxic in some of the places where they have been
..... :::: ::::::: .... ~ penetrated (Angola, Gabon, Newark Graben System) .
Lakes in failed rifts can also contain organic-rich, anoxic
D nsity Oz-poor sediments. Large amounts of oil have been found in non-
slratifi alion bottom marine basins in the southern Sudan. The Precambrian
waters Nonesuch shale of the Keewanawan rift system stretching
from Wisconsin to Kansas is the site of an active new
FIGURE 2.5 Schematic diagram of density stratification in a
hydrocarbon play. Lakes of the Rift Valley of East Africa
stagnant basin. are excellent modern analogs receiving much attention
from both researchers and explorationists at the present
time.
exploration are great; it has been estimated, in fact, that OXYGEN-MINIMUM LAYER (OML). The oX)'gen-min-
most of the world's oil was generated from source beds imum layer (fig. 2.6) is a layer of subsurface water that
deposited under anoxic conditions. It therefore behooves has a lower dissolved-oxygen content than the water lay-
us to understand the conditions under which anoxia ers either above or below. This oxygen minimum devel-
develops. ops when the rate of consumption of oxygen within that
STAGNANT BASINS. Truly stagnant basins are actually layer exceeds the rate of influx of oxygen to it. Consump-
quite rare; slow circulation or turnover of the water col- tion of oxygen results from decay of dead organisms that
umn occurs almost everywhere. Nevertheless, it is in- have sunk from the photic zone above. The oxygen-
structive to consider complete stagnation, particularly in minimum layer usually begins immediately below the
understanding lacustrine beds. If an isolated body ofwa- photic zone, where photosynthesis and turbulence can no
ter is deep enough, and if the climate is subtropical or longer contribute oxygen to the water. The supply of fresh
tropical, then permanent density stratification will arise oxygen is therefore limited to horizontal movement of
as a result of temperature differences within the water oxygen-bearing waters. However, because these horizon-
column (fig. 2.5). Depths in excess of200 m are required tally moving waters also lie within the oxygen-minimum
to prevent mixing during storms, and warm climates are layer, the oxygen they can contribute is limited. Below the
necessary to avoid overturn caused by freeze-thaw cycles. OML oxygen levels again increase, as a result of dimin-
The cooler, denser waters remain at the bottom, leading ished oxygen demand, since most organic matter was
to the eventual development of a pycnocline (density in- destroyed within the overlying OML.
terface) which prevents interchange between the two lay- Although an oxygen-minimum layer exists virtually
ers. Lack of communication between the layers prohibits everywhere in the ocean, its intensity varies greatly. In-
replenishment of oxygen in the bottom layer. Therefore, tensely developed OMLs occur in areas of high productiv-
once the original oxygen has been consumed in oxidizing ity and, to a lesser extent, in areas of poor circulation.
organic matter, no more oxygen can enter, and both the Wherever an intensely developed OML intersects the sedi-
waters in the bottom layer and the underlying sediments ment-water interface, sediments will be deposited under
will become anoxic. low-oxygen conditions (fig. 2.6). Any organic matter ar-
Marine basins are seldom isolated enough to fit well riving in those sediments will have an excellent chance to
into the stagnant-basin model, but limnic environments escape oxidation.
often are. Among the ancient lake beds thought to have Bottomset beds associated with prograding delta sys-
been deposited in permanently stratified waters are the tems can be rich in organic matter if they are laid down
well-known Green River Shale (middle Eocene, Wyo- within a well-developed oxygen-minimum layer. In con-
2. ORGANIC FACIES 11
Oxidized
(;tn to whitl'
- 2800- .
Contin!;'nwl
,;5('
C..ontinenwl Continc'nwl
, lop<' shelf I Sudan' \\.111"
,'lIll1"III'""U'
11,,\\
+2~:~~:_~__:_:_~_~_~·_:~~_~__
~_~~~_~_~_t_:_~_~_~~~~_~~~~~~~1.l
- 400-
- 800- Expand!;'d Ol Minimum
lay!;''' < 0.2 rnL
- 1200-
- 1600-
- 2000-
Uifi.0.ti.i.ttGGttUU~:~~~:8{i:UM1:f:
............................................................
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::,\nw.it· 01' !>!l'" t· (),::
... ::::::::::::::::::: ~:::~::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::
':: :: Anoxic: :::. '~??}:~::;J:~Ji8:ilii08:8~[:I!:~
in o,,!pnk matlt'!' '-:-::::»::UU/UH
FIGURE 2.9 Schematic diagram of a deeply silled basin in
which the sill intersects the oX}'gen-minimum layer. Horizon-
tal movement of low-D.1:}:g'en water over the sill keeps the deep
basin sediments low in 0x:v..~en. CONTENT Of DISSOlVED O:! .. WAT£R
. . - tilGti WAT£R
FLUX
virtual absence in much terrestrial organic material, espe- • l!:. ... RGENTINE B... SIN
• CENTR ... L P... CIFIC
cially in structural (woody) material, renders it of little 0 . 1 r-'-TTTn~-'-'OTnn'-~TT,"~-'-'TTmm
0.1 1 10 100 1000
nutritional value. Furthermore, the phenolic components
SEDIMENTATION RATE (eM/l000Y)
present in lignin-derived terrestrial material are toxic to
many microorganisms, thus preventing extensive dia-
genesis of such material. FIGURE 2.11 Dependence ofTOC on sedimentation rate.
Any extensive organic diagenesis is therefore likely to Higher rates of burial and rerrwval from the zone of
eliminate algal organic matter first. That material which diagenesis prorrwte preservation. After Muller and Suess,
remains is dominantly of terrestrial origin, and may in- 1979, with permission. Copyright 1979, Pergarrwn Press, Ltd.
clude woody, cellulosic, lignitic, cuticular, or resinous
material, all of which are chemically quite distinct from tle several orders of magnitude faster than individual
each other. It may also contain very resistant organic de- phytoplankton.
bris derived from erosion of ancient rocks, forest fires,
and other oxidative processes. DILUfION
Although high sediment-accumulation rates enhance
Rapid Sedimentation and Burial. Rapid sedimentation and preservation of organic matter, at very high accumulation
burial can also enhance preservation. TOC values in- rates dilution may become a more important factor than
crease as sediment-accumulation rates increase (fig. increased preservation (fig. 2.12). Dilution does not re-
2.11), as a result of more rapid removal of organic mate- duce the total amount of organic matter preserved, of
rial from the zone of microbial diagenesis. course, but it does spread that organic material through a
Rapid burial can be accomplished by a high influx of larger volume of rock. The net result is a reduction in
inorganic detritus, biogenic inorganic sediment, or or- TOC values.
ganic material. Rapid deposition of inorganic detritus is Dilution effects depend upon rock lithology (fig. 2.12).
common in turbidites and in prodelta shales. The ex- Biogenic sediments, in which the organic and inorganic
tremely high accumulation rates for biogenic carbonates materials arrive together, are not as strongly affected by
and siliceous sediments in zones of high productivity pro- dilution. Shales, in contrast, show strong dilution effects
mote preservation of the associated algal protoplasm. when accumulation rates are very high. Facies changes
Coals also accumulate very rapidly and, with their high from carbonates to shales may create large dilution effects
concentrations of organic matter, provide an ideal means that can be wrongly interpreted as indicating changes in
of maintaining low-oxygen conditions. oxygen levels.
Rapid settling of organic debris through the water col-
umn is also important, because extensive decomposition
occurs during its fall to the ocean floor. In fact, much of
the organic material that does reach the bottom in deep
waters arrives in relatively large fecal pellets, which set-
2. ORGANIC FACIES 15
10
!
o
o
....
1 10 100
SEDIMENT - ACCUMULATION RATE (M/MY)
of oceanic- and atmospheric-circulation patterns. Conse- analyses, we should always strive to place the organic-
quently, such models are not yet of much practical value rich rocks in the larger context of basin evolution through
for the distant past. time and space.
Preservation is best accomplished where oxygen is ex-
cluded from bottom waters. There are a number of mech- SUGGESTED READINGS
anisms by which oxygen depletion may be fostered and
Arthur, M. A. and J. H. Natland, 1979, Carbonaceous sedi-
maintained, including stagnancy or near-stagnancy, a ments in the North and South Atlantic: the role of salinity in
strongly developed oxygen-minimum layer (often related stable stratification of Early Cretaceous basins, in M. Tal-
to high productivity), and rapid burial. It is often very wani, W. Hay, and W. B. F. Ryan, eds., Deep Drilling Results
difficult to separate the influences of these various factors in the Atlantic Ocean: Continental Mar,'sins and Paleoenvi-
in a particular depositional environment. ronment: American Geophysical Union, pp. 375-401.
Rapid accumulation of sediment shortens the residence Cool, T. E., 1982, Sedimentological evidence concerning the
time of organic matter in the zone of diagenesis and thus paleoceanography of the Cretaceous western South Atlantic
promotes preservation. If the rapidly accumulating sedi- Ocean: Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology, v.
ment is mainly clastic, however, dilution effects may lead 39, pp. 1-35.
de Graciansky, P. c., G. Deroo, J. P. Herbin, L. Montadert, C.
to lower TOC values in spite of enhanced preservation
Milller, A. Schaaf, andJ. Sigal, 1984, Ocean-wide stagnation
rates. In biogenic sediments or coals, in contrast, where
episode in the late Cretaceous: Nature, v. 308, pp. 346-349.
sediment-accumulation rates are directly proportional to Dean, W. E., M. A. Arthur, and D. A. V. Stow, 1984, Origin
organic-carbon-accumulation rates, dilution is far less and geochemistry of Cretaceous deep-sea black shales and
marked. multicolored claystones, with emphasis on Deep Sea Drilling
Because of its role in creating rocks with excellent hy- Project Site 530, southern Angola Basin, in W. W. Hay and
drocarbon-source potential, anoxia in bottom waters is a J. C. Sibuet, eds., Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling
phenomenon whose effects we should learn to recognize Project, Vol. LXXV: Washington, U.S. Government Printing
in ancient rocks. Some of the commonly applied criteria Office, pp. 819-844.
are apt to be misleading, however. It is important to be Demaison, G.J. and G. T. Moore, 1980, Anoxic environments
able to distinguish local anoxia or anoxia developed deep and oil source bed genesis: Bulletin of the American Associa-
tion of Petroleum Geologists, v. 64, pp. 1179-1209.
within sediments from anoxia induced by anoxic bottom
Fischer, A. G. and M. A. Arthur, 1977, Secular variations in the
waters. The most reliable criteria for bottom-water
pelagic realm, in H. E. Cook and P. Enos, eds., Deep Water
anoxia are the preservation of fine depositional laminae, Carbonate Environments: SEPM Special Publication 25,
and the presence of high TOC values coupled with the Tulsa, pp. 19-50.
occurrence of undegraded marine organic matter. Jones, R. W. and G.J. Demaison, 1982, Organic facies-
Anoxic events in the past were probably not as large in stratigraphic concept and exploration tool, in A. Saldivar-
scale or as long-lasting as some workers have suggested. Sali, ed., Proceedings of the Second ASCOPE Conference and
Although certain periods undeniably contain more than Exhibition: Manila, ASCOPE, pp. 51-68.
their share of anoxic rocks, anoxic sediments were depos- Kirkland, D. W. and R. Evans, 1981, Source-rock potential of
ited discontinuously through time and space. Direct con- evaporitic environment: Bulletin of the American Association
trol of the anoxia was thus probably local, as a result of of Petroleum Geologists, v. 65, pp. 181-190.
Leggett, J. K., 1980, British Lower Palaeozoic black shales and
high productivity or sluggish circulation. As in the mod-
their palaeo-oceanographic significance: Journal of the
ern oceans, such events were often interrupted for long
Geological Society, London, v. 137, pp. 139-156.
periods before anoxia was reinduced. Pisciotto, K. A. and R. E. Garrison, 1981, Lithofacies and depo-
Models that integrate the concepts of organic richness sitional environments of the Monterey Formation, California,
with depositional cycles and facies analysis will be valu- in R. E. Garrison and R. G. Douglas, eds., The Monterey For-
able in the future for understanding hydrocarbon systems mation and Related Siliceous Rocks of California: SEPM
in basins. To derive maximum value from geochemical Pacific Section, pp. 97-122.
18
INTRODUCTION
Anyone who uses petroleum geochemistry must be famil-
iar with basic chemical terminology. The objective of this
chapter is to acquaint the reader with the names of com-
mon compounds and with several different conventions
for drawing their structures. This objective is very differ-
ent from that of a normal course in organic chemistry, in
which one must also learn all the reactions of many
classes of compounds. The chemical reactions of interest
to us are very few and are discussed only briefly. This
chapter also includes a summary of the basic theory be-
hind isotope effects.
All compounds containing carbon atoms, except car-
bon dioxide, carbonates, and metal carbides, are termed
organic. This usage is historical and does not imply that
all such compounds are necessarily derived from living
organisms. Organic chemistry is thus the study of carbon-
containing compounds, and organic geochemistry
the study of organic compounds present in geological
environments.
HYDROCARBONS
In chemical terms a hydrocarbon is a compound contain-
ing only the elements carbon and hydrogen. Petroleum
and natural gas are themselves often referred to as "hy-
drocarbons," but that usage is incorrect from the chem-
ist's point of view because those materials often contain
substantial amounts of nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, trace
19
20
or
Methane Ethane Cydohexane
CH 3 (CH 2 )3 CH 3
n-pentane
Each carbon atom is represented by a C; each hydrogen
atom by an H. The lines show the chemical bonds be- An even quicker shorthand that uses no letters at all
tween the atoms. has evolved. Each carbon atom is represented by a point,
In each of these compounds, and indeed in every and carbon-carbon bonds are shown as lines connecting
carbon compound (except a few highly unstable ones those points. Hydrogen atoms and bonds to hydrogen
created only in laboratories), every carbon atom forms atoms are not shown at all. Because we know that each
four bonds. Similarly, hydrogen always forms one bond; carbon atom forms four bonds and each hydrogen atom
oxygen and sulfur, two bonds; and nitrogen, three bonds. forms one bond, simple inspection shows how many hy-
Carbon atoms like to form bonds with each other, creat- drogen atoms each carbon atom must have. For example,
ing long chains and ring structures. This unique property n-pentane and cyclohexane are represented by the line
of carbon is responsible for the existence of literally mil- structures shown below.
o
lions of different organic compounds.
Writing the detailed structure of a simple molecule like
methane is no problem, especially if one has to do it only
occasionally. If one wants to draw large molecules, how-
ever, the explicit inclusion of every atom and every bond
becomes extremely tedious. Several different types of n.pentane Cydohexane
shorthand have therefore developed to facilitate drawing
organic molecules. The zigzag configuration illustrated for n-pentane is
One common convention is to represent all the hydro- adopted to show clearly each carbon atom.
gen atoms attached to a given carbon atom by a single H, The simplest series of hydrocarbons has linear struc-
using a subscript on the H to denote the total number of tures; these molecules are called n-alkanes or n-
hydrogens around that atom. The structures of methane, paraffins. The letter n stands for nonnal, and indicates
ethane, and cyclohexane are thus represented by that there is no branching in the carbon chain. We have
already encountered n-pentane; the names of the other
nine simplest n-alkanes and three ways of representing
each of them are given in table 3.1. Note that the name of
3. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY AND ISOTOPES 21
TABLE 3.1 Names amI various ways of We have also seen that carbon atoms can be arranged
depicting the ten smallest n-alkanes in rings. These cyclic compounds (called naphthenes by
Name Abbreviations
geochemists) are named by counting the number of car-
bon atoms in the ring and attaching the prefix cyclo. Ex-
Methane CH 4 CH 4 None amples of cycloalkanes are shown in figure 3.1.
Ethane CzHG CH 3 CH 3 None Steranes are cycloalkanes that normally contain three
Propane C3 H 8 CH:l CH zCH 3 A 6-carbon rings and one 5-carbon ring (fig. 3.1). Triter-
Butane C4 H lO CH 3 (CH zhCH:l /V panes contain five or (infrequently) six rings. The rings
Pentane CS HIZ CH:l (CH zhCH 3 AA are designated A-F, and each carbon atom receives a
Hexane C6 H14 CH 3 (CHz)4 CH 3 /VV number, as shown in figure 3.2.
Heptane C7 H 16 CH 3 (CHzlsCH 3 /"v"V'.. All the compounds mentioned above are called
Octane CaH 18 CH:l ( CHZ)6 CH 3 /VVV saturated hydrocarbons or saturates, because they are
Nonane CsHzo CH 3 (CH2 hCH 3 ~ saturated with respect to hydrogen. That is, no more hy-
Decane ClO H 2Z CH 3 (CH zhCH 3 /VVV'V drogen can be incorporated into the molecule without
breaking it apart.
Another important group of hydrocarbons is the un-
each compound ends in -ane, as in "alkane." The first saturates, which, in contrast, are able to combine with
four names are irregular, but the prefixes denoting the additional hydrogen. Many unsaturated compounds have
number of carbon atoms in the other alkanes are derived carbon-carbon double bonds; these compounds are
from Greek numbers. called alkenes or olefins. Examples are ethene, propene,
Carbon atoms need not always bond together in a and cyclohexene, the structures of which are shown be-
linear arrangement. Branching can occur, giving rise to a low. They are named in a similar manner to the alkanes,
vast number of possible structures. For example, two of except that the ending -ene indicates the' presence of a
the many compounds offormula C7 H 16 are shown below. double bond.
2-methylhexane 2,2,3-trimethylbutane
H
H/
"c=c /
"H
Ethene
H H
.H /
"c=c /
Propene
"
CH 3
H
o
Cyclohexene
(Ethylene) (Propylene)
Number of
Carbon
Structure Name Atoms
Phytane 20
Pristane 19
Norpristane 18
17
16
Farnesane 15
squalane 30
Lycopane 40
Perhydro-
j3-Carotene 40
(j3-Carotane)
gen in the presence of a catalyst. The hydrogenation of double bonds, but they actually have completely different
ethene to form ethane is shown below. chemical properties from alkenes and are unusually sta-
ble. Although they are unsaturated, they do not add hy-
catalyst drogen easily. Their stability permits aromatics to be
H2 + H2C=CH 2 ---~) H3 CCH 3 (3.1) important constituents of oils and sediments. Some typical
Ethene Ethane and important aromatic hydrocarbons are shown and
named below.
o
A variety of reactions, including hydrogenation, converts
alkenes to alkanes and cyclic compounds during
diagenesis.
Aromatics form an extremely important class of un-
saturated hydrocarbons. At first glance aromatics appear
to be nothing more than cyclic alkenes containing several Benzene Toluene m-xylene Naphthalene
3. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY AND ISOTOPES 23
o
II
OH
PALMITIC ACID
(hexadecanoic acid)
Naphthenoaromatic hydrocarbons OH
NONHYDROCARBONS R'
Atoms other than hydrogen and carbon that occur in
petroleum, bitumen, and kerogen are called heteroatoms;
the compounds in which they occur are called heterocom-
DPEP type ETIO type
pounds. Heterocompounds are also called NSO com-
pounds, because the most common heteroatoms are
nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. Fossil organic matter often FIGURE 3.4 Examples of the principal types of porphyrins
contains a wide variety of heterocompounds, of which present in petroleum and rock and sediment extracts.
some are biogenic and others are formed during dia-
genesis. Many of the heterocompounds present in organ-
isms are converted to hydrocarbons during diagenesis to, and in most cases derived from, chlorophyll. There are
and catagenesis. several different families of porphyrins present in oils and
The heterocompounds present in fossil organic mate- bitumens; two important types are shown in figure 3.4.
rial are difficult to isolate and identifY, but a few types of Early work on porphyrins provided important evidence
molecules have been studied and used in geochemical about the organic origin of petroleum.
interpretations. Fatty acids, derived from natural fats, Many common NSO compounds are not directly re-
oils, and waxes, were among the first NSO compounds to lated to biogenic precursors. Among the most important
be studied, but they are seldom used today. Those NSO compounds are the asphaltenes, which are large,
molecules terminate in a carboxyl group (COOH). Closely highly aromatic materials of varying structure (fig. 3.5).
related are alcohols (fig. 3.3). They have many characteristics in common with kerogen,
One of the most important classes ofNSO compounds is but asphaltene molecules are smaller and more aromatic
the porphyrins. These molecules are structurally related than most kerogens.
3. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY AND ISOTOPES 25
H H
H
H H
co Cb
H
H
Cis ·DECALIN Trans ·DECALIN
(both hydrogens alpha) (one hydrogen alpha, one beta)
H H
co Cis· DECALIN Trans· DECALIN
H H
FIGURE 3.10 A second convention for showing the stereo-
H
chemistry of hydrogen atoms attached to ring junctures.
Cis Trans
Open circles indicate the hydrogen is below the plane of the
ring (alpha); black circles indicate it is in the beta position.
FIGURE 3.8 Cis and trans isomers of 1,3-dimethylcyclohex-
ane. The cis fonn has the two methyl groups on the same identical can differ stereochemically. For example, a com-
side of the ring; the trans fonns on opposite sides. pound like 1,3-dimethylcyclohexane can exist in a cis
form and a trans form (fig. 3.8). In a cis compound the
two groups are on the same side of a particular feature (in
The configurations of molecules are therefore always this case the plane of the ring), whereas in the trans form
changing, and any single representation is an over- they are attached to opposite sides.
simplification. When several saturated rings are fused together, as in a
Cyclohexane is not a flat molecule because the require- sterane molecule, groups attached at the ring junctures
ment of 109° bond angles makes planarity impossible. can point either toward or away from the viewer. In one
Aromatics, in contrast, are planar, because the introduc- convention these two geometries are indicated by a heavy
tion of a double bond changes the geometric require- dark wedge or a dotted line, respectively (fig. 3.9). If nO
ments for bonding (fig. 3.7). The three bond angles about particular geometry is known or implied, a plain or
a carbon atom involved in a double bond are each 120°, squiggly line is used. The position pointing away from the
and the bonds lie in a plane instead of a tetrahedron. viewer is called alpha (a); that pointing toward the
Polycyclic aromatics form large, flat sheets that stack viewer is beta ((3).
neatly, a phenomenon well known in asphaltenes and A second convention uses circles to indicate the geome-
graphite. try of hydrogen atoms attached to ring junctures (fig.
Molecules which in all other respects appear to be 3.10). Open circles indicate that the hydrogen is attached
3. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY AND ISOTOPES 27
(3.2)
o o
in the alpha position, and black circles indicate the beta
position. Models can be easily built from plastic kits in
order to observe the molecules in three dimensions and to
(3.3)
appreciate how a large change in molecular geometry
is often produced by a seemingly minor change in
stereochemistry.
Molecules that have the same chemical formula but a
different arrangement of atoms in space are called iso- Reduction always accompanies oxidation. When
mers. Some isomers have different carbon skeletons (for methane is oxidized by oxygen (eq. [3.2]), oxygen is re-
example, the two different compounds of formula CsH14 duced by methane. Reduction also occurs when hydrogen
shown on p. 21), whereas others, as we have seen, involve is added to a double bond (eq. [3.1]). Hydrogen is ox-
much more subtle differences. Many different types of idized in the process.
isomers are important in organic geochemistry. Light- In many cases, where both the oxidizing agent and
hydrocarbon analyses focus mainly on structural isomers reducing agent are organic, we are interested in the fates
(fig. 3.11), whereas the most sophisticated analyses of both materials. Decarboxylation (loss of a carboxyl
utilize the multitude of stereoisomers present among the group) is one such process (eq. [3.4]). Methane is the
polycyclic biomarkers. Biomarker stereochemistry will be reduced product, and carbon dioxide the oxidized one.
discussed further in chapters 5, 8, and 10.
(3.4)
REACTIONS
We need not worry about most of the reactions that or- Sometimes hydrocarbons function as both oxidizing
ganic molecules can undergo, because the majority occur and reducing agents in the same reaction. For example,
only in the laboratory. Relatively few take place in cyclohexane can lose hydrogen and become oxidized; the
sedimentary rocks. hydrogen released can be transferred simultaneously to
28
-
n-BUTANE ISOBUTANE
( 2-methylpropane)
o
[3.5]).
o
Another closely related isomerization is called epimeri-
duced one.
zation. Epimers are isomers that differ only in the
stereochemistry at one carbon atom. The two steranes in
+ figure 3.14 are epimers; the product is formed from the
(3.6) reactant by removal of a hydrogen atom followed by re-
turn of it or another hydrogen to the opposite side of the
molecule. Once again, the close relationship of the epi-
mers makes the reaction easy to study.
Formation of ring structures (cyclization: eq. [3.6]) is a
common occurrence during formation and transforma-
tion of kerogen. It is a favored process because it makes
substantial amounts of valuable hydrogen available for
other reactions. Cyclization is often followed by aromati-
zation (eq. [3.5]) in the transformation sequence.
Some important organic-geochemical reactions are not
oxidation-reduction reactions; others are only incidentally
involved in oxidation and reduction. Isomerization reac-
tions, in which one isomer is converted to another, are of
particular interest, because the close relationship of reac-
tant and product often makes the reaction relatively easy
to trace.
One important type of isomerization reaction is struc-
3. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY AND ISOTOPES 29
20R
, "
electrons are the same. Many isotopes are unstable; their Sulfur 32S = 95.00 % CD=!:
34S = 4.22 %
rates of decay can in some cases be used as clocks for age-
Nitrogen 14N = 99.63 % Atmos. N2
dating ancient materials. The important isotopes in 15N = 0.37 %
petroleum geochemistry, however, are stable. For most
ordinary chemical purposes we consider the chemistries 'POB is a marine limestone consisting of a belemnite from the Pee Dee FOl"ffiation of
of all isotopes of an element to be identical; in actuality, the Cretaceous of South Carolina.
tSMOW is standard mean ocean water, distributed by the International Atomic
however, there are small but important differences in Energy Agency.
the reactions of these isotopes that make them useful tCO is the mineral !roilite from the Canyon Diablo meteorite.
geochemical tools.
The elements ofinterest in isotopic analyses are carbon,
hydrogen, sulfur, and nitrogen, in decreasing order of dioxide, whereas the carbonate species will show a
popularity. The particular isotopes measured are shown greater-than-average proportion of 13e.
in table 3.3. Stable isotopes are useful because the propor-
tions of the two isotopes of each element vary from sample CO 2 + H2 0 <z C01- + 2H+ (3.7)
to sample as a result of isotope effects. enriched in 12C enriched in 13C
Marine
limestone
Nonmal'ine
limestone
•••1 Kerogen
• •_Oil
••••1 Ethane
•••••1 Methane
Methane (biogenic)
I I I I I I I I I I
-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 o +10 +20
OLlC 0100 eLl-Rich
CRUDE OIL
error, and the difference 3 (delta) between the two sam-
ples is reported in parts per thousand (usually written as
0/00 and called permii). The formula for calculating 3 13C
is given in equation (3.8). The most common standards
for the various isotopes are listed in table 3.3.
(3.8)
5
INTRODUCTION
Kerogen is normally defined as that portion of the organic
matter present in sedimentary rocks that is insoluble in
ordinary organic solvents. The soluble portion, called
bitumen, will be discussed in chapter 5. Lack of solubility
is a direct result of the large size of kerogen molecules,
which have molecular weights of several thousand or
more. Each kerogen molecule is unique, because it has
patchwork structures formed by the random combination
of many small molecular fragments. The chemical and
physical characteristics of a kerogen are strongly in-
fluenced by the type of biogenic molecules from which the
kerogen is formed and by diagenetic transformations of
those organic molecules.
Kerogen composition is also affected by thermal-
maturation processes (catagenesis and metagenesis) that
alter the original kerogen. Subsurface heating causes
chemical reactions that break off small fragments of the
kerogen as oil or gas molecules. The residual kerogens
also undergo important changes, which are reflected in
their chemical and physical properties.
Kerogen is of great interest to us because it is the source
of most of the oil and some of the gas that we exploit as
fossil fuels. Diagenetic and catagenetic histories of a kero-
gen, as well as the nature of the organic matter from
which it was formed, strongly influence the ability of the
kerogen to generate oil and gas. A basic understanding of
how kerogen is formed and transformed in the subsurface
is therefore important in understanding how and where
hydrocarbons are generated, whether these hydrocarbons
31
32
are mainly oil or gas, and how much oil or gas can be
expected. BIOGENIC MOLECULES MAJOR CONSTITUENTS
LIFE
OF LIVING MATTER
The term kerogen was originally coined to describe the ------
organic matter in oil shales that yielded oil upon retort-
ing. Today it is used to describe the insoluble organic
;;;
.0 1
0 BIOCHEMICAL AND
CHEMICAL
DEGRADATION If)
u;
material in both coals and oil shales, as well as dispersed a: 1 w
...ww
.
Z
SMALLER FRAGMENTS
organic matter in sedimentary rocks. As figure 2.1 shows, w
0 "Q
CONDENSATION,
! 1 POL YMERIZATION
the amount of organic matter tied up in the form ofkero-
gen is far greater than that in living organisms or in eco- ......
:z: HUMIC SUBSTANCES
..
c 0 LOSS OF
nomically exploitable accumulations of coal, oil, and .... ll'-METHANE
CO 2 , H 2 0, NH3
natural gas.
)}o;,
ii: 10 0 KEROGEN ---(1)---
Coals are a subcategory of kerogen. Humic coals are '"
III u;
W
"....
Z
best thought of as kerogens formed mainly from land- 100 0 THERMAL w
TABLE 4.1 The four types of kerogen, the macerals ming, Utah, and Colorado. Extensive interest in those oil-
that they are composed of, and their organic precursors shale deposits has led to many investigations of the Green
Original OM
River Shale kerogens and has given Type I kerogens much
Maceral Kerogen Type
more publicity than their general geological importance
Alginite Fresh-water algae warrants. Occurrences of Type I kerogens are limited to
Exinite II Pollen, spores anoxic lakes and to a few unusual marine environments.
Cutinite II Land-plant cuticle Type I kerogens have high generative capacities for liquid
Resinite II Land-plant resins hydrocarbons.
Liptinite II All land-plant lipids; marine Type II kerogens arise from several very different
algae sources, including marine algae, pollen and spores, leaf
Vitrinite III Woody and cellulosic material waxes, and fossil resin. They also include contributions
from land plants from bacterial-cell lipids. The various Type II kerogens
Inertinite IV Charcoal; highly oxidized or are grouped together, despite their very disparate origins,
reworked material of any
because they all have great capacities to generate liquid
origin
hydrocarbons. Most Type II kerogens are found in marine
sediments deposited under reducing conditions.
Type III kerogens are composed of terrestrial organic
composed of fragments of many kinds of biogenic material that is lacking in fatty or waxy components. Cel-
molecules. Those kerogens formed under oxidizing con- lulose and lignin are major contributors. Type III kero-
ditions, in contrast, contain mainly the most resistant gens have much lower hydrocarbon-generative capacities
types of biogenic molecules that were ignored by microor- than do Type II kerogens and, unless they have small
ganisms during diagenesis. inclusions of Type II material, are normally considered to
generate mainly gas.
KEROGEN COMPOSITION Type IV kerogens contain mainly reworked organic de-
Because each kerogen molecule is unique, it is somewhat bris and highly oxidized material of various origins. They
fruitless to attempt a detailed discussion of the chemical are generally considered to have essentially no hydrocar-
composition of kerogens. Even if such a description were bon-source potential (but see Smyth, 1983, for a dissent-
possible, it would not be of great and direct significance ing opinion).
to exploration geologists. What is within our reach, and Hydrogen contents of immature kerogens (expressed as
ultimately of much greater practical value, is developing a atomic HlC ratios) correlate with kerogen type (fig. 4.2).
general method of describing gross kerogen composition In the immature state, Type I (algal) kerogens have the
and relating it to hydrocarbon-generative capacity. One highest hydrogen contents because they have few rings or
way that we can begin is by classifYing kerogens into a aromatic structures. Type II (liptinitic) kerogens are also
few general types. high in hydrogen. Type III (humic) kerogens, in contrast,
About a decade ago workers at the French Petroleum have lower hydrogen contents because they contain exten-
Institute developed a useful scheme for describing kero- sive aromatic systems. Type IV kerogens (not shown),
gens that is still the standard today. They identified three which mainly contain polycyclic aromatic systems, have
main types of kerogen (called Types I, II, and III). Subse- the lowest hydrogen contents.
quent investigations have identified Type IV kerogen as Heteroatom contents of kerogens also vary with kero-
well and have studied the chemical characteristics and gen type. Type IV kerogens are highly oxidized and there-
the nature of the organisms from which all types of kero- fore contain large amounts of oxygen. Type III kerogens
gens were derived (table 4.1). have high oxygen contents because they are formed from
Type I kerogen is quite rare because it is derived princi- lignin, cellulose, phenols, and carbohydrates. Type I and
pally from lacustrine algae. The best-known example is Type II kerogens, in contrast, contain far less oxygen be-
the Green River Shale, of middle Eocene age, from Wyo- cause they were formed from oxygen-poor lipid materials.
34
HYDROCARBONS
0.06
OIL
0.10
OIL + GAS
0.13
GAS
;0 1.5
kerogens (and coals) are almost always associated with
~.
marine deposition, because fresh waters are usually low ~
VJ
in sulfate. Sulfur is only incorporated into kerogens in :$2
1
0
large quantities where sulfate reduction is extensive and
where Fe+ 2 ions are absent (organic-rich, anoxic, .5
marine, nonelastic sediments). Many high-sulfur kero-
gens are also high in nitrogen (for example, the Permian Nonmarine
Phosphoria and Miocene Monterey Formations). 0
0 4
Environmental interpretations based on sulfur contents
are not limited to organic sulfur. A plot of pyrite concen- ,~() TOe
been supported by another independent scheme for clas- catagenesis, represents dry-gas generation. Despite its
sifying kerogens using transmitted-light microscopy. name, metagenesis is not equivalent to "metamorphism."
Kerogen types are defined by the morphologies of the Metagenesis begins long before true rock metamorphism,
kerogen particles. In many cases the original cellular but it also continues through the metamorphic stage.
structure is still recognizable, proving the origin of the Although the terms catagenesis and oil generation are
particle. In others the original fabric has disappeared often used synonymously, they are not precisely equiva-
completely, forcing us to make assumptions about the lent. Catagenesis and hydrocarbon generation occur con-
source organisms. Microscopic organic analysis has currently, but they really represent different aspects of the
reached a fairly high level of refinement and is often capa- same process. Catagenesis refers to transformations of
ble of assessing kerogen type with good accuracy. kerogen molecules, whereas hydrocarbon generation fo-
The different types of kerogen particles are called mac- cuses on the smaller product molecules. In this text we
erals, a term taken from coal petrology. Macerals are shall use the terms somewhat interchangeably, especially
essentially organic minerals; they are to kerogen what when we are discussing both aspects simultaneously. In
minerals are to a rock. The kerogen in a given sedimen- principle, however, they represent fundamentally differ-
tary rock includes many individual particles that are often ent perspectives. This chapter will focus on those changes
derived from a variety of sources. Thus few kerogens con- in the residual kerogen that accompany catagenesis. The
sist of a single maceral type. composition of the products (bitumen, oil, and gas) will
Maceral names were developed by coal petrologists to be discussed in chapter 5.
describe, wherever possible, the materials from which a Kerogen maturation is not a reversible process-any
maceral was derived. A list of the most common macerals more than baking a cake is reversible. Furthermore, the
and their precursors is given in table 4.1. chemical process of maturation never stops completely,
It is possible to make a reasonably good correlation even if drastic decreases in temperature occur. Chemical
between kerogen type based on chemical characteristics reaction-rate theory requires that the rates of reactions
and kerogen type based on visual appearance. The corre- decrease as temperature decreases, but it also states that
spondence is not perfect, however, because there is not a at any temperature above absolute zero reactions will be
perfect biological separation of the various types of living occurring at some definable rate. For practical purposes,
organic matter. The biggest problem comes in identifYing however, the rates of catgenesis are generally not impor-
Type III kerogen. What appears to be vitrinite (Type III tant at temperatures below about 70° C. Furthermore, in
kerogen) by visual analysis may have chemical character- most cases decreases of temperature in excess of about
istics intermediate between Type II and Type III kerogens 20°-30° C due to subsurface events or erosional removal
because of the presence of small amounts of resin or wax. will cause the rates of catagenesis to decrease so much
that the rate becomes negligible for practical purposes.
It is impossible to set precise and universal temperature
KEROGEN MATURATION
limits for catagenesis, because time also plays a role. Old
lNfRODUCTION rocks will often generate hydrocarbons at significantly
Very important changes, called maturation, occur when lower temperatures than young rocks, simply because the
a kerogen is subjected to high temperatures over long longer time available compensates for lower tempera-
periods of time. Thermal decomposition reactions, called tures. This complex interplay between the effects of time
catagenesis and metagenesis, break off small molecules and temperature on maturity is discussed in detail in
and leave behind a more resistant kerogen residue (fig. chapter 9.
4.1). The small molecules eventually become petroleum
and natural gas. EFFECTS OF MATURATION ON KEROGENS
By convention the term catagenesis usually refers to the Kerogen undergoes important and detectable changes
stages of kerogen decomposition during which oil and during catagenesis and metagenesis. Some of these
wet gas are produced. Metagenesis, which occurs after changes can be measured quantitatively, thus allowing us
36
PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS
OF
KEROGEN EVOLUTION
C02 H20
Oil
_ GAS
1!iO
u
J:
!:?
::!:
0 100
~
<
O!iO
Low matunty
0 010 020
ATOMIC OI C
maturation (fig. 4.5). In the late stages of maturity, Types FIGURE 4.6 Structural model of a Type II kerogen at low and
I, II, and III kerogens will therefore be very similar chemi- high levels of thermal maturity showing the increasing order
cally, possessing essentially no remaining hydrocarbon- as aromatization proceeds and planar aromatic sheets begin
to aggregate.. Reprinted by permission of the Societe des Edi-
generative capacity. tions Technip: figure 2 from the article entitled "L'evolution
Kerogen particles become darker during catagenesis thermique de la matiere organique des sediments: applica-
and metagenesis, much as a cookie browns during bak- tions d'une simulation mathematique" by B. TISSOT and J.
ing. There is a steady color progression yellow-golden- ESPITALIE, published in the Revue de l'Institut FraTifais du
orange-light brown-dark brown-black as a result of Petrole, vol. 30, no. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1975.
polymerization and aromatization reactions. These reac-
tions are intimately related to important changes in the
chemical structure of kerogen, but they are not necessarily bring about changes in physical properties of kerogens.
identical with hydrocarbon generation. There is therefore One property that is strongly affected, and which can be
no necessary cause-and-effect relationship between kero- used to gauge the extent of molecular reorganization, is
gen darkening and hydrocarbon generation, and no the ability of kerogen particles to reflect incident light
guarantee that a particular kerogen color always heralds coherently. The more random a kerogen's structure, the
the onset of oil generation. more an incident light beam will be scattered, and the
As kerogen matures and becomes more aromatic, its less it will be reflected.
structure becomes more ordered, because the flat aro- Half a century ago coal petrologists discovered that the
matic sheets can stack neatly, much as asphaltene percentage oflight reflected by vitrinite particles could be
molecules do (fig. 4.6). These structural reorganizations correlated with coal rank measured by other methods.
38
DEPTH AND
TEMPERATURE DIAGENESIS
.........
........
...... CATAGENESIS
......
TOTAL BITUMEN
GENERATED "
,,
, \
,,
\
, MET AGENESIS
INCREASING
BITUMEN
..
%
Q.
w 8 .000
. .' types generate hydrocarbons, as well as the types of prod-
ucts anticipated, are shown in figure 4.9.
Q
Resinite and sulfur-rich kerogens are able to generate
liquid hydrocarbons earlier than other kerogens because
9 .000
of the particular chemical reactions occurring in those
two materials. Resinite consists of polymerized terpanes
10.000
. . ..
.."
(ten-carbon isoprenoids) that can decompose easily by
.. reversing the polymerization process. Sulfur-rich kero-
gens decompose easily because carbon-sulfur bonds are
11.000
weaker than any bonds in sulfur-poor kerogens.
Effective generation of hydrocarbons requires that the
0 1.0 2 .0 3 .0 generated products be expelled from the source-rock ma-
HYDROCARBON NON HYDROCARBON trix and migrated to a trap. Timing and efficiency of ex-
pulsion depend on a number of factors, including rock
physics and organic-geochemical considerations. We
FIGURE 4.8 Ratio of hydrocarbons to nonhydrocarbons in
Bakken Shale extracts from a number of wells in the Willis- shall consider the latter briefly here.
ton Basin. Maturity generally increases with depth. Reprinted Many workers now believe that microfracturing of
by permission of the Rocky Mountain Association of Geolo- source rocks is very important for hydrocarbon expulsion
gists from Webster, 1984. (see chapter 6). Microfracturing is related to overpressur-
ing, which in tum is partly attributed to hydrocarbon
generation. Rich rocks will become overpressured earlier
than lean ones and thus will also expel hydrocarbons
earlier (fig. 4.10). In very lean rocks expulsion may occur
so late that cracking of the generated bitumen is competi-
tive with expulsion. In such cases the expelled products
will be mainly gas.
40
,
.4
,
.0 .1
I
1.0
I
1.2
I
1.4
I
----------,
---- GAS
I- ______ ~ CONDENSATE ~"
: lIPTINITE-RICH [
a: ______ WAltY OIL LIGHT PARAFFINIC ~
a:
w
~ ~~~~C~H4~
I-
VITRINITE-RICH { ______G_A_S____________________________
GAS
GA8/PAIIAFFIN~ CH
?
-----=
z
->
a:
c( GAS GAS / NAPHTHENIC C
::E ~ CONOENSATE~ H"
CLASTIC [
SEDIMENTS
<. . . PARAFFINIC/NAPHTHENIC OIL
I
II
~
III: 0
~
l- VERY RICH n
.50
c ROCKS 0
...c
:IE
0 0 SUMMARY
i
0
.75
0 MODERATELY a Kerogen begins to form during early diagenesis, when
:IE C
...z
III:
I GJ RICH
ROCKS
LEAN In large geopolymers are created from biological molecules.
0 LJ
ROCKS 0
The chemical composition and morphology of kerogen
I- 1.35
0 0 0 0
0 macerals depend both on the type of original organic mat-
~ V "V "V CRACKING
OF LIQUID He ter and on diagenetic transformations. Numerous methods
2.00
U exist for tracing the history of a kerogen and determin-
0 ing its original chemical and physical characteristics.
V Catagenesis of kerogen produces a more aromatic, hy-
drogen-poor, residual kerogen as well as small molecules
FIGURE 4.10 ExpuLsion-ofgenerated hydrocarbons from
that are the direct precursors for petroleum and natural
source rocks of varying organic richness as afunction of gas. Several methods exist for estimating the extent to
thermal maturity. which hydrocarbon generation has occurred in a given
41
SUGGESTED READINGS
INTRODUCTION
Petroleum obtained from reservoir rocks and bitumen ex-
tracted from fine-grained rocks have many similarities,
but they also exhibit many important differences. There is
no doubt that they are related; indeed, bitumen is almost
universally accepted as the direct precursor for petro-
leum. However, many unanswered questions remain
about the processes that transform bitumen into petro-
leum. Major compositional changes occur in going from
bitumen to petroleum, but we are not certain whether
they occur mainly within the source rock or during mi-
gration through the reservoir rock. We also do not know
how much of the change involves chemical reactions, and
how much is due to physical separation of chemical com-
pounds having very different properties. The influence of
the lithologies of source and reservoir rocks on these com-
positional changes is poorly understood.
Both bitumens and petroleums exhibit a wide range of
compositions. As we shall see later in this chapter, much
of this variety is related to source-rock facies and the com-
position of the kerogens that generated the bitumens. Ma-
turity also exerts control over bitumen and petroleum
composition. Reservoir transformations in some cases
greatly affect oil composition and properties.
Bitumen and petroleum compositions can also be used
as tools in correlating samples with each other. Such cor-
relations, which are discussed in chapter 10, can be par-
ticularly useful in establishing genetic relationships
among samples. In order to understand bitumen and pe-
troleum compositions and to use them for exploration,
43
44
however, we must separate the characteristics related to TABLE 5.1 Four main fractions of bitumens and crude oils
kerogen composition from those related to the transfor- and important compound cliLsses present in each
mation of bitumen to petroleum and from those related to
Fraction Important Compound Classes
changes occurring in reservoirs. This chapter will com-
pare and contrast bitumen and petroleum compositions Saturated hydro- n-alkanes
and examine the factors responsible for the observed carbons isoprenoids
differences. other branched compounds
alicyclics, including steranes, diterpanes,
and triterpanes
COMPOUNDS PRESENT IN BITUMEN Aromatic hydro- simple aromatics
AND PETROLEUM carbons naphthenoaromatics
small sulfur-bearing compounds
GENERAL CLASSES OF COMPOUNDS Resins (NSOs, porphyrins
Both bitumen and petroleum contain a very large number polars) fatty acids
of different chemical compounds. Some of these com- Asphaltenes asphaltenes
pounds are present in relatively large quantities, while
others are only trace contributors. In order to investigate
the individual compounds present, we first separate a
crude oil or a bitumen into several fractions having dis-
The final fraction contains very large, highly aromatic
tinct properties. The procedures used in carrying out such
asphaltene molecules that are often rich in heteroatoms.
separations are discussed in chapter 7.
Asphaltenes tend to aggregate into stacks because of their
Each of the fractions contains certain types of chemical
planarity, and form complexes with molecular weights of
compounds. Table 5.1 lists the general classes of com-
perhaps 50,000. The large sizes of asphaltene units ren-
pounds present in each of the fractions of crude oils and
der them insoluble in light solvents. Asphaltenes can thus
bitumens. One fraction consists mainly of saturated hy-
be removed from oils or bitumens in the laboratory or
drocarbons: n-alkanes, branched hydrocarbons (includ-
refinery by adding a light hydrocarbon, such as pentane
ing isoprenoids), and cyclics. Saturated hydrocarbons are
or propane. Because of their molecular complexity and
the most thoroughly studied of the components of petro-
heterogeneity, asphaltene molecules have not been
leum and bitumen because they are the easiest to work
studied in detail.
with analytically (see chapter 7).
A second fraction consists of aromatic hydrocarbons
SPECIFIC COMPOUNDS
and some light sulfur-containing compounds. Light aro-
matic hydrocarbons, like benzene and toluene, have been Biomarkers. Many of the compounds and classes of com-
studied in petroleums, but these compounds are lost from pounds that we find in crude oils and bitumens are called
bitumens during evaporation of the solvent used in ex- biomarkers, an abbreviation for biological markers.
tracting the bitumen from the rock. Heavier aromatic and These compounds, which are derived from biogenic pre-
naphthenoaromatic hydrocarbons, particularly those de- cursor molecules, are essentially molecular fossils. Many
rived from diterpanes, triterpanes, and steranes, are more types of biomarkers are listed in table 5.2. The most useful
commonly studied. biomarkers serve as indicators of the organisms from
Most of the NSO compounds appear in the remaining which the bitumen or petroleum was derived, or of the
two fractions. The lighter of these fractions, variously diagenetic conditions under which the organic matter
called po lars, NSOs, and resins, contains a wide variety was buried. In a few cases specific precursor organisms
of small and medium-sized molecules with one or more or molecules can be identified, whereas in other instances
heteroatoms. Few of these heterocompounds have been we may be able to limit the possible precursors to only a
studied, although pqrphyrins, fatty acids, and some sul- few species. In most cases, however, although we know
fur-bearing molecules have received attention. for certain that the biomarker molecule is biogenic, we
5. BITUMEN, PETROLEUM, AND NATURAL GAS 45
TABLE 5.2 Important classes of biomarkers matics can be formed from steranes and triterpanes;
and their precursors others may be the end products of extensive oxidation or
combustion of other types of organic material.
Biomarker Precursor
Small alkanes can be generated from a variety of pre-
n-alkanes (> C-22) terrestrial plant waxes cursors by cracking. Skeletal rearrangements occur easily,
n-alkanes (C-17, C-22) algal lipids giving a tremendous variety of isomers having no obvious
isoprenoids « C-20) various chlorophylls relation to their biological precursors.
isoprenoids (> C-20) lipids or chlorophyll of hypersaline Medium-sized alkanes having one or more methyl
algae branches are almost ubiquitous, although they are never
porphyrins chlorophylls major components of oils or bitumens. They may be
steranes steroids biogenic hydrocarbons derived from plant or algal lipids
triterpanes bacterial triterpenoids (and thus represent poorly understood biomarkers), or
diterpanes hydrocarbons in plant resins they could be formed from n-alkanes by isomerization
large naphtheno- steroids, triterpenoids processes.
aromatics With the exception of the porphyrins, fatty acids, and
alcohols, most NSO compounds are not biomarkers.
Heteroatoms react readily during diagenesis and cata-
genesis, forming many new compounds whose structures
are unable to use it as an "index fossil" for specific bear no resemblance to biogenic structures. Few of these
organisms. compounds have been studied, and they will not be dis-
Among the biomarkers studied most frequently are the cussed further in this text.
n-alkanes, isoprenoids, porphyrins, steranes, triterpanes,
diterpanes, and naphthenoaromatics. The common mem- FACTORS AFFECTING COMPOSITION
bers of each of these compound classes and their signifi- OF BITUMEN AND PETROLEUM
cance in interpreting source, diagenesis, maturation, and
SOURCE AND DIAGENESIS
reservoir transformations are discussed in a later section
of this chapter and in chapter 10. The reader interested Biomarkers
in more detailed treatment and extensive references is N-ALKANES. n-Alkanes were among the first biomar-
referred to the excellent and comprehensive review by kers to be studied extensively. Their high concentration in
Mackenzie (1984). bitumens and oils is best explained by their existence in
plant and algal lipids, and by their catagenetic formation
Other Compounds. Many other types of organic compounds from long-chain compounds such as fatty acids and al-
in crude oils and bitumens are not considered to be cohols (fig. 3.3).
biomarkers because they cannot be related directly to Another important indication of the origin of n-alkanes
biogenic precursors. They are, however, of biological ori- is the distribution of individual homologs, or members of
gin, but their sources are simply no longer recognizable the n-alkane series. For the most part n-alkanes present in
due to diagenetic and catagenetic transformations. terrestrial plants have odd numbers of carbon atoms, es-
Among the nonbiomarker compounds found in petro- pecially 23,25,27,29, and 31 atoms. An example from a
leum and bitumen are light aromatic hydrocarbons, such Recent sediment containing much terrestrial organic ma-
as benzene, toluene, and the xylenes. They could be de- terial is shown in figure 5.1.
rived from lignin but are also undoubtedly formed from In contrast, marine algae produce n-alkanes that have
many other sources by aromatization or by cyclization a maximum in their distribution at C-17 or C-22, depend-
followed by aromatization. Many compounds containing ing upon the species present. The distributions are quite
a benzene ring have one or more long-chain alkyl sub- sharp, and no preference for either odd- or even-carbon
stituents; their origin is not known. Some polycyclic aro- homologs is evident (fig. 5.2).
46
27
W
W U
U
z Z
«
« 0
0
z Z
::>
::> It)
It)
« «
w
UJ >
> ;::
;:: «
«
...J
...J
W
'"
W
'"
10 20 30 <0 10 ·0
FIGURE 5.1 n-Alkane distribution in a Recent sediment con- FIGURE 5.3 Distribution of n-alkanes in a Recent sediment
taining organic material chiefly of terrestrial origin. containing organic material of both marine-algal and terres-
trial origin.
CHLOROPHYLL A
CaHill H2c-otZ
VANADYL PORPHYRIN
PRISTANE, C111 H"o
II ell ,
I
110 110
~
~JI
liD
Cholestl'rol r:1'!{ostl'l'ol B-sitoSll'1'01
C~~ C:~II C!"
OH OH
""/ " /
"'\
C~
H OH OH
Tctl'ah.vdroxybacteriohopanc
C 29 C 30
MATURITY
MAHAKAM DELTA
410
..J
~
~ 430- 2100 !
cr · " -" ~
~440 2100 ~
II
f'~ ·lOOO
• 460 11----.----,----.----1
1.5 20 25 0 10 15 20
-PRISTANE/PHYTANE RATIO-
MAHAKAM DELTA
410 a b
!oJ
1
~ 045 I 420
..,~ ..J
...w
.J ...':"4
~
cr 2100 ]
g
~060 cr :r
t-
Z o..
ir 2700 ~
t-
;;:
~
~"
~
-; 090 ]000
cr
o 5 10 20 0 05 10 1.5
--PRISTANE/nCI7 RATIO-- -PHYTANE/nCI8 RATIO-+
",0
-OH-
HYDROGENATION
R
~ R ' \ - CATAGENESIS
R
MORETANE HOPANE
a number of different transformations as maturity indi- biomarker techniques mentioned above as well as by
cators, each within its optimal range of validity. Specific light-hydrocarbon analyses. These applications will be
applications of biomarker transformations will be dis- discussed in more detail in chapters 8 (as applied to
cussed in more detail in chapters 8 and 10. source rocks and bitumens) and 10.
'\Illlllallr IIC
Mo Ih' Ill'''\'\'.
Nonmll crude oil (kgl',;dt·cl oj'ls
40 20 N 0 compound
(I 'ins + a ph(l\relll's)
Average gl'OSS compo ilion of 517 normal pl'odudbl(' ('Iudl' oils
aturated hydl'OCLlrbons ........................... 57.200
Aromatic hydJ'(x.'Lll'bons ............................ 28.600
NSO ........................................... 14.2%
700
en
~ 600
~
~ 500
~ 200 en
s: tl 400
:E 150
;;l g300
..... 100
o 200
g
o+----.--~--~~
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0
PERCENT HYDROCARBONS PERCENT HYDROCARBONS
o
measurements: the very different isotopic compositions of
carbonate
sequence
~.: ••.
..........
••••••••
. organic-carbon species and carbonates (fig. 3.16) are car-
ried over into any CO2 derived from these materials. Ni-
~
.... 4. .... <II . . . .
............. <II ..
.......... <II .... .
trogen is thought to be an indicator of high levels of
maturity formed primarily by metagenetic transformation
of organic nitrogen and ammonia bound to clay minerals.
o Resins + asphalten Hydrogen sulfide is usually derived from high-sulfur
o Aromali H kerogens or oils. These in turn are formed most readily in
carbonates. Thus sour gas is most common in carbonate
© Saturated H
reservoirs or in places where the source rock was a car-
bonate. Smackover gas from the Gulf Coast is an example;
FIGURE 5.21 Compourul distributions in oils arul extracts the source rock was probably the organic-rich basinal
from both sarul/shale arul carbonate sequences. Reprinted by Smackover facies, and the reservoirs are coarse-grained
permission of the World Petroleum Congresses from the Pro- nearshore facies. H2S could also be formed by the reaction
ceedings of the Eighth World Petroleum Congress, Applied &i-
ence Publishers, from Tissot arul Pelet, 1971. of hydrocarbons with sulfate in reservoirs, especially car-
bonates containing anhydrite.
Biogenic gas, most of which occurs at shallow depths,
turity level of the bitumen. Many of the compounds and but which can apparently form (or at least persist) at
compound distributions in mature bitumens are essen- depths of a few thousand meters, is very dry, containing
tially indistinguishable from those in crude oils. Imma- only trace amounts of hydrocarbons heavier than
ture bitumens, in contrast, are very different from methane. In contrast, the first gas produced during
petroleum. catagenesis is quite wet. With increasing maturity, gas
For example, we have seen (fig. 5.1) that n-alkane dis- again becomes progressively drier as a result of cracking
tributions in immature samples often have very high CPI of the heavier hydrocarbons to methane (fig. 5.22).
values. Mature rocks and oils, in contrast, always have Gas becomes increasingly heavier isotopically as gas
CPI values near 1.0 (fig. 5.11). The normal range for oils generation proceeds (fig. 5.22). Biogenic gas is isotopi-
and mature extracts extends from about 0.9 to 1.2. Oils cally very light, with 8 13C values ranging from about - 60
with CPI values outside this range are very rare. 0/00 to 90 0/00 or so. The methane in catagenetic gases is
Other individual compounds follow this same trend. heavier (- 50 0/00 to - 30 0/00 or so), whereas late
The distributions of porphyrins, steranes, and triterpanes (metagenetic) methane can be as heavy as -15 0/00.
can be either mature or immature in bitumens, but are Ratios of 8 13C values of the various hydrocarbon compo-
always at least marginally mature in crude oils. The use nents of wet gases have been used as a paleothermometer
of these types of compounds as maturity indicators will be (Sundberg and Bennett, 1983).
discussed in chapter 8. Mixing of biogenic and thermal gases often occurs, es-
pecially in shallow reservoirs, Gases of mixed origin will
NATURAL GAS have properties intermediate between those of the
Natural gas contains -. many different compounds, al- contributors.
though most of them are present only in trace quantities. Bacterial destruction of gas is rather rare, but can cause
60
SUGGESTED READINGS
FIGURE 5.22 Schematic diagram showing changes in gas Albaiges,J. andJ. M. Torradas, 1974, Significance of the even-
composition (wetness and 8 13C of methane) in the course of carbon n-paraffin preference of a Spanish crude oil: Nature,
gas generation. Reprinted by permission of the American As- v. 250, pp. 567-568.
sociation of Petroleum Geologists from Rice and Claypool, Alexander, R., R. I. Kagi, G. W. Woodhouse, and J. K. Volk-
1981. man, 1983, The geochemistry of some biodegraded Austra-
lian oils: Journal of the Australian Petroleum Exploration
Association (APEA), v. 23, pp. 53-63.
measurable changes in the composition when it does oc- Aquino Neto, F. R., J. M. Trendel, A. Restle, J. Connan, and
cur. Biodegraded gas is dry, because most of the heavier P. A. Albrecht, 1983, Occurrence and formation of tricyclic
components have been preferentially removed. As a re- and tetracyclic terpanes in sediments and petroleums, in M.
sult, any remaining heavy hydrocarbons will be un- BjorfllY, ed., Advances in Organic Geochemistry 1981:
usually heavy isotopically. Chichester, Wiley, pp. 659-667.
Connan, J., 1984, Biodegradation of crude oils in reservoirs, in
SUMMARY J. Brooks and D. Welte, eds., Advances in Petroleum
.
Bitumens and crude oils contain the same classes of com- Geochemistry, Volume 1: London, Academic Press, pp. 299-
pounds, but their relative concentrations are quite differ- 333.
Dembicki, H. Jr., W. G. Meinschein, and D. E. Hattin, 1976,
ent. These differences are in some cases related to
Possible ecological and environmental significance of the
differences in maturity; in other examples they are proba-
predominance of even-carbon number C20 -C 30 n-alkanes:
bly a result of preferential expulsion of hydrocarbons Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 40, pp. 203-208.
from source rocks. James, A. T. and B.J. Burns, 1984, Microbial alteration of sub-
Individual compounds occur in quite variable propor- surface natural gas accumulations: Bulletin of the American
tions in bitumens. S~urce, diagenesis, and maturity all Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 68, pp 957-960.
exert control over these distributions. When source and Lewan, M. D., 1984, Factors controlling proportionality of van a-
61
DEFINITIONS
Migration is the movement of oil and gas within the sub-
surface. Primary migration is the first phase of the migra-
tion process; it involves expulsion of hydrocarbons from
their fine-grained, low-penneability source rock into a
carrier bed having much greater penneability. Secondary
migration is the movement of oil and gas within this
carrier bed. Accumulation is the concentration of mi-
grated hydrocarbons in a relatively immobile configura-
tion, where they can be preserved over long periods of
time. Traps are the means by which migration is stopped
and accumulation occurs.
Each of these steps is quite distinct from the others. In
order to understand the complex sequence of events that
we call migration, we must look at each of these steps
separately. This chapter will not go into the physics and
chemistry of migration in detail, but will describe the
most widely held views on the dominant mechanisms of
primary and secondary migration and accumulation. Our
objective is to use this knowledge of migration processes
and the factors that influence them to predict where un-
discovered hydrocarbon accumulations might be.
PRIMARY MIGRATION
MECHANISMS
Many theories about primary migration (expulsion) have
been popular at various times, but those that have been
discounted will not be discussed here. Today there are
only three mechanisms of primary migration that are
63
64
given serious consideration by most petroleum geochem- who have trouble with acre-feet). Although the exact
ists: diffusion, oil-phase expulsion, and solution in gas. threshold value must vary considerably as a function of
Diffusion has been shown to be active on at least a rock lithology and other factors, Momper's value has been
minor scale and over short distances in carefully studied widely accepted as a reasonable average.
cores (Leythaeuser et al. 1984). Its importance is probably Once the threshold has been exceeded, most of the hy-
limited to the edges of thick units or to thin source beds. drocarbons are expelled, but a large proportion of NSO
Furthermore, it is probably most effective in immature compounds and heavier hydrocarbons are left behind.
rocks, where preexisting light hydrocarbons bleed out of Thus inefficiency of expulsion is responsible for much of
the rocks prior to the onset of significant generation and the difference in composition of bitumen and petroleum
expulsion. that we noted in chapter 5. Primary migration is unques-
The main problem with diffusion as an important tionably the most difficult part of the entire migration
mechanism of migration is that diffusion is by definition a process. Therefore the threshold must represent not only a
dispersive force, whereas accumulation of hydrocarbons hurdle to be cleared by the bitumen before it can leave the
requires concentration. Diffusion would therefore have to source rock, but also an "exit tax."
be coupled with a powerful concentrating force to yield We can only estimate the fraction of the bitumen left in
accumulations of appreciable size. During intense hydro- the source rock during microfracture-induced expulsion.
carbon generation, any contribution by diffusion will be By comparing the average hydrocarbon compositions of
overwhelmed by that from other expulsion mechanisms. bitumens and crude oils (approximately 50% and 90%,
By far the most popular mechanism invoked today to respectively, from fig. 5.20), and assuming that expulsion
explain primary migration is expulsion of hydrocarbons of hydrocarbons is ten times as efficient as expulsion of
in a hydrophobic (oily) phase. There appear to be three NSO compounds, we can estimate that once the expulsion
distinct ways in which oil-phase expulsion can occur. threshold is reached the expulsion efficiency for bitumen
One occurs most commonly as a result of microfracturing is about 50%. Of course, this approach is rather approxi-
induced by overpressuring during hydrocarbon genera- mate, but it does give some idea of the efficiency of
tion. When the internal pressures exceed the shear expulsion.
strength of the rock, microfracturing occurs, particularly A second way in which oil-phase expulsion can occur
along lines of weakness such as bedding planes. Lam- is from very organic-rich rocks prior to the onset of strong
inated source rocks may therefore expel hydrocarbons hydrocarbon generation. This expulsion process probably
with greater efficiency than massive rocks. Once the inter- releases internal pressures in the rock, but the mechanism
nal pressure has returned to normal, the microfractures by which overpressuring is achieved is not understood.
heal. The hydrocarbons within the pores then become The organic matter expelled consists mainly of lipids that
isolated again because of the impermeability of the water- were present in the sediment during deposition and
wet source rocks to hydrocarbons, and overpressuring diagenesis. Therefore, this early expulsion mechanism
commences anew. Many cycles of pressure buildup, mi- seems to be limited to rocks having very high original
crofracturing, expulsion, and pressure release can be contents of lipids. Khavari-Khorasani (1984) has pro-
repeated. posed this mechanism to account for some of the
An important implication of the microfracturing model solidified bitumens in the Uinta Basin of Utah.
is that expulsion cannot take place until the shear strength Finally, oil-phase expulsion can take place when bitu-
of the source rock has been exceeded. Based on empirical men forms a continuous network that replaces water as
evidence, Momper (1978) suggested that in most cases no the wetting agent in the source rock. Expulsion of hydro-
microfracturing or expulsion could occur until a thresh- carbons is facilitated because water-mineral and water-
old amount of bitumen had been generated in the source water interactions no longer need be overcome. This type
rock. He proposed that the threshold value was about 15 of expulsion is probably only operative in very rich source
barrels of bitumen peF acre-foot of source rock (equiva- rocks during the main phase of oil generation. Meissner
lent to 50 million barrels per cubic mile for those of us (1978) has proposed that continuous-hydrocarbon-phase
6. MIGRATION 65
of two forces. Buoyancy promotes migration, whereas much discussed and disputed. I am of the opinion that
capillary-entry pressure retards or stops it. A third there is no a priori reason why secondary migration
force-namely, hydrodynamic flow-can modif.Y hydro- cannot be a very-long-distance phenomenon. Indeed, the
carbon movement, but it is not essential and does not largest hydrocarbon deposits known, including the
change our basic model. Ifwater is flowing in the subsur- Athabasca Tar Sands of western Canada, the heavy oils in
face in the same direction as hydrocarbons are moving by the Orinoco Belt of Venezuela, and the Saudi Arabian
buoyancy, then the rate of hydrocarbon movement should crude oils, all must have migrated long distances; other-
be enhanced somewhat. In contrast, if bulk water move- wise it is impossible to account for the incredible volumes
ment opposes the direction of buoyant movement, then of hydrocarbons in place today.
the rate of hydrocarbon transport will be retarded. These The problem in discussing long-distance migration is
modifications to the overall scheme are probably minor, that such cases are rare. However, they are rare for very
however. good geological reasons: they occur in extremely stable
tectonic settings where major but gentle downwarping
DISTANCE AND DIRECTION has deposited and matured huge volumes of source rocks,
Secondary migration occurs preferentially in the direction and has provided as carrier beds continuous blankets of
that offers the greatest buoyant advantage. Thus move- sand juxtaposed with these source rocks (fig. 6.2). The
ment within a confined migration conduit will be updip absence of both tectonic and stratigraphic barriers per-
perpendicular to structural contours whenever possible. mits long-distance migration.
Where faulting or facies changes create impassible bar- Most basins, however, are broken up tectonically and
riers (capillary-entry pressure exceeds buoyant force), have poor lateral continuity of carrier beds, as a result
migration may have to proceed at an oblique angle to of both tectonic disruption and facies changes related to
structural contours. tectonic events. Lateral migration is therefore often sty-
Within a massive sandstone, secondary migration will mied, leading to smaller fault-bounded accumulations
occur both laterally and vertically. That is, hydrocarbons and vertical migration (fig. 6.3).
entering the sand from an underlying source rock will Drainage area is one of the most important factors in-
move toward the top of the sand even as they migrate fluencing the size of hydrocarbon accumulations. Long-
laterally updip. This fact has important implications for distance migration implies, by definition, large drainage
tracing migration pathways through a thick conduit. areas and chances for very large accumulations. Lack of
Structural contours on the top of the carrier bed will in long-distance migration opportunities implies that super-
general be more useful than contours on its base, because giant and giant accumulations are far less likely and that
final control on migration direction will be exerted by the exploration targets will be smaller.
upper part of the bed (assuming that no laterally continu- It is possible to have lateral migrations of as much as a
ous shale breaks divide the carrier bed into two or more few hundred kilometers in exceptional circumstances.
separate systems). Much more common, however, are basins in which lat-
Vertical migration can also occur across formations. eral migration distances do not exceed a few tens of
Stacked sands in a paleodelta, for example, can offer pos- kilometers (Sluijk and Nederlof 1984). Vertical migration
sible pathways (although sometimes rather tortuous distances can also be considerable, although it should be
ones) for vertical migration. Unconformities also canjux- remembered that there are two fundamentally different
tapose migration conduits, thus providing a potentially types of vertical migration. Migration updip within a sin-
very effective system for combined vertical and lateral mi- gle stratum can accomplish a large amount of "vertical"
gration. Faults may play an important role in vertical migration rather painlessly. Vertical migration across
migration, not only because they often juxtapose carrier stratigraphic boundaries is more difficult. Nevertheless,
beds from different stratigraphic horizons, but also be- distances of several thousand feet are not unheard of
cause an active fault or the brecciated zone adjacent to a (Sluijk and Nederlof, 1984). Price (1980) has discussed
fault may itself have high permeability. the role of vertical migration in numerous basins and
The question of long-distance migration has been believes it is a common and very important phenomenon.
6. MIGRATION 67
220 MILES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
0
l- S
W
W
..... 10
.....
-
15
0
</) 20
0
Z 25
« Mature
en 30
Over mature
::J
0 35
:t 1- 1001
I- 40
45
64 MILES --------------~-l
I-
W
W
.....
.....
0
en 5
0
Z
« _ Overmature
en
::J
0 1- 1001
:t
I-
V E ·,2X
10
GAS HYDRATES
Formation of crystalline hydrates of natural gas provides
an extremely efficient trapping mechanism for natural
gas, especially methane. Gas hydrates form and are stable PARAFFINS
under pressure-temperature regimes that occur at depths
NAPHTHENES
of a few hundred meters below the sea floor in deep
water, and in zones of permafrost. The base of the gas-
z
o AROMATICS
hydrate zone forms a pronounced seismic reflector that ~
<
often simulates bottom contours and cuts across bedding IE:
~
planes (MacLeod 1982). These gas hydrates, also called ~
clathrates, consist of a rigid lattice of water molecules that >- NON-HYDROCARBONS
IE:
form a cage within which a single molecule of gas is <
o
trapped. Methane is by far the most commonly trapped z
o
gas molecule, but clathrates large enough to accomodate o CARRIER ROCK
w
butane molecules are known. II)
secondruy migration except when biodegradation or phase mine the timing of generation, we will also have deter-
changes occur. mined the timing of expulsion. A method for estimating
Biodegradation has already been discussed in chapter timing of hydrocarbon generation is discussed in chapter
5, and need not be repeated here. Although most biodeg- 9. (Obviously, cases like the Uinta Basin, where expulsion
radation is traditionally ascribed to events occurring in probably occurred before generation, do not follow these
the reservoir, under favorable conditions it can probably rules. It has not been shown, however, that hydrocarbons
begin during migration. expelled prior to the main phase of hydrocarbon genera-
Phase changes occur as a result of decreases in pres- tion form accumulations of economic interest.)
sure and temperature during migration. When the origi- In using our understanding of secondary migration for
nal hydrocarbon phase contains large amounts of light exploration, we want to determine the main pathways
components, these changes in temperature and pressure and conduits through which migration occurs, the bar-
can cause separation of the original phase into a liquid riers that modi1)r the direction of migration and eventually
phase and a gas phase. The gas phase will, of course, stop it, and the vertical and horizontal distances involved.
contain mainly light components, but it may also include Conduits are determined by proximity to effective source
some heavier hydrocarbons dissolved in the gas. As soon rocks and their permeabilities to hydrocarbons. Path-
as two immiscible phases are formed, the lighter (gas) ways, as we have seen, are determined by structural con-
phase will be far more buoyant than the liquid phase. It tours on the top of the carrier beds. Barriers can be
will therefore migrate much faster and will also assume created by folding, by faulting, by decreases in permeabil-
the structurally high position in any reservoirs containing ity as a result offacies changes, or by the presence of tars.
both phases. When separation of a single hydrocarbon Vertical-migration distances can be considerable, de-
phase into two phases occurs, both new phases will have pending upon stacking of reservoirs, vertical faulting, and
compositions that differ drastically from the original the possibilities of combined vertical and lateral migra-
phase. Many light oils (often called condensates) proba- tion. Lateral-migration distances are strongly influenced
bly have such an origin. by tectonic and depositional histories of basins. Tectoni-
cally stable basins have the best potential for long-
SIGNIFICANCE FOR EXPLORATION distance migration and supergiant accumulations.
Explorationists who are reading about migration will Unstable basins seldom have depositional or tectonic con-
surely ask, "What does this mean for exploration?" From tinuities necessary for long-distance lateral migration to
their perspective the important aspects of primary migra- occur.
tion are the nature of the hydrocarbons expelled (oil or In summary, as explorationists we have very pragmatic
gas), the efficiency of expulsion, and the timing of expul- interests in migration. We need to know when hydrocar-
sion. We have already stated that oil is expelled primarily bons moved, in what direction they moved, and how far
as a liquid phase; gas is presumably expelled as a gas they moved. An understanding of the process of hydro-
phase. Efficiency of expulsion of liquids has already been carbon generation coupled with good geological data
estimated to be in the neighborhood of 50% after the will permit us to predict the outcome of hydrocarbon
expulsion threshold has been reached. Efficiency of ex- migration.
pulsion for hydrocarbons is apparently much higher than
for NSO compounds, leading to an enrichment of hydro-
SUGGESTED READINGS
carbons in the expelled liquid.
Timing of expulsion must be dealt with in a different
Demaison, G., 1984, The generative basin concept, in G. De-
way. We already know two important facts about timing maison and R.J. Murris, eds., Petroleum Geochemistry and
from our previous discussion: expulsion based on mi- Basin Evaluation: American Association of Petroleum
crofracturing cannot occur before generation, and expul- Geologists Memoir 35, Tulsa, American Association of Petro-
sion occurs concurrently with generation to relieve leum Geologists, pp. 1-14.
generation-induced overpressuring. Thus if we can deter- du Rouchet,J., 1981, Stress fields, a key to oil migration: Bulletin
71
INTRODUCTION
Organic geochemistry and petroleum geochemistry have
always been analysis-based sciences. Proper application
of modem analytical technology has been critical to our
ability to describe the chemical composition offossil fuels
and kerogens, to predict source potential of sedimentary
rocks, to correlate samples with each other, and to under-
stand transformation processes like biodegradation.
Without these sophisticated analytical capabilities, petro-
leum geochemistry would still be in a very primitive state.
Organic-geochemical analyses are carried out with one
of two objectives in mind: to evaluate the hydrocarbon-
source potential of a rock, or to characterize a particular
sample chemically, perhaps for the purpose of attempting
a correlation with another sample. These two distinct ob-
jectives utilize different analytical techniques.
Describing a sample chemically is simply a matter of
amassing the largest possible amount of data about its
bulk chemistry and determining the identities and con-
centrations of specific compounds in the sample. Seldom
is anyone sample analyzed exhaustively. There is there-
fore considerable latitude in selecting the particular anal-
yses desired. Factors such as cost, availability, and the
chemical characteristics of the sample itself usually dic-
tate the course of action. In the following sections we shall
discuss most of the common techniques used in describ-
ing the chemistry of fossil organic matter.
Evaluation of hydrocarbon-source potential, in con-
trast, has become somewhat more standardized in recent
years. Any evaluation of source potential must provide
73
74
three pieces of data: quantity, type, and maturity of or- length of time (typically 8 to 24 hours). The extracting
ganic matter present in the rock. There are a number of solvent is usually chloroform or dichloromethane.
methods available for answering these questions. Metallic copper is often added to remove elemental
In the following sections the order in which I have sulfur, which could otherwise interfere with subsequent
presented the analytical techniques is significant for two analyses.
reasons. First, many analyses require previous prepara- Because of the length of time required for Soxhlet ex-
tol}' steps. The methods are therefore presented in a logi- tractions, geochemists have sought quicker methods of
cal analytical sequence. obtaining bitumen. For a number of years ultrasound was
Secondly, cost is a major concern in any analytical pro- popular, but it is seldom used today. One successful alter-
gram. We want to perform the minimum number of anal- native is a ''flow-blending'' system developed by Radke et
yses that will allow us to answer our original questions. al. (1978), in which the solvent-rock mixture is stirred
Inexpensive analytical techniques should therefore be rapidly. The method requires only ten minutes of extrac-
used as preliminary screens to determine which samples tion time and yields results comparable to those obtained
are suitable for more detailed and expensive analyses. through exhaustive Soxhlet extraction. Despite its appar-
Use of screening procedures is recommended by most ent technical success, however, this method has not been
laboratories, and their personnel are vel}' willing to assist widely adopted.
in avoiding unnecessary expenditures. However, an ex- Once the extraction is complete, the extraction solvent
ploration geologist who is aware of the great monetary must be removed by evaporation. Solvent evaporations
savings that can be achieved through properly designed are carried out slowly at low temperatures in a flow of
screening programs can often make the screening proce- inert gas. Despite these precautions, virtually all of the
dure more cost-effective and more informative. extract molecules having fewer than ten carbon atoms are
This chapter describes the analytical techniques and evaporated with the solvent, and those having between
instruments used in laboratol}' studies of organic materi- ten and fifteen carbon atoms will be partially removed.
als. Discussions of the pros and cons of the various tech- For this reason the extract, or bitumen, is often referred to
niques, as well as interpretation of the analytical results, as the "C15 +" extract. Its composition is therefore not iden-
are included in chapters 8 and 10. tical with that of the bitumen as it exists in the rock, and
will differ sharply in the lower-molecular-weight range
CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION from an oil, which has not suffered evaporative loss.
FOR CORRELATIONS
Column Chromatography. Once the bitumen has been ex-
BITUMEN AND OIL ANALYSES
tracted and the solvent removed, the next step is to sepa-
Extraction. The first step in analyzing bitumen or crude rate the bitumen into fractions that differ in chemical
oil is to obtain a sample of that material. Crude oils are c~osition. Petroleum is handled like bitumen from this
usually vel}' simple to deal with because they generally point onward in the analytical scheme. The first step in
arrive as a liquid in a sample bottle. The presence of a the separation procedure is precipitation and removal of
water emulsion is the main problem that can occur. If the intractable asphaltenes upon addition of a large excess of
emulsion does not break spontaneously upon standing, pentane. The asphaltenes are then filtered off and the
distillation may be necessary to remove the water. asphaltene-free bitumen or oil is recovered by evapora-
Bitumens, in contrast, require considerably more han- tion of the pentane.
dling before analyses can begin. The bitumen must first The technique most commonly used to separate the
be separated from the rock matrix and kerogen by some asphaltene-free bitumen or crude oil into fractions is
sort of extractive process. The most commonly used ap- called column chromatography. The principles of col-
paratus is a Soxhlet extractor, which provides clean sol- umn chromatography (and indeed all chromatographic
vent continuously by. a redistillation process. Soxhlet techniques) are essentially the same as for chromato-
extractions are normally carried out for a considerable graphic separation of compounds during migration, dis-
7. ANALYfICAL TECHNIQUES 75
....... Salurales
o 8
FIGURE 7.1 Column-chromatographic separation offractions
of bitumens or cru£ie oils. Saturated hydrocarbons move fast-
est, followed by aromatics and then bp NSOs. n-Hexane is allowed to pass through the column until
the saturated hydrocarbons have all been eluted. The sol-
vent and its dissolved hydrocarbons are collected as the
cussed in chapter 6. In column chromatography a glass first column-chromatographic fraction. Aromatic hydro-
tube 20-50 cm in length is held in a vertical position and carbons (along with some sulfur-bearing heterocom-
filled with a sluny of silica gel or alumina suspended in a pounds) are then collected in a second fraction eluted by
hydrocarbon solvent like n-hexane (fig. 7.1). A small a slightly more polar solvent, benzene. A third fraction,
amount of bitumen or petroleum is added to the top of the containing mainly NSO compounds, is eluted with
column, and the solvent is allowed to run through by chloroform.
gravity flow. The hydrocarbon solvent dissolves the Although traditional column chromatography is still
saturated hydrocarbons and carries them slowly along the standard for the industry, a new variation, carried out
with it down the column. The other more polar compo- using a device called the Iatroscan, has been adopted by
nents of the bitumen remain stationary or move much some groups. The Iatroscan employs thin-layer chroma-
more slowly than the saturates. Rates of movement de- tography in much the same way that column chromatog-
pend upon the relative affinities of bitumen molecules for raphy has been used. A thin layer of stationary phase is
the solvent and for the stationary phase (alumina or silica coated on the outside of a capillary tube, and a tiny
gel). Nonpolar molecules move rapidly because they have amount of the bitumen or oil is spotted near one end of
little affinity for the highly polar stationary phase, but they the tube. The tube is then inserted vertically in a shallow
are very compatible with the nonpolar hexane. In con- pan of solvent, with the spot near the bottom of the tube
trast, polar molecules, including aromatic hydrocarbons but above the solvent level. The solvent climbs up the
and NSO compounds, are held much more tightly by the tube, moving by capillary action through the stationary
stationary phase and cannot be eluted from the column by phase. As it moves, it mobilizes some of the molecules,
n-hexane. just as in column chromatography. This time, however,
76
H\'drocarbon
d~(e('(or
He-7
Recordc,"
Prj
27
29
31
=---"7"""- ----,0 _ _
..
t:
m / .217
i'" . . . . . . . . --
Z
II-
/
QUADRUPOLE
(SEPARA TION) ANALYZER
... -! :" ., :c ~
~. '! . .. ; ..
RetentIon
_ _to
ISOPRENOIDS
,...,191 ,.,.",211
b JWUJ:
A 13 DEMETHYLA TEO MONDAROMA TIC
TRITERPANES STERANES
fragment ions.
J. K
G.H
o
C
B
I
o~ 1I't.·am 200~------r------''------'------~------/~
C) / 0
Rock sample o...J /
.
/
>- • o. / °
I ~~~ve.. 1 ~~ 5i '60 /
.. .,.. .
Z
~P~
. .-:.•
w / .
o
::::E /.
Dell'ctol' Recorder- o "." /~.
Induction trap digital
IX:
IL
120
. .. . v .. -
" ~ 0
rUl'll3Ce voltm(,ler o
W
" 1.1. •
z /.
~
IX: / "
~ 80 • ~ .I
FIGURE 7.11 Schematic diagram of a Leco carbon analyzer. W
o /
/
/
/
SOURCE-ROCK EVALUATION /
i . 0
/
u /
QUANTITY OF ORGANIC MATERIAL o /
>-
The amount of organic material present in sedimentary /
/
rocks is almost always measured as the total-organic- OO~V______- L______~______- L______~____- - J
40
carbon (TOe) content. This simple, quick, and inexpen- 00 BO '20 '60 200
sive analysis serves as the first and most important Toe (wI. %) DETERMINED FROM CORE ANALYSIS
screening technique in source-rock analysis. Analysis
normally requires about one gram of rock, but if the rocks FIGURE 7.12 Comparison of measured TOC values with TOC
contain abundant organic matter, much smaller amounts values estimated from formation-density logs. From
can be analyzed. Schmoker and Hester, 1983.
Toe analyses are usually run on a Leco carbon ana-
lyzer, which simply combusts a sample of powdered, car-
bonate-free rock at very high temperature in the presence TYPE OF ORGANIC MATERIAL
of a large excess of oxygen (fig. 7.11). All organic carbon
Screening. Because low-TOe samples are thought to have
is converted to carbon dioxide, which is trapped within
minimal hydrocarbon-source potential, they normally are
the instrument and then released into a detector when
not analyzed further. The cutoff point for disqualification
combustion is complete. The amount of carbon dioxide
varies, but it is normally between 0.5% and 1.0% TOe.
produced is proportional to the organic-carbon content of
Most laboratories now use the higher value as their cutoff,
the rock. Carbonate is removed from the preweighed rock
but exceptions are made, especially in organic-lean sec-
sample with hydrochloric acid prior to combustion, be-
tions where most of the samples fall below the minimum.
cause carbonate minerals would also decompose during
Those samples that are selected for further analyses are
combustion to yield carbon dioxide.
next studied to see what type of organic material they
There are ways to estimate organic richness when Toe
contain.
analyses cannot be made. Schmoker (1981), Charpentier
and Schmoker (1982), and Schmoker and Hester (1983)
have used gamma-ray logs, formation-density logs, and Direct and Indirect Measurements of Kerogen Type. There are
rock color to estimate Toe values with reasonably good two distinct approaches to determining the type of or-
success (fig. 7.12). These methods are limited to very rich ganic matter in a sedimentary rock. Our objective in car-
rocks, however (TOe. greater than about 4% in most rying out source-rock analyses is to determine the
cases), and therefore cannot be considered to be general. hydrocarbon-generative potential of the kerogen. We can
7. ANAL ¥TICAL TECHNIQUES 85
20
15
x
X
X
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XXXX
5 XXXX
XXXX
X XXXX
X XXXXX
X XXXXX X
X XXXXXXXX XXX
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
REFLECTANCE (%RO)
POPULATION GROUPS
FIGURE 7.15 Histogram of vitrinite-reflectance values for a dent beam that is reflected coherently is measured with a
cuttings sample. The single mode in the distribution curve photomultiplier and recorded and stored automatically
and the tight clustering about the mean value give a high
level of confidence to the interpretation. Statistics of the vari-
on a computer. If enough vitrinite particles can be found,
ous populations of reflectance values are included. between 50 and 100 measurements will be taken. At the
end of the analysis a histogram of the collected data is
printed, along with a statistical analysis of the data (fig.
Vitrinite Rljlectance (R,,). Vitrinite-reflectancemeasure- 7.15).
ments begin by isolating the kerogen with Hel and HF as Results are reported as Ro values, where the 0 indicates
previously described, and then embedding the kerogen that the measurements were made with the plug im-
particles in an epoxy plug. After the plug is polished, the mersed in oil. Ra values, frequently reported by Soviet
microscopist, using a special microscope, shines light on workers, are measured in air and are quite different from
an individual vitrinite particle. The fraction of the inci- Ro values.
88
Linear Semilog
1.500
'" (~
~
,
0
'3.000
3.000 X
~ ~
:z:
~
1 l-
I- A-
A-
~
OIl
OIl 0
0
4.500
o~
4.500
6.000
~I\o
,.0000L,.2,..........,,0..,.4-.....,,0~.6-.....,,0"':
.•----:"11::.0......--:'1.":2.....-:"~......;~ .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .I.t 1.0 u 2.0 30
VITRINITE REFLECTANCE (R.o/.) VITRINITE REFLECTANCE (R.%'
Conodont Alteration Index (CAl). Conodonts are isolated, and bitumen contents of up to 60% in some near-surface
most commonly from fossiliferous carbonates, by remov- rocks. Other samples showed no weathering effects, how-
ing the mineral matrix with acetic or formic acid. Colors ever. Oxygen contents of kerogens are increased substan-
of the specimens thus obtained are determined under a tially, and vitrinite-reflectance values are often increased
binocular microscope and compared with standards. The by weathering. Biodegradation is not responsible for
technique is simple and quick and can be done even by weathering; apparently the loss of organic matter is a
inexperienced workers. nonbiological oxidative process.
Geochemical analyses on outcrop samples are often
Electron-Spin Resonance (esr). Esr measurements are made valuable but, because of weathering and occasional prob-
on kerogens isolated by the procedures described earlier. lems with contamination, the results should always be
The kerogen concentrate is placed in a glass tube and viewed with some skepticism. Source-rock evaluations
inserted in an esr spectrometer, which measures the abil- based on outcrop data are likely to be more pessimistic
ity of the sample to absorb energy of various wavelengths. than if the same samples had been obtained from a well.
The output data normally consist of measurements of in-
tensity of absorption, width of the absorption peak, and WELL SAMPLES
the wavelength of the absorbed energy. The main causes of contamination among samples ob-
tained from wells are caving and adulteration by drilling-
Bitumen Analyses. Estimates of maturity of the bitumen fluid additives. Caving is not a problem for conventional
fraction can be made using data on n-alkanes, steranes, or sidewall cores, of course, but it can be devastating in
triterpanes, and porphyrins obtained from gas chro- cuttings samples. Caved materials can often be recog-
matography, gc/ms, ms, or HPLC as described earlier. nized by careful picking of lithologies and comparison
Interpretation of these data is discussed in chapter 8. with up-hole samples. In many cases, however, vitrinite-
Fluorescence of bitumen has also been used as a matu- reflectance measurements offer the best means of recog-
rity parameter. The technique for measuring bitumen nizing caving (see chap. 8). Caving is a particular
fluorescence is very similar to that for kerogens; the bitu- problem for coals, because of their friability; it can lead to
men is dissolved and moved onto a microscope slide by an overly optimistic assessment of the organic richness of
thin-layer chromatography, and the solvent is evaporated. the section.
The fluorescence of the bitumen is then measured using a Drilling-fluid additives have been a severe headache for
fluorescence microscope. petroleum geochemists for a long time. Contaminants of
particular notoriety are diesel fuel, walnut hulls and other
solid debris, and lignite from lignosulfonates. Fortu-
CONTAMINATION AND WEATHERING
nately, palynological analysis can usually detect the pres-
SURFACE SAMPLES ence of lignosulfonates because of the unique pollen
The types of contamination most frequently encountered assemblages present in the lignite. In such cases TOC
in surface samples are caused by living organic matter or values will be raised and reflectance histograms will
by spills of oil. Problems with living organic matter are show a large population near 0.5%. Walnut hulls and
easily avoided by physically removing tiny plant roots and other organic debris are also easy to detect microscop-
other recognizable debris. Mold or other surface growth ically, and can be removed prior to beginning the analyt-
may also be present. Hydrocarbon contamination is rare ical sequence.
except in the immediate vicinity of production or where In contrast to solid additives, which affect only the
vehicles are used, and therefore should be easy to avoid. kerogen portion of the sample, diesel fuel affects both
Weathering, in contrast, is almost ubiquitous, and can kerogen and bitumen. It is capable of impregnating
extend to depths of at least 3 m, even in rocks that seem to sidewall and conventional cores as well as cuttings. TOC
have retained integrity- (Leythaeuser, 1973). Clayton and values will be raised and vitrinite-reflectance values low-
Swetland (1978) have documented reductions in TOC ered by the presence of adsorbed diesel. Pyrolysis results
90
TABLE 7.1 Approximate costs in 1985 are likely to be overly optimistic, because some of the
of some common geochemical analyses diesel emerges as the S2 peak.
Bitumen analyses are complicated by the presence of
Price per
Analysis Sample ($US)* diesel. The total quantity of extract and the ExtracVTOe
ratio become meaningless. However, because diesel con-
Sample handling 5 tains mainly hydrocarbons having fewer than 20 carbon
TOC 18 atoms, steranes, triterpanes, and porphyrins should be
Rock-Eval pyrolysis 28 unaffected. Diesel contamination can be recognized, us-
Kerogen isolation 25 ing gas chromatography, by the high concentrations ofn-
Microscopic kerogen evaluation, includ- 50 alkanes up to about ezo •
ing TAl (requires previous kerogen
isolation)
Vitrinite reflectance (requires previous 70 ANALYTICAL COSTS
kerogen isolation) There is a wide range of prices for the various analytical
Elemental (CHNSO) analysis of kerogen 50 techniques just discussed. Toe measurements cost in the
(requires previous kerogen isolation) neighborhood of u.S. $15 apiece, whereas gc/ms analyses
Bitumen extraction 50 each cost about u.s. $350. A cost-effective, properly de-
Column chromatography (requires previ- 65 signed analytical program will have two features: (1) It
ous bitumen extraction) will begin with inexpensive analyses like Toe and use
Molecular sieving 35 them to screen the samples so that expensive analyses will
Gas chromatography of saturated hydro- 75 not be requested on inappropriate samples, and (2) It will
carbons (requires previous bitumen
extraction and column chromatog- be planned stepwise so that the results of each screening
raphy) procedure can be evaluated before further analyses are
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry 400 requested. Attention to these two principles can dramat-
(requires previous bitumen extraction, ically lower analytical costs.
column chromatography, and molecular A substantial number of analytical companies are will-
sieving) ing to perform organic-geochemical analyses. Some large
% Sulfur (may require previous treat- 50 concerns offer (or will subcontract) virtually any type of
ments)
analysis desired. Others are small and specialized. Prices
Carbon isotopes (may require previous 50
treatments) vary from company to company, and substantial savings
Sulfur isotopes (may require previous 65 may be possible by shopping around for the best prices.
treatments) Volume discounts are also possible.
Hydrogen isotopes (may require previous 80 Typical prices as of 1985 for a number of common
treatments) geochemical analyses are compiled in table 7.1. This
Headspace gas of canned cuttings 20 table should be taken as a rough guide for preliminary
Gasoline-range hydrocarbons 75 planning purposes only. For more up-to-date quotes, con-
tact one of the companies offering these services.
'Prices are based on 1985 quotes on the basis of a fifty-sample job for Toe and
Rock-Eval, and for five-sample jobs for the other analyses. Smaller jobs may
command higher prices, especially for routine analyses. Larger jobs may earn
additional price reductions. Data interpretation is included in the prices. SUMMARY
Most of the analytical techniques described are well
developed and can be used with good to excellent
confidence. They form the backbone of traditional or-
ganic geochemistry. Other techniques are under develop-
ment and may become available for general use before
long.
91
SUGGESTED READINGS
93
94
-:'/.1
and their source capacities
~ A I>. A
Possible Go unmeasured unmeasured CJ 750 - A A
I>. AA
Potential Go Go none ~
J~
Effective Go G Go-G bn I
*.'*
tMeasured in the laboratory. Q
Z 450 -
*
maturity to overmaturity. When we analyze a rock sample
in the laboratory, we actually measure its remaining (or
Z
~
C!J
I
•
0 300 []
untapped) source capacity at the present day. This quan- c: \
150 - .
0
tity, which we can call G, is most meaningful if we can
compare it to the rock's original source capacity, Go. The
Q
>-
~
.\ A
I
D
00
~_ o000
0, m
0 .......
ready begun to generate hydrocarbons; instead it must be 0 I
estimated by measuring G for a similar sample that is still Q50 100 IS0
immature. Go can only be measured directly for immature --~. OXYGEN INDEX (mg C02/g TOC)
*
source rocks, where G and Go are identical. Table B.1
summarizes this discussion. A GREEN RIVER SHALE
source capacity. Chapter 7 outlined direct and indirect • CRETACEOUS, PERSIAN GULF (OLIGOSTEGINES LIMESTONE)
approaches to the problem of determining G. Both ap- C UPPER JURASSIC, NORTH AQUITAINE
proaches have strong and weak points that will be dis-
cussed in the following sections. Y INCREASING MATURATION
The Direct (Pyrolysis) Method.In the direct method using FIGURE 8.1 Modified van Krevelen diagram used for Rock-
Rock-Eval pyrolysis, the measured S1 value represents Eval pyrolysis data, showing the maturation pathways of
those hydrocarbons preexisting in the rock since deposi- Types I, II, r;nd III kerogens. Reprinted by permission of the
tion plus those generated in the subsurface. S2 represents Societe des Editions Technip: figure 11 from the article en-
G, the remaining hydrocarbon-generative capacity. S3 is a titled ''Methode rapide de caracterisation des roches meres,
de leur potentiel petrolier et de leur degre d'evaluation" by].
measure of the oxyg~n content of the kerogen. Espitalie et al., published in the Revue de l'Institut FraTlfais
Rock-Eval pyrolysis results are often plotted on a du Petrole, vol. 32, no. 1,]an.-Feb. 1977.
8. SOURCE-ROCK EVALUATION 95
if"
PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS iii OM
II:
OF
, W
ti \
•\
s~
KEROGEN EVOLUTION
!
•
JC
5.
~
C02. H20
Oil %
'OGO
• 5,
I.SO
_ GAS
...
~
II.
g
\ ., 5, + S,
u '000
•
"'
:r ""'-.
U'·
~
:E 1000
'-...... -
0 1.00 0 0 .' 0 .2 0 .) 0.0 O.S
I-
lk.
et PRODUCTION INDEX
, OM
OSO
q
1000
q.. TMilI
,,
0 010 020 , 2000
'0. .
'0.
ATOMIC OIC
..
''0•
"0"
lOOO
UO "0 •• 0 '.0
FIGURE 8.2 Van Krevelen diagram showing variation in 430'C TEMPERATURE ('CI
atomic HIC and OIC ratios for immature Types I, II, and III
kerogens and the evolutionary paths for each kerogen type
during catagenesis. Reprinted by permission of the American FIGURE 8.3 Increases in maturity in Toarcian Paper Shales
Association of Petroleum Geologists from Tissot et al., 1974. of the Paris Basin with increasing depth of burial, as
niflected in increases in the 81 peak, decreases in 82, increases
in the ratio 811(81 + 82), and increases in T max' Reprinted by
modified van Krevelen diagram (fig. 8.1; compare with permisssion of the Societe des Editions Technip: figure 12
from the article entitled ''Methode rapicle de caracterisation
figs. 4.6 or 8.2). Hydrogen index (peak S2 normalized for des roches meres, de leur potentiel petrolier et de leur degre
TOC content) replaces atomic HlC ratio, and oxygen in- d'evaluation" by J. Espitalie et al., published in the Revue de
dex (peak S3 normalized for TOC content) replaces l'Institut Fral1fais du Petrole, vol. 32, no. 1, Jan.-Feb. 1977.
atomic O/C ratio in the original van Krevelen diagram.
Maturation pathways followed by kerogens are very S3 is the most controversial parameter measured. Col-
similar to those seen in van Krevelen diagrams, with the lection of carbon dioxide in the Rock-Eval is intentionally
oxygen index decreasing at the onset of maturation, fol- stopped at a low temperature in order to avoid including
lowed by a decrease in the hydrogen index during hydro- carbon dioxide produced by decomposition of carbonate
carbon generation. In the late stages of maturity all minerals. However, this tactic has not always proved suc-
kerogens have low pyrolysis yields. cessful. Samples containing carbonates often give spuri-
Since kerogen is converted to bitumen during hydrocar- ously high S3 values, especially ifTOC values are low. S3
bon generation, with increasing maturity the S2 peak de- values are ignored by many workers; if used, they should
creases and S1 increases. The ratio Sl/(S1 + S2), called always be interpreted carefully, particularly in carbonate
the Production Index or Transformation ratio, should rocks.
increase with increasing maturity, as shown in an un-
usually nice example from the Paris Basin (fig. 8.3). In Advantages and Disadvantages of Pyrolysis. The advantages
practice, however, natural variations from sample to sam- of the direct (pyrolysis) method are that it is cheap and
ple and migration of hydrocarbons into and out of rocks quick, and it mimics the natural hydrocarbon-generation
complicates this simple picture, preventing the Produc- process occurring in the subsurface. These features have
tion Index from being a reliable indicator of maturity. made pyrolysis very popular and valuable. There are,
96
tent be measured independently. Measurement of Toe the section. In this case the average TOe of 0.5% is proba-
values is straightforward (chap. 7), but the selection of bly a fair appraisal of the overall section, but that figure is
samples for Toe analysis presents some philosophical really an average between two totally different lithologies:
problems. Let us look at these questions, and then at the much sand with no source potential, and a small amount
technical merits of both elemental analysis and micro- of shale with high Toe values. In order to evaluate the
scopic kerogen evaluation. source potential of the section realistically, it would be
TOC ANALYSES. When Toe measurements are made necessary to focus on the shales, not on the average Toe
on core samples, it is customary to sample the particular value for the entire section.
lithology of interest. The measured Toe value is therefore MICROSCOPIC KEROGEN-TYPE ANALYSES. There are
not necessarily representative of the entire core, and re- several problems in applying transmitted-light micros-
sults must be interpreted accordingly. More often, how- copy to kerogen analyses. The technique is undeniably
ever, the samples submitted are cuttings, which may subjective, and results will vary from operator to
contain mixtures of lithologies, including caved material operator. Nevertheless, with careful attention to stan-
and contamination of various kinds. Prior to making Toe dards, an experienced worker can usually reproduce his
measurements a technician should remove obvious con- or her own earlier results with excellent precision. Differ-
tamination and caving. ences between workers are often more a matter of seman-
When more than one lithology is present, an important tics than substance.
philosophical decision must be made. If we are looking A second problem is that when kerogens become very
for particular organic-rich units in order to evaluate their mature, the particles become opaque and difficult to rec-
source potential, then we will elect to hand-pick a sample ognize. For this reason, visual kerogen analyses are not
containing only that particular lithology. I personally pre- reliable much beyond the oil window.
fer this approach, because it gives the most accurate Thirdly, a kerogen particle may contain small amounts
evaluation of those rocks actually possessing most of the of organic material that is quite different chemically from
source potential. The other approach is to measure the the bulk of the particle. A woody particle could thus con-
TOe content of the unpicked sample in order to get an tain some plant wax or tiny globules of resinite that would
overall appraisal of the whole section. The deficiency in impart to it a significant hydrocarbon-generative capac-
this approach is that if a small amount of excellent source ity. If these tiny inclusions are not recognized microscop-
rock is diluted with a large amount of barren rock, the ically, the whole particle would be condemned as a Type
overall average will be unduly pessimistic. Because both III kerogen having no oil-source potential.
philosophies are followed in different cases, one must be Finally, the diagenetically altered kerogen particles
aware how a sample was handled prior to analysis in (usually termed amorphous because of their lack of any
order to interpret data correctly. If you are the one re- apparent structure) can be derived from various precur-
questing the analyses, make sure that you make your sors. Their amorphous appearance masks their origin
wishes clear. and makes distinguishing amorphous oil-prone kerogen
An example of the dramatic effect that dilution by bar- from amorphous non-oil-prone kerogen difficult.
ren material can have comes from a well in which nearly Fluorescence microscopy (carried out on specially
100 cuttings samples had Toe values averaging about equipped microscopes) has been of some value in making
0.5%, with a maximum of1.2%. One core was submitted this important distinction. Oil-generative kerogens are
with the cuttings; a sample of black shale from it was thought to fluoresce much more strongly than do non-oil-
found to contain more than 4% TOe. It would be a great generative kerogens. Fluorescence is useful in distin-
coincidence if the one core analyzed contained the only guishing between oil-prone amorphous kerogens derived
rich shale in the entire section. A much more likely expla- from lipid-rich organic matter and non-oil-prone amor-
nation is that many of the cuttings bags also contained phous kerogens formed by degradation of woody or cel-
some organic-rich shale, but that volumetrically those lulosic material. However, many samples having little or
shales were overwhelmed by the large amount of sand in no source potential contain large proportions of amor-
98
phous debris that fluoresces for reasons that are not yet analysis for more detailed studies of possible source-rock
understood. intervals.
Despite our insights into possible problems with visual
kerogen analyses and our realization that the use of DETERMINATION OF MATURITY
fluorescence is vital to evaluating amorphous kerogens,
microscopic kerogen analysis has not had a good track Introduction. Knowing a rock's remaining source capacity
record. Powell and co-workers (1982) have shown that G solves only one part of the puzzle; it is also necessary to
there is a poor correlation between maceral type know what level of thermal maturity is represented by
(identified microscopically) and both hydrogen content that particular G value. For example, if G is vel}' low, is it
and pyrolysis yield. Visual kerogen analyses should there- because the rock never had a high initial source capacity,
fore be used with extreme caution, preferably in conjunc- or is it because the rock is "burned out" (i.e., overmature,
tion with other measures of kerogen type. in which case virtually all the initial hydrocarbon-source
ELEMENTAL ANALYSES. Elemental analysis of isolated capacity has already been used up)? The exploration im-
kerogens has proved to be a vel}' useful and reliable tool plications of these two scenarios are, of course, vel}'
for determining kerogen type. Its only real weakness is the different.
time and expense involved in isolating the kerogen. Equa- Maturity can be estimated by several techniques de-
tion (8.1), adapted from one published by Saxby (1980), scribed in chapter 7. The strong and weak points of each
relates atomic HlC and O/C ratios to the hydrogen index method are discussed below.
(H.I.):
Vitrinite &iflectance (Ro). Vitrinite-reflectance techniques
H.I. = 667(HlC) - 570(O/C) - 333. (8.1) were developed about a half centul}' ago for measuring
the rank of coals, in which the vitrinite maceral is usually
Saxby found that his equation worked for predicting oil vel}' common. The method is based on the fact that with
yields from both coals and oil shales during slow, low- increasing thermal stress, the reflectance value of vitrinite
temperature pyrolysis. He cautioned, however, against increases.
using it for samples containing large amounts of There are, however, many problems with vitrinite
inertinite. reflectance as applied to kerogens. In many rocks vitrinite
NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE (NMR). Miknis et is rare or absent. Because what is present is often re-
al. (1982) have used nmr to evaluate source potential by worked, its maturity is not related to that of the rock in
distinguishing saturated-hydrocarbon portions of kerogen which it is found. Reworked vitrinite is, in fact, far more
from aromatic portions. No routine application of this common in shales than in coals, leading to frequent
technique to exploration has yet been made, however. difficulties in establishing which vitrinite population is
One advantage of nmr is that it is nondestructive. indigenous. The ideal histogram of reflectance values (fig.
7.15) is therefore rather rare; more common are histo-
SUMMARY grams showing few vitrinite particles or multiple modes
Despite high expectations that accompanied the arrival of as a result of first-cycle vitrinite contaminated with re-
the Rock-Eval a few years ago, the problem of evaluating worked vitrinite or caving of less-mature material from
G has not yet been solved perfectly. Whole-rock pyrolysis up-hole (fig. 8.5). Such histograms are quite often difficult
has severe limitations in some shales. Pyrolysis or elemen- or impossible to interpret, unless surrounding samples
tal analysis of isolated kerogens is too expensive to be help us determine the indigenous vitrinite population.
used routinely, and visual kerogen-type analyses are not Other macerals or solidified bitumens can often be
vel}' reliable. Perhaps the most cost-effective solution in misidentified as vitrinite. Because each maceral type in-
the future will be to use TOC measurements as a prelimi- creases in reflectance in a slightly different way as ther-
nary screen, whole-rock pyrolysis as a second screen, and mal stress increases, misidentification of macerals can
kerogen pyrolysis, elemental analysis, or microscopic cause problems, even for experienced workers. The vari-
8. SOURCE-ROCK EVALUATION 99
20
15
x X
X X X
x X X XX X X
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
REFLECTANCE (%RO)
POPULATION GROUPS
20
15
10
x
XX X
5 XX X
XX XXX X X
XXX XXX X X
xxxxxxxx X XXX
xxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxx
x xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx x x
POPULATION GROUl'S
20
15
5
x
X
X
XXX
xxxx XXX XX X X X XX XX
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
REFLECTANCE (%RO)
POPULATION GROUPS
ous types of vitrinite themselves vary in composition and Kerogen Fluorescence.Fluorescence is most useful for kero-
may not all mature at the same rate. gen-maturity determinations when measurements are
Finally, vitrinite is thought by most people to be rather made on specific algal constituents, such as Tasmanites.
unimportant in the oil-generation process. Changes in vi- Such materials are quite rare in most samples, however.
trinite reflectance therefore have little or nothing to do Furthermore, most fluorescence disappears or becomes
with oil generation. Their application in assessing kero- useless as a maturity indicator rather early, at reflectance
gen maturity may in fact be based on a coincidence that is levels of about 1%. Thus at the present time fluorescence
not always valid. is a supplementary tool for corroborating maturity data
Despite its weaknesses, vitrinite reflectance is the most from other techniques. In the future its range of applica-
popular technique today for estimating kerogen maturity. bility may be expanded. It is not yet generally available
In many areas it is easy to use and valuable. In other on a commercial basis and is used by only a few
rocks, however, paucity of first-cycle vitrinite renders vit- laboratories.
rinite-reflectance measurements essentially worthless. In
all cases it is worthwhile to supplement vitrinite with Conodont Alteration Index (CAl). Although conodonts are
other measures of maturity; in some cases it is essential. composed of carbonate apatite, changes in conodont
color are apparently due to carbonization of inclusions of
small amounts of organic matter during catagenesis and
Thermal Alteration Index (TAl). Although TAl determina-
metagenesis. One advantage of CAl over other maturity
tions are subjective, use of careful standards and the same
parameters is that because conodonts existed as early as
type of palynomorph in each analysis greatly aids repro-
the Cambrian, they offer a means of measuring maturity
ducibility. TAl measurements are therefore often quite
in rocks that do not contain pollen grains or vitrinite.
accurate and correlate very well with results from other
Furthermore, conodonts are plentiful in carbonate rocks,
techniques. The chief problems arise with inexperienced
where pollen and vitrinite are often absent. Thirdly, the
workers, lack of proper standardization, or most com-
CAl scale is most sensitive at levels of maturity much
monly, the absence of spores and pollen in the samples.
higher than can be measured by TAl, and thus helps
\\'hen palynomorphs are absent, TAl values must be es-
expand the range over which maturities can be mea-
timated from amorphous debris, which can vary greatly
sured. Finally, CAl is inexpensive and easy to measure
in its chemical and physical properties. TAl values es-
and, with the help of beautiful color charts published by
timated from amorphous material are always suspect and
Epstein et al. (1977), can be carried out by inexperienced
should be corroborated by other analyses.
personnel.
One disadvantage of CAl measurements is that CAl
Pyrolysis temperature is frequently used as
Pyrolysis T max. values can be dramatically increased in the presence of
a maturity indicator, because as the maturity of a kerogen hot brines, leading to an inaccurate assessment of kero-
increases, the temperature at which the maximum rate of gen maturity. Other disadvantages overlap with some of
pyrolysis occurs increases (fig. 8.3). The parameter T max the advantages. Conodonts do not occur in rocks younger
(temperature at which the S2 peak reaches its maximum) than the Triassic, and thus are of no value in many areas.
has become a standard part of Rock-Eval output data. They are normally isolated only from fossiliferous carbon-
Because T max is obtained at no extra cost when pyrolysis is ates. Large amounts (500 g) of sample are usually re-
performed, it has become a popular analysis. quired, and even then many samples are barren. They are
There are, however, some problems associated with not very sensitive indicators of maturity within the oil-
T max data and their interpretation. For example, T max is generation window, where most of the interest is. Fi-
dependent upon kerogen type. Because kerogen type usu- nally, because the organic metamorphism displayed by
ally varies from sample to sample in a well profile, T max conodonts is not related to hydrocarbon generation
often does not show a regular progression with depth. or destruction, CAl is only an indirect indicator of
Isolated T max data are not trustworthy. hydrocarbon maturity.
8. SOURCE-ROCK EVALUATION 103
20 10
00
O~--------~r---------~r---------~----------~O
Rtfltctan~ (Xl
Polycyclic Biomarkers. A problem endemic to all kerogen- Bitumen Fluorescence. Fluorescence of extractable organic
maturity indicators is that they do not directly measure material has been used as a maturity parameter by
hydrocarbon generation or changes in the bitumen frac- Hagemann and Hollerbach (1983), but it should still be
tion. We must take a leap of faith that changes in the considered as a technique under development. Changes
kerogen are related to or indicative of hydrocarbon gener- in fluorescence wavelength within the oil window have
ation. Thus the application of gc/ms a few years ago to been noted, but no general correlation with other matu-
measure the maturity of bitumens and oils directly from rity parameters has been carried out.
their sterane and triterpane distributions was greeted
with great interest and expectations. When perfected, Light Hydrocarbons. Light-hydrocarbon concentrations are
these techniques were expected to replace to a large ex- frequently used as a direct indicator of hydrocarbon gen-
tent the kerogen-maturity indicators. eration. Concentrations of the various Cz to C8 species
Unfortunately, actual application of gc/ms data to ma- have been found to increase by one to three orders of
turity questions has proved more difficult than most magnitude during intense oil generation (fig. 8.7). Use of
workers originally anticipated. Because the analyses are light hydrocarbons requires detailed sampling through-
expensive, they are not used by most laboratories on a out the section in order to establish a good data trend.
routine basis at the present time.
Some of the problems associated with biomarker- Summary. The feeling of most workers today is that there
derived maturities may disappear as our experience and is no single maturity indicator that tells the whole story
expertise in working with biomarkers increase. For ex- unerringly all the time. All the techniques discussed are
ample, poor separation of peaks in a mass chromatogram useful and probably reasonably accurate if the analytical
can lead to erroneous identification of compounds and work is carefully done. The key to using maturity parame-
incorrect ratios of biomarkers. Migration of hydrocarbons ters effectively lies in evaluating the measured data care-
into rocks can create problems; if they are not recognized fully (and sometimes with skepticism) and, whenever
as nonindigenous, eIToneous conclusions about maturity possible, in obtaining more than one maturity parameter.
may be drawn. The most serious problem, however, is
that the various biomarker ratios do not change in the
same sequence in all rocks. Mackenzie (1984) believes, in
fact, that accurate use of biomarkers as maturity parame-
ters will require basin-by-basin calibration.
Despite these difficulties, biomarkers can be used cau-
tiously for maturity estimations as well as correlations
wherever they are available. At the present time, how-
ever, they should still be viewed as a technology under
development and should be supported by other maturity
determinations.
2
z
<C
. ..
(!)
a:
o
C>
'"z (!)
00
~.j
<C Z- 2
(.)0
OlD
a: a:
c <C
>- (.)
J:
....
(.)
.;,
(.)
C>
E
/
300-450 oil moderate 90 ",0
E
f?ld:
/
0. /
0.
"I
~ 70
crPI
TABLE 8.4 Prediction of hydrogen indices of '" sJ
~
,'t
"
.:5
,,'
",'"
immature kerogens based on atomic Hie and OIC ratios 0
...J <,,0'
,,/ 10
()
UJ
> ",b
<;3l;
,
~
vary from formation to formation. The correlation be- TABLE 8.5 Correlation of various kerogen-maturity
tween TOC and hydrogen index is weakest in nonmarine parameters with vitrinite-reflectance (Raj values
or paralic rocks containing large amounts of woody or
Vitrinite Thermal Pyrolysis Conodont
cellulosic material, because there is not always a direct Reflectance Alteration Tmax Alteration
correlation between TOC and oxygen levels in the (%Ro) Index (TAl) (OC) Index (CAl)
sediment.
0.40 2.0 420 1
0.50 2.3 430 1
MATURITY
0.60 2.6 440 1
Kerogen Parameters. Determination of the oil-generation 0.80 2.8 450 1.5
window in a particular section is the objective of most 1.00 3.0 460 2
maturity analyses performed on possible source rocks. A 1.20 3.2 465 2
second, less common application is to decide whether oil 1.35 3.4 470 2
will be stable in a given reservoir. The limits of the oil- 1.50 3.5 480 3
generation window vary considerably depending upon 2.00 3.8 500 4
the type of organic matter being transformed (fig. 4.10). 3.00 4.0 500+ 4
Nevertheless, for most kerogens the onset of oil-generation 4.00 4.0 500+ 5
is taken to be near 0.6% Ro. Peak generation is reached
near 0.9% Ro, and the end of liquid-hydrocarbon genera-
tion is thought to be at about 1.35% Ro. The ultimate limit
of oil stability is not known for certain, but in most cases Bitumen Parameters. The Carbon Preference Index can-
is probably not much above 1.5% Ro. not be used as a reliable indicator of maturity; that is,
Because vitrinite reflectance is the most popular there is not a one-to-one correspondence between CPI
method of determining maturity, most other maturation and maturity level. CPI values above 1.2 or below 0.8
parameters are related to Ro values (table 8.5). The corre- traditionally have indicated immaturity. Values between
lations among maturity parameters have been fairly well 0.8 and 1.2 are not diagnostic, for reasons discussed in
established, but there are still some minor variations from chapter 5.
one laboratory to another. The ratio of DPEP to etio-type porphyrins has been
It is particularly difficult to generalize about TAl values used upon occasion as a maturity parameter because
because the numerical values of TAl scales have not been cracking of the exocyclic ring of DPEP species produces
standardized among laboratories. Thus, if you are using etioporphyrins. The DPEP/etio ratio has been calibrated
TAl determinations determined by an analyticallabora- to vitrinite reflectance (fig. 8.9), but Mackenzie (1984)
tory, make sure that you have a copy of their equivalency has suggested that the calibration is not universal.
between TAl and Ro. The equivalency between TAl and A number of polycyclic biomarkers are used as indi-
Ro given in table 8.5 is not used by all laboratories. cators of bitumen maturity. The Methylphenanthrene In-
Although T max values are determined objectively, be- dex-1 (MPI) of Radke et al. (1982) has been related to
cause they vary with kerogen type as well as maturity, a vitrinite reflectance within the oil-generation window by
unified scale for comparing them with Ro values has not equation (8.2):
been adopted. Some laboratories put the onset of maturity
at 435° C; others use 440°. Ro = 0.60(MPI) + 0.37. (8.2)
Conodont Alteration Index (CAl) values ranging from
1 to 5 were tied loosely to vitrinite reflectance and fixed- Most of the biomarker ratios used as maturity indi-
carbon content of coals (table 8.5). CAl can actually mea- cators involve steranes and triterpanes. Moretanes, which
sure high-grade metqmorphism, with CAl of 8 reached in are unstable triterpanes, can be used as a maturity indi-
a marble. cator for immature samples. The presence of more than a
8. SOURCE-ROCK EVALUATION 109
13QH
100
Core 10
90
31H
80 R
I:
]. 70
e- 60
8.
JJ
~50
do 40 re 37
\J.l 29H
5 30 8
* 20
Tm
31H
8
R
10 ~30M
O~-'--'--.~~-r
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Retention time -
Vitrinite refl lance ('!b Ro)
m • Prudhoe Bay
o Ship Shoal 0
~ O~erthrusl Bell
I. 0 • Miscellaneous
• Shale Bilumens
.. Green River Shale 110. 21
Pyrolysales
•
111
50. 120SH 1111
50. (20RI!! 11
. .... .JOO Coryt
0.5
10
17(l (20RI (IV)
Sa. (20R) fill
--..-~. j Rearr;,nged
,J 1~ ·-·.; .-. .___
Isosteranes
Steranes
t'lature
"'-----
'1"[ J. )1 ,. 1.,
••
has been expended in attempting to establish definitive zone is of excellent oil-source quality, having Hic ratios
correlations between kerogen-maturation parameters, near 1.3. However, in this well the upper zone is very
such as vitrinite reflectance, and biomarker-maturation immature (Ra near 0.4%).
parameters. Mackenzie (1984) cautions strongly against The lower rich zone is much different. Although it may
this tendency, because of the completely different nature be marginally mature for oil generation (Ra near 0.6%),
of the chemical processes occurring in each case. He be- the quality of the kerogen is poor, as evidenced by the HlC
lieves there is no unique calibration of biomarker- ratios clustered around O.B. We therefore conclude that
maturity values that will serve for all basins. I believe he is the lower rich zone contains coaly material poor in hy-
correct, and that biomarker maturity measurements drogen, and, even if mature, it would generate mainly
should be viewed only as approximate indicators ofmatu- gas.
rity. At the present time (and probably in the future as We now turn our attention back to the upper rich zone.
well) they do not replace kerogen measurements but Even though these rocks are clearly immature at the B-2
rather supplement them. location, our data will still be valuable if we can postu-
late, perhaps on the basis of seisInic data, where these
same rocks might be buried deeply enough to have
EXAMPLES OF SOURCE-ROCK EVALUATION
generated hydrocarbons. Extrapolation of measured data
GEOCHEMICAL LOGS into unknown areas requires a new philosophy of organic
It is most useful to display geocheInical data for wells in a geochemistry, which is discussed in chapter 12.
log format. Many formats for such logs have been devel-
oped; a typical one is shown in figure B.13. Choice of
scales is dictated by the depth of the well, number of
samples analyzed, and the magnitude of the measured
values of each parameter. If a study involving several
wells is planned, it is wise to choose a single format and
scale that will accommodate data from all the wells.
The log form should include those data most relevant
for source-rock evaluation. Thus there should be a col-
umn for quantity of organic matter, at least one column
for type of organic matter, and at least one column for
maturity. Data pertaining mainly to correlation studies
are best displayed elsewhere.
The C.O.S. T. B-2 well, drilled off the New Jersey coast
near the Baltimore Canyon, was analyzed geochemically,
and the results were reported in a geocheInical-log format
(fig. B.14). Quantity of organic matter was measured as
TOC; type (quality) of organic matter was determined by
elemental analysis, with the measured HlC ratios cor-
rected for the effects of maturity; and maturity was mea-
sured as vitrinite reflectance (individual data points not
shown; only the trend is given).
Interpretation of data from the C.O.S. T. B-2 well is
facilitated by the log format, which has great visual im-
pact. It is immediately apparent from the TOC values that
there are two rich zt'mes in the well-between 3000 and
4000 ft, and between 10,500 and 13,500 ft. The upper rich
HROWN &' 1\ TH IJ'JIORATORI OPERATOR.
"EU. NAME:
GEOCHEMICAL LOG LOC.HION:
T. 0
Turquot$'"
.3•• 00 I'T .
.......
::a::
w
Q
It..
zo ..
....
....
-....
" .
...,
....
"'"
,100'
t.OOt
lS001
....
,
~ CONGLOMEJIA T£ cJ SHALE · Sll TSTONE lO( HALITE
til SANDSTONE ~ LIMESTONE ~ ANHYORITE 51 • f'N H.,droc.rbonl Pr ... n, In Rod. S3 • CO, Irom K"oven PyrolY111
• COAL OOlOMfTE M IGNEOUS 52 • HydrocarbOn. hom K.rogen Py,oI."" HydrQgen Ind•• • S2 1 TOe
CASINO CEMENT CHEAT M VOLCANICS
8. SOURCE-ROCK EVALUATION 113
18000
••
100 200 :~oo
Oxygen index
ORGANIC-FACIES DETERMINATIONS
Cretaceous rocks on Alaska's North Slope were deposited
as part of the Brookian Sequence, prograding from south
to north off the ancestral Brooks Range uplift. Prograding,
inclined foreset beds overlying flat-lying bottomsets are
evident on seismic profiles. The bottomset beds are
thought to have been deposited in quiet environments,
probably in an oxygen-deficient water mass. The foreset
beds, in contrast, were laid down in shallower, more
aerated waters.
Organic-geochemical data for these rocks illustrate the
differences in kerogen type resulting from those differ-
8. SOURCE-ROCK EVALUATION 115
o o•
---
2 0.5 0.7 1 0 1.35 2.0 3.0 ".0
o
I
I
I
I
I
:I I
I
:
I
I
I I I
1000
I
I
--- ,,-.I
I
I
I ,,
I
I
,I
,-,- ,
I
,
.-
I
,
I
,, , PALEOCENE
2000
I
I
I-
,I I
I
I
I
-
I
II) I I-
,,-
I
,
I ,,I I
,I
II:
W ,
I-
W
lee
,
,
I
,
I -,-, I
I
-,-
3000
::I!
z
I
,I EARLY TRIASSIC
,I I
::c
I
,,
I I- ,,
I I
I-
D. 4000
I
I ,I I
I
W
I ,
I I I I I
C
I , I
I I I
I ,
I I ,I I
,
I I
I
I , I
, I
I
I
,
I
, ,
,
I I I I
I
I I ,I I I
I
I
I
I I I I I I
I
DIAGENESIS OIL GENERATION GAS GENERATION
"'•••' -1 ."" 1
I.e.
o
•
\
,
,
\ !jjjNFORMlt S INTRUS!VES
\
\~ u oo
1.100
o~
~
[0
~ TERTIARY J._ ~
- ~,.,
J._
, f' ..
-
~r-
~ ~~
~
rt
'C
~SOZOIC
~, uoo
~
",00
I.. 1\0 0
.J .1 • .1 .• ' .. .. . 0 I.. U I J "' 7 " 10 10 ' 10
VITRINITE IIEFLECTANCE IR.%) VITRINITE REFLECTANCE 111.%1
FIGURE 8.18 Estimation of amount of erosional removal at FIGURE 8.19 Effect of an igneous intrusion on vitrinite-reflec-
an uncorifonnity from vitrinite-reflectance profiles. Reprinted tance values. Thermal effects are usually measurable to a
by pennission of Elsevier Science Publishing Company from distance of about two sill thicknesses on either side of the
Dow, 1977. sill. Reprinted by pennission of Elsevier Science Publishing
Company from D:Jw, 1977.
In other cases regular maturi1y profiles are interrupted technique; rather, we should attempt to corroborate the
by anomalously high reflectance values caused by high measured data by other analyses.
concentrations of uranium or, more commonly and more Interpretation of source-rock data on a basic level is
dramatically, by igneous activi1y (fig. 8.19). Intrusives quite simple. With increasing experience one can also
generally affect maturi1y levels in rocks about one or two learn to derive important information on thermal his-
sill thicknesses on either side of the sill. Plutons such as tories, unconformities and erosional events, and organic
the Baltimore Dome off the East Coast of the United States facies.
can cause regional increases in maturi1y. It is thought that We should always attempt to extrapolate our measured
unusually rapid maturation associated with igneous ac- data over as large an area as possible. To do this intelli-
tivi1y affects vitrinite-reflectance values more than hydro- gently we must have the ability to develop regional mod-
carbon generation (Altebaumer et aI., 1983). els of organic facies (chap. 2) and thermal maturi1y
(chap. 9). The application of such models in an explora-
SUMMARY tion context is the subject of chapter 12.
Any source-rock evaluation should attempt to answer
three questions: What are the quanti1y, 1ype, and maturi1y SUGGESTED READINGS
of the organic matter present in the rocks? Satisfactory
methods are available in most cases to answer all these Demaison, G. and R. J. Murris, 1984, eds. , Petroleum
questions. In some areas one technique may fail com- Geochemistry and Basin Evaluation: American Association
pletely or may be only-partially successful. Whenever pos- of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 35, Tulsa, American Associ-
sible, therefore, we should not rely on a single analytical ation of Petroleum Geologists, 426 pp.
118
Dembicki, H. jr., B. Horsfield, and T. T. Y. Ho, 1983, Source Walker, A. L., T. H. McCulloh, N. F. Petersen, and R.j.
rock evaluation by pyrolysis gas chromatography: Bulletin of Stewart, 1983, Anomalously low reflectance of vitrinite in
the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 67, pp comparison with other petroleum source-rock maturation in-
1094-1103. dices, from the Miocene Modelo Formation in the Los
Epstein, A. G., j. B. Epstein, and L. D. Harris, 1977, Conodont Angeles Basin, California, in C. M. Isaacs and R. E. Garrison,
color alteration-an index to organic metamorphism: United eds., Petroleum Generation and Occurrence in the Miocene
States Geological Survey Professional Paper 995, 27 pp. Monterey Formation, California: Los Angeles, SEPM, pp.
Espitalie, j., j. 1. Laporte, M. Madec, F. Marquis, P. Leplat, j. 185-190.
Poulet, and A. Boutefeu, 1977, Rapid method of characteriz- Waples, D. W., 1979, Simple method for source rock evaluation:
ing source rocks and their petroleum potential and degree of Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
maturity: Revue de I'Institut Francais du Petrole, v. 32, pp. v. 63, pp. 239-245.
23-42 (in French).
Espitalie, j., M. Madec, and B. Tissot, 1980, Role of mineral PRACTICE PROBLEMS
matrix in kerogen pyrolysis. Influence on petroleum genera-
tion and migration: Bulletin of the American Association of 1. What data necessary for a complete source-rock evaluation
Petroleum Geologists, v. 64, pp. 59-66. are missing in the geochemical log (fig. 8.20) for a well in the
Espitalie,j.,j. F. Marquis, and I. Barsony, 1982, Geochemical Baltimore Canyon area, offshore East Coast United States?
logging: Institut Francais du Petrole Ref. 30820, 29 pp.
Horsfield, B., 1984, Pyrolysis studies and petroleum exploration,
2. What data necessary for a complete source-rock analysis of
in j. Brooks and D. Welte, eds., Advances in Petroleum
two jurassic formations encountered in the North Sea are miss-
Geochemistry, Volume 1: London, Academic Press, pp. 247-
ing from table 8.6?
298.
Huc, A. Y. andj. M. Hunt, 1980, Generation and migration of
hydrocarbons in offshore South Texas Gulf Coast sediments: 3. Combine the data from the Blue Well (table 8.7) to give a
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 44, pp. 1081-1089. coherent picture of thermal maturity in the section analyzed.
Mackenzie, A. S., R.1. Patience, j. R. Maxwell, M. Vanden- Explain how to resolve any apparent discrepancies.
broucke, and B. Durand, 1980, Molecular parameters of mat-
uration in the Toarcian shales, Paris Basin, France-I. 4. Analyze the source potential of the Turquoise Well, data for
Changes in the configurations of acyclic isoprenoid alkanes, which are given in the geochemical log shown in figure 8.13.
steranes and triterpanes: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,
v. 44, pp. 1709-1721.
Mackenzie, A. S., C. F. Hoffinann, and j. R. Maxwell, 1981,
Molecular parameters of maturation in the Toarcian shales,
Paris Basin, France-III. Changes in aromatic steroid hydro-
carbons: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 45, pp. 1345-
1355.
Orr, W. L., 1983, Comments on pyrolytic hydrocarbon yields in
source-rock evaluation, in M. Bjoroy, ed., Advances in Or-
ganic Geochemistry 1981: Chichester, Wiley, pp. 775-787.
Powell, T. G., S. Creaney, and 1. R. Snowdon, 1982, Limitations
of use of organic petrographic techniques for identification of
petroleum source rocks: Bulletin of the American Association
of Petroleum Geologists, v. 66., pp. 420-435.
Robert, P., 1981, Classification of organic matter by means of
fluorescence: application to hydrocarbon source rocks: Inter-
nationaljournal of Coal Geology, v. 1, pp. 101-137.
Tissot, B. P., 1984, Recent advances in petroleum geochemistry
applied to hydrocarboh exploration: Bulletin of the American
Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 68, pp. 545-563.
8. SOURCE-ROCK EVALUATION 119
Rock-Eval
1. We have no measure of the type of organic matter present in
Depth TOC Hydrogen Index
(ft) (wt %) (mg HClg TOC) the section. The high-TOC rocks encountered between 10,000
Well Formation
and 13,000 ft would be of great interest, especially since they are
A Kimmeridge Clay 8610 6.2 462 at least marginally mature. However, we have no way of know-
8625 7.1 512 ing from the data presented whether they are an oil-prone facies
A
or coals capable of generating mainly gas.
A 8632 8.9 604
A 8651 4.4 517
2. We do not have measurements of the maturities of the rocks
A 8686 10.3 625
studied. The Kimmeridge Clay obviously has much better re-
B Lower Jurassic 7967 1.4 87
maining source capacity, as indicated by the veIY high TOC
B 7993 1.5 112
values and hydrogen indices. It veIY likely is still immature. The
B 8015 1.3 64 Lower Jurassic shale has a low remaining source potential, as
B 8165 1.2 123 evidenced both by the moderate TOC values and low hydrogen
B 8174 1.0 101 indices. The low hydrogen indices could, however, be the result
of overmaturity rather than poor original generative capacity.
The only way to determine whether the Lower Jurassic rocks
ever did have oil-source potential would be to know whether
these rocks are overmature. If they are, we could not evaluate
their original source potential without knowing what type of
kerogen they originally contained.
120
It is tempting to say that the Lower Jurassic shale is as imma- high Production Indices and Sl yields, indicates that some hy-
ture as the Kimmeridge Clay, because it is buried less deeply. drocarbon generation has occurred in Unit G. Maturity data
The two wells are not close together, however, and may very show the unit to be within the early to peak phase of oil
well have had quite different thermal histories. Thus present- generation.
day depth of burial should not be used as an indicator of The uniformly high hydrogen indices may indicate a high
maturity. proportion of oil-generative kerogen in Unit G. However, the
lack of correlation between TOC values and hydrogen indices is
3. Each of the three parameters is supposed to be related to contrary to our expectations (see fig. 8.8). It is highly unusual to
maturity. BitumenffOC ratios should increase in the oil- find a rock with TOC near 0.5% with a hydrogen index near
generation window. We note that BitumenffOC ratios increase 400, because the extensive oxidation indicated by low TOC
dramatically between 3200 and 4800 ft. This increase might values almost always results in loss of hydrogen-rich material.
mean that oil generation is occurring within this zone, but it We are therefore suspicious of the pyrolysis data in Unit G; there
could also indicate the presence of contamination from drilling could be problems with contamination or migration that might
fluids or be the result of migration of oil into these strata. be uncovered by further analyses. We therefore should be cau-
One clue in the data suggests that the bitumen in the 3200- tious in ascribing a high source potential to Unit G without
4800-ft zone is not indigenous: BitumenffOC ratios are much resolving the discrepancy between TOC and pyrolysis data.
higher than would be expected from oil generation alone. Bitu- The lower part of Unit B also has high TOC values, but py-
menffOC ratios in excess of about 0.2 usually indicate the pres- rolysis yields indicate negligible remaining hydrocarbon-source
ence of nonindigenous material. capacity. The very high maturity levels measured for those sam-
The kerogen data indicate that no significant oil generation ples prove that we are already into the gas-generation window
has occurred in this section. TAl values reach only the begin- in Unit B. In order to determine whether the rocks of Unit B
ning of oil generation, even in the deepest rocks. Vitrinite- have in fact generated oil or gas we would have to determine the
reflectance values are consistent with the TAl data. Neither type of kerogen originally present in the rocks. Microscopic
parameter indicates sufficient maturity for oil generation in the analysis would be about the only way to accomplish this feat on
3200-4800-ft interval. We conclude, therefore, that the entire such overmature samples. Alternatively, if we could find sam-
section investigated is immature or marginally mature. ples of Unit B from a similar facies from a less mature well
We should investigate the composition of the nonindigenous nearby we might be able to extrapolate those data to the Tur-
bitumens from the 3200-4800-ft interval in order to determine quoise Well site.
their origin. Gas chromatography and gc/ms would be the best A few sands from Unit D are also of interest to us because,
methods. although they contain little organic matter, the high pyrolysis
yields (Sl, S2, and Production Indices) and low T max values
4. On the basis of our first screening technique, TOC, we find strongly suggest the presence of migrated hydrocarbons. Ex-
four intervals within the Turquoise Well worthy of further con- tracts from these rocks might profitably be submitted for corre-
sideration as possible source rocks. The rest of the section is lation analyses.
extremely lean, with TOC contents less than 0.5%. Finally, the maturity profile shown on the Geochemical Log
Unit I is the shallowest rock with high TOC values. Lithologic requires further data and detailed interpretation. The trend
description and pyrolysis values, however, indicate that the or- seems to be clearly defined; however, most ofthe data points are
ganic matter in Unit I is of terrestrial (coaly) origin. The low from pyrolysis T max, which is not always a valid maturity indi-
hydrogen indices (100-150) indicate that these rocks have little cator. The few vitrinite-reflectance values appear to corroborate
potential to generate liquid hydrocarbons. In any case, Unit I is the T max data; however, the Geochemical Log does not include
still immature. any histograms or other statistics on the reflectance data. We
The upper half of Unit H contains a much more oil-prone type therefore should check the original data to verity that we have
of organic matter, as shown by the high pyrolysis yields. Hydro- confidence in the vitrinite values.
gen indices in excess of 500 are indicative of marine organic The maturity profile may contain a discontinuity across the
matter. Maturity parameters suggest that Unit H is at or near the unconformity between the Triassic and Lower Cretaceous rocks
top of the oil-generation window. (between Units C and D). Such a dislocation would indicate
Unit G includes a few elevated TOC values among more erosion between the Triassic and Cretaceous. More data points,
numerous lean samples. The gradual decrease in hydrogen in- particularly from rocks immediately above and below the un-
dex downward through the unit, together with the relatively conformity, are needed to verity the existence of such an event.
Chapter 9 Predicting Thermal
Maturity
INfRODUCTION
Measured maturity values for possible source rocks are
invaluable because they tell us much about the present
status of hydrocarbon generation at the sample location.
In most cases, however, measured maturity data are of
limited value in exploration. Part of this problem is a
consequence of the limitations we face in attempting to
obtain reliable maturity measurements. In some areas
there are no well samples available; indeed, in frontier
basins there may not be a single well within tens or hun-
dreds of miles.
Even in maturely explored basins the samples available
for analysis often do not give a representative picture of
maturity in the basin (fig. 1.2). Furthermore, maturity
measurements can only tell us about present-day maturity
levels. If our measurements indicate that a rock has al-
ready passed through the oil-generation window, we still
have no clue as to when oil generation occurred, nor do
we know at what depth or temperature it occurred. These
considerations are important when we want to compare
timing of generation, expulsion, and migration with tim-
ing of structure development or trap formation.
In order to circumvent these difficulties, methods have
been developed for calculating maturity levels where
measurements are not available. Among the most popu-
lar models are those ofTissot (1969), Lopatin (1971), and
Hood et al. (1975). They have been discussed elsewhere
(Waples, 1984a).
The common thread running through all these models
is the assumption that oil generation depends upon both
121
122
1000 1000
1500 1500
2000
i 0(65,3700-1800)
2000 !
:r :r
I- I-
Q. 0.
3000 3000
(10, 3700-500}o
4000 4000
FIGURE 9.3 First step in the construction of the burial-his- FIGURE 9.5 Third step in the construction of the burial-his-
tory curve in figure 9.2. Plot the two points corresporuiing to tory curve in figure 9.2. Plot all the remaining control points
present-day depth of burial arui the rrwment of deposition of (age of the datum, thickness of rock presently separating it
the rock of interest. from the 100-my-old rock).
0_
500 500
POSITION OF ROCK AT
SECOND TIME-CONTROL POINT 1000 1000
(80. 3700-2800)
1500 1500
i :;
2000 2000
:r :r
l- I-
0. Q.
3500 3500
4000 4000
30".----------------------------------
5.1. =ls e
burial-history CUIVes whose segments are parallel to those
500
of the oldest horizon (fig. 9.6). This geometry is a direct
consequence of ignoring compaction effects.
40·-----------------------------------
Burial-history CUIVes are based on the best information
50·-----------------------------------
50
0
- - ________________________________ _
1000
.data are available and deposition has been reasonably 80" _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ::i!
2000
continuous, it is easy to construct burial-history CUIVes 90° _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ...>:"-
with a high level of confidence. In cases where biostrati-
graphic data are lacking or where the sediments have had
100°-----------_______________________ _ 2500 ~
3500
constructed as carefully as the data permit,burial-history 130"------- ___________________________ _
pose, for example, that the Tiger well was logged, and 100 80 60 40 20 0
0
.",."'" .",.""'--
that a corrected bottom-hole temperature of 1330 C was 20~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ""'''''''''''''''' .",..",..",..",. --------_
__-----------_
.",.""'.",."'"
.",..",.; .",.~.... :I
Where measured bottom-hole temperatures are not 70!.. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~~.",. ;;.",.~"'" ~ .... _ - - - _
2000
available, maps of regional geothe. mal gradients can be • o________________ .... ~ ..... .,.. .. __
""'~
-----------
w
useful in estimating the gradient at a particular location. .00:.. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ....
~~~~~--~~'~
_____ - -_ -
2500 Q
In many poorly explored areas, temperature profiles will 100:.. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ... ;.",. _-.,..,.",..",.;,.
.",._- ------------ __
3000
be based largely on guesswork. .",.~ -~ ....
110~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .",..",..",. .",.""'- .",..",. ----------- _
There are numerous other variations that can be em- ..o:.. _____________ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~------------ 3500
4000
can change surface temperatures through time without
altering the geothermal gradient (fig. 9.8). Causes for
such events could include global warming and cooling or FIGURE 9.8 subsurface-temperature grid that assumes a con-
local climatic variations resulting from continental drift or stant geothermal gradient (3° GI100 m) but a variable surface
elevation changes. temperature during the last 100 my.
126
.o .. _______________________________
, 500
resents a location at which rapid sediment accumulation
,
~',
50-0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , \
\ in the last ten million years has lowered the geothermal
gradient, resulting in subsurface temperatures that are
: :-=- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =- =-~\
,,\ \
1000
1500
anomalously low compared to the "normal" ones that
dominated previously. More complicated temperature
::: ===============================~\\\ \
100-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ' , \
110- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
III \ \
I\ I\ I\
2000 :>
:J:
t-
histories (for example, fig. 9.10) are also possible. "Dog-
leg" gradients can be used to reflect changes in thermal
120- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ III
\ \ \ 2500 :'Qu conductivities caused by variations in lithology (fig. 9.11).
'II
" There is no theoretical limit to the complexity that can
"",,
\
be introduced into our temperature histories. Given ade-
,,,, 3000
AGE (MY)
100 80 60 40 20 o
o
500
1000
1500
2000 !
:J:
I-
0.
UJ
2500 0
3000
3500
4000
AGE (my)
80 80 70 80 50 .0 30 20 '0 0
20'
0
30'
.0 '
,000
$0 '
,..,
eo' -- -- 2000 ...
III
Q)
70 ' -- -- -- -- Q)
eo '
.....E
3000 J:
.....
80 ' n.
W
0
'00' -- -- .000
,.0 ' - - --
5000
,.0' eooo
AGE (my)
100 80 80 40 20 o
ORIGINAL\ 1000
THICKNE8S
= 3000m
DEPOSITION
-
/RECOMMENCES
000
--
POST-EROSIONAL
THICKNESS eL.n
=2000m Q)
Q)
3000 E
..
ER0810NAL
. 4000
::I:
PERIOD I-
a..
W
0
000
~
w
...w
9
iC
x
to-
G..
W
o
3Q°C
1000
~ 4CXlO
W 60°C
2000 W
L-..
9<XXl go·C · 9IJ·C
3000
Z
J: 12CXlO
.000 ~ ~ 1 ,
Q.
J: W ISO·C ~ ------- ~- ~ _ 1SOoC
I-
aooo It 0 '6CXlO
o 180· C - ----- - • _. - - : 180·C
aooo 20000 210·C
7000
t
Time of malar Ihrushng
of Absaroka p lole
2000
3000
AGE (MYI " 000
4000 ~
60 20
J: LEV IE L~--'---++ a
SOOO
I-
a..
i
w
o
- 1000 ...
UI
aooo >
UI
....
- 2000 c
1000 UI
en
- 3000 ~
0
....
UI
..
- 4000 II
R~paSSive margin -
-1
km
-3 Cambrian (Harlech Grits)
N. WALES
-4
Subduction/Marginal Sea
-5
-6
__ _ _
,
_ ____________________________ ---, 0 0 0 30°_40°C '1128 7 .05 .05 86
," 60' _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 40°_50° '164 7 .11 .16 79
0'-- ________________________________ _
_,:!t OO 50°_60° '132 6 .19 .35 73
,
.0' _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~20 00
60°_70° %6 6 .38 .73 67
70°_80° Va 7 .88 1.6 60
0'
.0 ' _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
80°_90° 'I. 12 3.0 4.6 48
-25 0 0
90°_100° '/2 12 6.0 10.6 36
100°-110° 1 18 18.0 28.6 18
I J O' _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
110°-120° 2 12 24.0 52.6 6
JO' - - _________________________________ _- 35 00
120°-130° 4 6 24.0 76.6 0
-4 000
FIGURE 9.20 Temperature factors (,,{actors) and time fac- In table 9.3 interval-TTl values and total-TTl values up to
tors for the 100-my-old rock in the Tiger well. the present day are calculated.
It is also possible to determine the total-TTl value at
any time in the past simply by stopping the calculation at
Multiplying the time factor for any temperature interval that time. For example, ifwe wanted to know the TTl for
by the appropriate 'Y-factor for that temperature interval the 100-my-old rock in the Tiger well during the early
gives a product called the Time-Temperature Index of Oligocene (36 mya), we would add up the interval-TTl
maturity (TTl). This interval-TTl value represents the values for the first 64 my of the rock's history. From the
maturity acquired by the rock in that temperature inter- calculation in table 9.3 we can see that 36 mya the total
val. To obtain total maturity, we simply sum all the inter- TTl was 10.6.
val-TTl values for the rock. Maturity always increases; it
can never go backward because interval-TTl values are FACTORS AFFECTING THERMAL MATURITY
never negative. Furthermore, even if a rock cools down, Because maturity is affected by both baking time and
maturity continues to increase (albeit at a slower rate) baking temperature, the specific burial history of a rock
because 'Y is always greater than zero. can strongly affect its maturity. Figure 9.21 shows four of
A good analogy can be drawn between oil generation the many paths by which an 80-my-old rock could have
and baking. If we put a cake in a cold oven and turn the reached a present burial depth of 3000 m. In figure 9.21A
oven on, the cake will bake slowly at first but will bake the rock was buried at a constant rate for its entire 80-my
faster and faster as the temperature rises. Ifwe turn off the history. In figure 9.21B burial was very slow during the
oven but leave the cake inside, baking will continue, al- first 70 my of the rock's existence, but quite rapid in
though at increasingly slower rates, as the oven cools the last 10 my. Figure 9.21C shows rapid burial during
down. On the other hand, if we forget about the cake the first 20 my, followed by a nonerosional depositional
when the oven is hot and let it burn, we cannot "unburn" hiatus for the last 60 my. In Figure 9.21D 40 my of rapid
it, no matter how much or how rapidly we cool it down. burial to a depth of 4000 m was followed by a hiatus
The first step in calculating TTl is illustrated in figure lasting 30 my and, finally, by 10 my of uplift and erosion.
9.20, where the time factors and 'Y-factors for each tem- TTl values differ appreciably among these four
perature interval are shown on the burial-history CUIVe. scenarios. Maturities for the rocks in figure 9.21 are di-
134
I.
'" . .. ,
I. 4.
AGE (MYBP)
• o
I.
------- -- ---,
I. 4. •• I. I. 4.
AGE ( MYBP )
•
•
I •
•• 4. •
,,
,. ,..--, ,
.., ..
1000
,,
\ 1000
, ,
\
'" .. .. ,
\ ,iio- - ,
\
1000
'.0;- -"\',, '--
"
\ 2000
, \ \
\ \
TTI=3.1 ", TTI=0.8
'000
1'iO·------------ 3000
\
,-------
A
L-________________-L4 ••• ~
B _________________J
L-______________ A
~~4 ••• TTl· " . , \ B
\
• \
\ \
\ \
\ 1000 \
\ \
\ \
\ TTI=7.8 \ TTI=24.4
\ 2000 \
\ \
\ \
\L _________ \
:)000
\
\ ito" - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3000
\ I
C 4000
D \
\ I
I
TTl. :110 . 7
C
L-________________-k4 ••• ~~----------~~-J
Thus the TTl in figure 9.22B is only slightly higher than in Figure 9.22D shows, however, that burial to depths and
the control example (fig. 9.22A). One implication of this temperatures greater than present-day conditions, fol-
exercise is that source-rock maturity in rifted basins, lowed by erosion, will affect the maturity very strongly
9. PREDICTING THERMAL MATURITY 135
(compare TTl of 109 in fig. 9.22D with 17.8 in fig. 9.22A). TABLE 9.4 Correlation of TTl values with vitrinite reflectance
Changes in the geothermal gradient when a rock is near
% Vitrinite
its maximum depth of burial will also influence maturity
Reflectance (Ra) TTl
strongly.
The effect of igneous intrusions is difficult to treat accu- 0.40 <1
rately with maturity models because our present models 0.50 3
have not been calibrated for such high temperatures. Fur- 0.60 10
thermore, there is substantial uncertainty about the tem- 0.65 15
peratures actually achieved in the sedimentary rocks and 0.70 20
the rate at which thermal anomalies decay. Nevertheless, 0.85 40
the effects of igneous events can be detected by finding 0.90 50
discrepancies between measured and predicted maturity 1.00 75
values. Kettel (1983), for example, deduced the existence 1.15 110
and shape of an ancient heat anomaly in the southern 1.35 180
North Sea by showing that vitrinite-reflectance values 1.50 300
were significantly higher than normal subsurface heating 1.75 500
could account for. 2.00 900
Bond (1984) has used Lopatin's method in a very 2.50 2,700
sophisticated manner to model maturation in the San 3.00 6,000
Juan Basin of New Mexico. The maturity history there has 4.00 23,000
been complicated greatly by an intense thermal event dur- 5.00 85,000
ing the Neogene and by many thousands of feet of uplift
and removal. Nevertheless, Bond was able to develop a NOTE: Reprinted, by pennission, from D. W. Waples, 1980, Time and temperature
in petroleum formation: application of Lopatin's method to petroleum exploration:
satisfactory model that fit the measured data. Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 64, pp 916-926,
table 4.
INTERPRETATION OF TI'I VALUES
Uncalibrated TTl values obviously are of little value; to be
TABLE 9.5 Correlation of selected TTl values with
useful they must be compared in some way with mea- vitrinite-reflectance values and hydrocarbon generation
sured maturity values. Lopatin's (1971) original calibra-
tion was shown to be in error by Waples (1980), who TTl Ra Generation
proposed a revised version of the TTl-&., correlation (table
9.4). Subsequent work has not strongly questioned the 1 0.40 Condensate from resinite
TTl calibration within the oil-generation window, but
3 0.50
Katz et al.(1982) showed that beyond the oil-generation From S-rich kerogen
10 0.60
r
window Waples's correlation is probably incorrect. early
15 0.65
Other complicating factors have arisen. Recent investi-
20 0.70
gations that have improved our understanding of the oil peak
50 0.90
oil-generation window indicate that Waples's choice of
&., = 0.65% as the threshold for oil generation is almost
75
180
1.00
1.35
1 late
certainly too high. Moreover, different kerogen types have wet gas
900 2.00
different oil-generation thresholds (see the section Poten- dry gas
tial problems with Maturity Calculations). These various
problems must be dealt with before we can construct a
correlation between 'tTl and oil generation. Table 9.5
shows a proposed correlation between TTl and hydrocar-
136
.-.- AGE
\.
,
J:
\. WELL #1
I-
a. \..
f
,
W
J: C
NON-DEPOSITIONAL I- \ . MEASURED
HIATUS a..
w \.
c
WELL #1 MATURITY -+
FIGURE 9.24 Poor correlation between measured and pre-
dicted maturity data for Well # 1.
,
samples were taken and analyzed carefully, and time-
::c stratigraphic and temperature data were determined with
l-
n.. a high level of confidence. There is nevertheless a discrep-
w
c ancy of about 1000 ft at both the top and bottom of the oil-
Rifting 3.0
5.0
:;; ......
§ 0
0
"- "-
~ 4.0 ~
2.0
3.0
Ro TTl
.
100 1000
.3 .5 1.0 1
~~~~UU~ __-L-L~~UL__~~~LU~O
··
\
2000 2000
··.
·
4000 4000
.··
6000 6000
~
J:
~ 8000 8000
Q.
W
C
10,000 10,000
-------
12,000 12,000
16,000
reflectance
_L __ 16,000
1
---------
A B
TABLE 9.6 Hydrocarbon deadlines (80% confidence level) Predicting the gas deadline is far more difficult because
correlated with vitrinite-reflectance and TTl values destruction of methane is an oxidative process rather than
cracking. The rate of methane oxidation is therefore de-
Expected Hydrocarbons
(80% Probability) pendent on the availability of suitable oxidizing agents as
TIl No
well as on temperature. Oxidizing agents are apparently
50 0.90 normal oil rather rare in sands, but in carbonates there are often
75 1.00 normal-light oil substantial amounts of sulfate and elemental sulfur pres-
180 1.35 condensate-wet gas ent. Barker and Kemp (1982) have shown that methane in
500 1.75 wet gas the presence of anhydrite is unstable at high tempera-
900 2.00 dry gas tures. Furthermore, the economic dry-gas deadline is of-
ten controlled more by reservoir quality than by methane
stability. For these reasons there is little chance that matu-
rity calculations will be of value in locating the dry-gas
level; that is, at higher TTl values heavier hydrocarbons deadline.
could occur, but these occurrences would be rather rare.
Despite the apparent success of Lopatin's method in
APPLICATIONS TO EXPLORATION
predicting oil deadlines, at least one important problem
remains. The kinetic parameters used by Lopatin were MATURITY THROUGH TIME
defined in order to best describe the overall process of oil The earliest application of Lopatin's method to explora-
generation, which comprises many distinct chemical tion was published by Zieglar and Spotts (1978) in an
reactions. Many of the cleavage reactions in oil generation analysis of the hydrocarbon production and future poten-
involve carbon-heteroatom bonds, which have low acti- tial of the Central Valley of California. Using the as-yet-
vation energies compared to breaking carbon-carbon unpublished approach of Waples (1980), they drew iso-
bonds. TTl lines on burial-history curves to show the develop-
Cracking of crude oil, in contrast, includes a more ho- ment of maturity through time and to compare the ther-
mogeneous set of reactions, most of which involve cleav- mal histories of various depocenters within the basin (fig.
age of carbon-carbon bonds. One would therefore expect 9.28).
the pseudo-activation energy for oil destruction to be The simplest way to put iso-TTl lines on burial-history
higher than that for oil generation. Furthermore, the tem- curves is to begin by selecting the TTl values of interest.
peratures at which extensive cracking occurs are proba- Useful TTl values might include those for the onset and
bly about 20° to 30° C higher than typical temperatures of end of oil generation or those for the liquid deadline.
oil generation. The difference in kinetic parameters for Then starting with the deepest horizon in the burial-
generation and destruction of oil requires that we use history-curve family and beginning with deposition of
different 'V-factors for the two processes. that sediment and working toward th~ present, one calcu-
The best solution to uncertainties about the appropri- lates interval-TTl values and sums them until the desired
ateness of any of our thermal-maturity models for crack- TTl value is reached. The point at which the desired TTl
ing would be to select a new 'V-factor on the basis of was reached is marked on the burial-history curve. The
careful empirical studies of known hydrocarbon occur- process is repeated for each member of the burial-history-
rences. Unfortunately, no such study has been published. curve family. Then all the points having the same TTl
Until such research is carried out, the best we can do with value are connected with a line. If TTl values corre-
Lopatin's method is to utilize the same kinetic parameters sponding to the onset and end of oil generation are
as for oil generation. We can take comfort in the fact plotted, the resulting maturity band (fig. 9.29) defines the
that, despite this important oversimplification, TTl val- oil-generation window through time.
ues appear to correlate well with observed hydrocarbon Figures like 9.29 have proven extremely useful, particu-
deadlines. larly in understanding the timing of hydrocarbon genera-
140
1000
tion. Their only weakness is that because each diagram
,
S\r,_ r... · '·c Tfu ,,'. represents a single place on the earth, a series of such
~1~t.2S'"~
n_,~,., 1ft
,, 2000
figures must be used if an area having a variety of matu-
I
• rlu,1IIDIn rr/ ..
, f'rItr
.~
IM/.,. rr /- ». D I
I
8 rity histories is being considered.
rr/-
"I- I.' 3000
• t.NC1:/tIOT., 1S., ~
• C'$ArlJIO[,
• CXI71, rTl- ... J
• "","1(}11, rTl .. 4'''0
i!i CROSS SECTION AND PIAN VIEW
'....,.11/_ 5U. J
Ltqt.r ••• '''''~
4000 Cross sections with isomaturity lines on them have been
mt 11 . ,e.. " .... ,e>
used to give a more regional picture of maturation. Figure
SOOO 9.30 shows isomaturity lines superimposed on cross sec-
tions across the Otway Basin, southeastern Australia, at
6000 four times from 60 mya to the present. The gradual move-
ment of maturity upward through the stratigraphic se-
FIGURE 9.29 Family of burial-history curves for a well in the
quence is clear. In such diagrams the possibilities for
Big Hom Basin, Wyoming, showing the evolution of the oil- migration of hydrocarbons at various times can be exam-
generation window through time. Tu = undifferentiated Ter- ined and correlated with structural events that regulate
tiary; tfu = Fort Union Formation; Km = Lance-Meeteetse migration pathways. TTl values can, of course, be con-
formations; Ki: = Cody-Frontier formations . Reprinted by toured instead of reflectance values.
permission of the Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists
from Hagen and Surdam, 1984.
9, PREDICTING TIfERMAL MATURITY 141
PECTEN'IA
PECTEN ·IA
00
00
11~-~_i:I~~~i:~~-~~~~l~~:~:-~-7~~::~~:~::::~~::::~: 0·5
1·0
OS
1-0
1-5 E
... IS
_ ..... 20 x
. .
........ ,
. . " ." .
.......
.
iLw 20
x
. " .... ,
" ......
75 0 2·5 0::
w
.. .' .. . .... " ... '.
. .
'
) -0 )0
0
~~~~~ ) -5 ) 5
' -0 '·0
A , ·5
PECTEN -I.
A
C
--------:- ---- - 00
------ --------.. ------------ -
~-----
.
o~ NAUTl l US'1 MUSSEl·l
~~~~4:...:..~;:..:....:...:...,;,:-,.:..:-,-::.~~,_=:,::':':.~~.:O~S::,~'
15
10 ;~~~~~~I1~~~~~!i~~~~~~~~~OO ...
0 '5
1' 0
. . . . .. . : ".: ..... .... . ... ... . :r
:: : . . . :.:.0::S.. :.::;::/.;.!:A~.
1~ "-
'" IS ]
J-O !!! ~~~.:~::i,~,~~~~'~O~.~S~%~'~'~ 20 l:
0,5(% ':, ' ',' ': • : :', 0::
..........,
J~
. -.: ..:::"....
.. . ....... .... ...... .
>...:: :". 2·5 o \oJ
, . 4'0 ..
':': . ' , ... ~~ : ',':'
.. .... .................... .. ".. A. . . 3·0
,
o 10km
~ PORT CAMPBELL
~ LlMES10NE
~
t;0j
NARRA..... ATURK
MARL
[8 SHERBROOK GP
If;TI GELLIBRAND
~Mt.Rl
D MEPUNGA FM +
Y;l, GERRIP GP
OTWAY GP
T MAX
'F 'c lO4/ToK
16
15
500
14
250
13
20 12
!
II
400
200
10
33
32
31
300 150 9
1
29
25 27
24
100
200
21
30
50 18
HYDROCARBON PALEOZOIC
LOM RANK "VM Ro (", GENERATION
o 400 300
2
LIGNITE
DIAGENETIC
4 METHANE
SU8 . C
6
BIT.
-
B
-=-
-
0 .5 -
45
8 C -
--==
HIGH_
VOL.
-
B
40
-
:::c
OIL
-== -=-
BIT. -
10
A ®
35 GAS
1.0
30 - -
MV BIT.
12 2S -
20 - 1.5 --= CONDENSATE
&
-=
LV BIT .
IS - WET GAS
14 SEMI - -= 20
-
ANTH . 10 -
-
--
- -
16
- 2.5 -
- CATAGENETIC
- --
- -
METHANE
ANTH. S -
18
- @
-
20
400 o
FIGURE 9.32 Correlation of LOM with various coal-rank pa- GEOLOGIC TIME ( M.Y.)
rameters. Reprinted by permission of the American Associa-
tion of Petroleum Geologists from Hood et al., 1975.
FIGURE 9.33 Burial-history curves and hydrocarbon genera-
tion at three locations in the Illizi Basin, Algeria, predicted
vocal in their criticism of Lopatin's method. Their main using the model of Tissot (1969). Reprinted by permission of
complaint is that Lopatin's assumption of a doubling of the World Petroleum Congresses from the Proceedings of the
reaction rate for each 10° C increase in temperature is Ninth World Petroleum Congress, Applied &ience Publishers,
unrealistic, since the actual activation energies are on the from Tissot et al., 1975.
order of 50,000 cal/mol rather than 15,000. This argu-
ment would be valid and telling if hydrocarbon genera-
tion were a homogeneous reaction, but the analysis of
Jiintgen and Klein discussed earlier (fig. 9.1) refutes their
claim. In fact, the Tissot-Espitalie model is vel}' similar to
Lopatin's, because Lopatin's model uses a single kinetic
9. PREDICTING THERMAL MATURITY 145
but for now the best model for each geologist is that dence indicating that different kerogens decompose to
which is most practical. yield hydrocarbons at different levels of maturity (see
chapter 4), Lopatin's model, the LOM model, and the
POTENI'IAL PROBLEMS WITH unpublished models with which I am familiar do not
MATURITY CALCULATIONS utilize different kinetic parameters for the various kerogen
The most obvious errors in maturity calculations will types. The only published model that does consider differ-
come from inaccuracies in time and temperature data. In ent reaction kinetics for the various kerogen types is that
actuality, time data are seldom a problem. First, the de- of Tissot and Espitalie. This modification was possible
pendence of maturity on time is linear, so even a rather because of the algebraic nature of the Tissot-Espitalie
large error in baking time will not produce a catastrophic model, but it has not yet been adapted to graphical ap-
change in maturity. Secondly, we usually have excellent proaches like Lopatin's.
control on rock ages through micropaleontology. Age The Tissot-Espitalie model, therefore, has a clear
calls are often made within a million years, and can be theoretical advantage over the others in considering oil
even better in Cenozoic rocks. Only in cases where mi- generation from different types of kerogen. However, the
cropaleontological dating was not or could not be carried practical implications of this theoretical advantage are
out might we anticipate possible problems with time. relatively modest, for two reasons. First, most oil is proba-
Temperature, in contrast, is the single most important bly generated from Type II macerals. Type I kerogens are
cause of uncertainty and error in maturity calculations. very rare. Type III kerogen is common, but because the
The sensitivity of maturity to temperature is clearly indi- woody and cellulosic components themselves generate lit-
cated by the exponential dependence of maturity on tem- tle oil, we need not worry much about them. (Most oil
perature predicted by the Arrhenius equation. derived from Type III kerogens probably comes from
Furthermore, our uncertainties about the true values of Type II material within the Type III matrix.) The most
subsurface temperatures are much greater than about important distinction, therefore, would be among the ki-
time. Present-day subsurface temperatures are difficult to netics of oil generation from the various Type II macerals
measure accurately. Most logged temperatures are too (resinite, exinite, cutinite, etc.). The Tissot-Espitalie
low and require correction. Various methods have been model does not make this distinction, and therefore fails
developed for this pwpose (see Yiikler and Kokesh, 1984 to make full use of its theoretical advantage.
for a brief discussion), but there is no guarantee of their Secondly, the other models are, in a crude but probably
accuracy in any particular case. satisfactory fashion, able to take different kerogen types
Even ifwe could measure present-day subsurface tem- into consideration simply by adjusting the thresholds for
peratures with perfect accuracy, however, we still would generation from different kerogen types (table 9.5). For
have to extrapolate the present somehow into the past. In example, liptinite might begin to be strongly converted to
many cases, where present-day temperatures are max- bitumen at TTl = 10, whereas an equal intensity of gener-
imum paleotemperatures, even an inaccurate extrapola- ation from resinite might be reached at TTl = 1. This ap-
tion into the past may not cause significant problems. In proach distorts somewhat the theoretical foundation of
other cases, however, particularly where Paleozoic rocks our chemical-kinetic approach, but it is probably accept-
are involved, an accurate interpretation of the ancient able in a practical sense, given the other uncertainties
geothermal history may be critical. In such cases we under which we labor. Thus, the problem of dealing with
should be very careful about using predicted maturities different kerogen types can be addressed by all the mod-
unless we have some independent confirmation of the els, albeit in different ways.
validity of our model from a comparison with measured
maturity data. CONCLUSIONS
A question of some concern comes from the previously Models for predicting thermal maturity have been devel-
mentioned fact that most of the maturity models treat all oped to aid in understanding the hydrocarbon-generation
types of kerogen identically. Despite experimental evi- and -preservation histories of sedimentary basins. Appli-
9. PREDICTING TIiERMAL MATURITY 147
cations include defining the hydrocarbon-generation win- model: Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum
dow, determining timing of generation, and defining Geologists, v. 67, pp. 1410-1414.
deadlines for liquid hydrocarbons. Calibration and much Edman,]. D. and R. C. Surdam, 1984, Influence of overthrusting
testing of these models have shown them to be reliable on maturation of hydrocarbons in Phosphoria Formation,
Wyoming-Idaho-Utah Overthrust Belt: Bulletin of the Amer-
and accurate enough for routine use in exploration pro-
ican Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 68, pp. 1803-
grams, both in frontier and maturely explored areas.
1817.
Some of the models employed are also capable of aid- Snowdon, L. R., 1979, Errors in extrapolation of experimental
ing the geologist in reconstructing the history of an area. kinetic parameters to organic geochemical systems: Bulletin
By comparing calculated maturity levels with measured of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 63,
values, one can discover erroneous assumptions about pp. 1128-1138.
geologic or geothermal histories. Construction of burial- van Hinte,]. E., 1978, Geohistmy analysis-application of mi-
history curves is usually enlightening. cropalentology in exploration geology: Bulletin of the Ameri-
The numerous published and unpublished maturity can Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 62, pp. 201-222.
models all appear to give satisfactory correlations with Waples, D. W., 1980, Time and temperature in petroleum for-
measured data, despite substantial differences in the ways mation: application of Lopatin's method to petroleum explo-
ration: Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum
in which they interchange time and temperature. We can-
Geologists, v. 64, pp. 916-926.
not yet say with certainty that one of the models is mathe-
- - - , 1984a, Thermal models for oil generation, in]. Brooks
matically superior to the others. Choice of a suitable and D. Welte, eds., Advances in Petroleum Geochemistry,
model at the present time is best made on the basis of Volume 1: London, Academic Press, pp. 7-67.
availability, convenience, and integrability with geology. Zieglar, D. L. and]. H. Spotts, 1978, Reservoir and source bed
Lopatin's methodology, with a variety of relatively minor history of Great Valley, California: Bulletin of the American
variations in the time-temperature interrelationship, is Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 62, pp. 813-826.
the most widely used technique today.
Although maturity calculations are often carried out by PRACTICE PROBLEMS
hand, the utility of the models can be increased by using
computers to perform calculations and plot the results. 1. The Black Well was drilled off the Louisiana Gulf Coast. It
One must guard against the computerized version becom- penetrated tOOO ft of Pleistocene sediments, 3500 ft of Pliocene,
ing a "black box" technique, however. One can only take and 11,000 ft of upper Miocene before being abandoned at
full advantage of maturity-modeling technology by main- 16,150 ft in the middle Miocene. The corrected bottom-hole
taining a sound geological foundation for the model. Out- temperature was 2700 F. A plaUSible average surface tempera-
put data will only be as good as the geological model ture is 680 F. Construct a family of burial-history curves for the
well and calculate the present-day TTl at total depth.
responsible for those data.
2. Calculate present-day TTl at 3000 m in the Red Well, assum-
ing a constant geothermal gradient through time. Find when the
SUGGESTED READINGS
rock at 3000 m began to generate oil (TTl = 10). Determine
when each of the strata began to generate oil.
Bond, W. A., 1984, Application of Lopatin's method to deter-
mine burial history, evolution of the geothermal gradient, and
Time-stratigraphic data:
timing of hydrocarbon generation in Cretaceous source rocks
in the Sanjuan Basin, northwestern New Mexico and south- Age (my) Depth (m)
western Colorado, in]. Woodward, F. F. Meissner, and]. L.
Clayton, eds., Hydrocarbon Source Rocks of the Greater
o o
2 500
Rocky Mountain Region: Denver, Rocky Mountain Associa- 38 1200
tion of Geologists, pp. 433-447. 65 2700
de Bremaecker,].-Cl., 1983, Temperature, subsidence, and hy- 80 3000
drocarbon maturation in extensional basins: a finite element 100 4000
148
Temperature data: 5. Analyze the timing of oil generation in the Pink Well, drilled
Present-day average surface temperature: in the Midcontinent region of the United States. The geothermal
Corrected BHT (4200 m): gradient was found to be 1.0 F/100 ft, and the surface tempera-
0
Estimated surface temperature at end Cretaceous: ture today is about 590 F. Time-stratigraphic data are given in
the following table. No unconformities are recognized within
3. Calculate present-day ITl for a rock at 3000 m in the Beige the Paleozoic. Erosional removal since the Permian probably
Well using both maximum and minimum scenarios for Tertiary totals about 2000 ft.
removal.
Temperature data:
Present-day average surface temperature: 6. You have been asked to evaluate an undrilled prospect in a
Corrected BHT (3000 m): remote area that is available in an expensive farm-in deal. Be-
cause of the high operations cost, upper management has de-
4. The Wtraviolet Well is spudded in Paleocene sediments. At a cided that gas and condensate are not economical. Your
depth of 1500 ft, micropaleontology indicates the rocks to be of responsibility is to make a recommendation regarding the na-
Maestrichtian age. The following Upper Cretaceous boundaries ture of hydrocarbons that might be present in the prospect. The
are noted: fullowing geological summary is available to you.
"A regional study of the area suggests the probable presence
Maestrichtian-Campanian 1807 ft of a thin, rich, oil-prone source rock at about 4300-m depth near
Campanian-Santonian 2002 ft the prospect. The source rock is thought to be about 300 myoid.
Santonian-Coniacian 2360 ft
No other source rocks were noted. Highly fractured carbonates
Coniacian-Turonian 2546ft
Turonian-Cenomanian 3017 ft overlie the source rock; they are in turn overlain at 2750 m by a
sandstone of excellent reservoir quality. The reservoir is sealed
by a thick salt layer. No other reservoirs are anticipated.
The Cenomanian is 480 ft thick and overlies 1000 ft of Kim-
"The basin filled at a generally uniform rate from about 300
meridgian-age shale. Total depth is reached at 6120 ft in Middle
mya to 100 mya. At that time nearby orogenic activity caused the
Jurassic rocks.
first traps to be formed during a gradual 1200-m uplift lasting
Evidence from related sections indicates that the Paleocene
until 40 mya. From 40 mya to the present about 500 m of addi-
was originally about 3000 ft thick and that no other Cenozoic
tional burial occurred.
sediments were ever deposited. Total original thickness of the
"Nearby well control indicates that a geothermal gradient of
Kimmeridgian is thought to be 1500 ft. It is also believed that
3.650 c/100 m and a surface intercept of 150 C are reasonable for
500 ft of Lower Cretaceous sediments were deposited before
the area. The traps at the prospect location formed slightly prior
uplift and erosion began.
to the beginning of erosional removal in the basin and have
Assuming a surface temperature of 100 C and a geothermal
retained integrity to the present."
gradient of 2 0 F/100 ft, draw a burial-history curve for the sec-
tion penetrated and calculate maturity for the Kimmeridgian Utilizing the principles of hydrocarbon generation and pres-
shale. ervation, evaluate the prospect.
9. PREDICTING THERMAL MATURITY 149
AGE (MY)
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2
20°C
30°C-
2000
40°C-
50°C- 4000
60°C-
6000
70°C-
80°C_
8000 -
~
: I:
I-
Q.
90°C- 10,000 ~
100°C-
12,000
110°C -
120°C- 14,000
130°C- 16,000
140°C-
18,000
TEMP.·C 30'
1000 1000
2000 2000 E
E
I
I f-
f-
a.. a..
W
w
3000 0 3000 0
4000 4000
140 0
5000 5000
FIGURE 9.36 Family of burial-history curves and subsurface- FIGURE 9.37 Burial-history curves for a 100-my-old rock, as-
temperature grid for the Red well. lsomaturity line represents suming two difforent erosional models (500 m or 2000 m of
the beginning of oil generation at TTl 10. removal) commencing 5 mya in the Beige well.
AGE (MV'
160 120 100 80 60 40 20
I~C ~__~~~~~~~-L~~~~~~~~~--~--~--~--L-~~-t
2O' C - 1000
30' C -
2000
40' C -
3000 X
~
w
o
TTl -
SO' C - 2.7
4000
TTl -
6O"C - 4.9
5000
70' C -
6000
6O' C -
AGE jMY)
6000
SO 'C -
6OC - 8000
70 C - 10,000
8O· C - 12,000
SO' C -
14,000
-....
X
....0
A.
1(xtc-
16,000
II00C -
18,000
120C-
20,000
130C -
22 ,000
140' C -
24 ,000
lSO· C -
160C- 26,000
170C - 28,000
AGE /MY)
480 420 J60 300 240 180 120 60 o
20 C -
30C-
40C-
SO ' C -
6OC-
70 C -
8OC-
90 C - :r
t:w
IODC- o
110 C -
120' C -
130C-
140 C -
ISO C -
160C-
170 C-
~,
'lI\
~,
~,
dow (TIl = 10 to TIl = 160) and liniit for condensate
preselVation (TIl = 500) drawn on the burial-history curves.
~, ~\ The source rock generated its oil around 200 mya, long before
1000- 'lI\
~\
~.,.,
- any trapping mechanism existed in the prospect. After trap for-
mation (liberally interpreted as starting as early as 120 mya) the
'lI'
~~\ O~
"',
....' only product being generated by the source rock was gas.
." Furthermore, the maturity of the reselVoir today is very high
(J)
a:
w
2000- ,_,"-
~ -
\
\ ,,"
0
,
- (TIl nearly 500), indicating that even if oil had somehow found
its way into the traps, it would not have been preselVed. Wet gas
., , .... t:-
,
I-
W is the most likely hydrocarbon product from the prospect. In
0'\ ..\ " ~I:..
o , \ 0 /. • ""
::!: " view of the economics of the play and the mandate from man-
3000-
agement, your recommendation would be to reject the farm-in
:r '( ,I" offer.
I- 0\ 0{
11. o \' - •
W
: ~:Z
o ,
o 4000
'z /' C-
o ;:: o~ 0 I'
W c ... ~ I
II:
~ o ::;:: ~'I
5000-
l-
e ! .~ ~:: V
::Ii o '~C0
::Ii . . ._. t ., \II
C
o '<II( -I
o~· o
SOOO~----~----~~~--~--------;-
I I I TRAPS fXlST
INrRODUCTION
In order to identny source rocks and determine migration
pathways, it is often important to know whether two sam-
ples of organic material share a common origin. We
therefore frequently attempt to correlate samples by com-
paring their chemical and physical properties. Correla-
tions are easiest between materials of the same type (two
oils, for example), but they are also possible between
dissimilar samples (oils with kerogens or bitumens, bitu-
mens with kerogens). Correlations involving gases are
more difficult and will be treated separately in this
chapter.
Correlations are carried out by measuring and compar-
ing several characteristics of each sample. These charac-
teristics must be reasonably variable from sample to
sample but should be minimally (or at least predictably)
affected by transformations occurring during catagenesis
and migration, as well as in reservoirs.
Two fundamentally different types of characteristics
can be measured: bulk parameters and specific parame-
ters. Bulk parameters refer to properties of the whole
sample; sulfur content, API gravity, saturated-hydro-
carbon content, and pour point are examples. Because
they tend to be affected strongly by processes such as
migration, biodegradation, and cracking, bulk param-
eters have some important limitations as correlation tools.
Specific parameters, in contrast, measure in detail one
characteristic of a small fraction of the sample; they in-
clude, for example, the many types of biomarker ratios.
Specific parameters are sometimes strongly affected by a
155
156
small amount of contamination, biodegradation, or less. In such cases the bulk parameters are often greatly
mixing. changed, forcing us to focus on those specific parameters
Bulk parameters are better for detecting transforma- that are not affected (or are affected in predictable ways)
tions that affect the whole sample but generally are not by the transformations.
sensitive enough to be reliable positive correlation tools Another problem can arise in correlating an oil with an
without corroboration by specific parameters. It is there- immature sample of a rock whose more mature equiva-
fore important to utilize both bulk and specific parame- lent may have been the oil's source. If the correlation
ters in correlation studies. attempt is to be meaningful, we must factor out the differ-
A human analog may be helpful in understanding the ence in maturity levels between oil and rock by selecting
difference between the two types of parameters. Blood parameters unaffected by maturation, or by backing out
type is a bulk parameter for human beings, but it is vel}' the effects of maturity. This task is often vel}' difficult.
limited in its sensitivity because there are so few distinct Finally, some samples simply have no distinguishing
blood types. Fingerprints, in contrast, are extremely sensi- characteristics. Such materials are vel}' difficult to corre-
tive because of their uniqueness, but they are not perfect late definitively with other samples, although occasionally
indicators because they are susceptible to alteration or a negative correlation may be feasible. These samples
disguise. may be "silent partners," contributing to a mixture where
Although the term fingerprinting is often applied in their presence is difficult to detect and the relative impor-
correlations, its usage is overly optimistic. Most samples tance of their contribution impossible to estimate.
of oils, for example, are reasonably similar, and no distin- Despite these few drawbacks, correlation studies have
guishing parameter as definitive as the human fingerprint been vel}' useful in the past and will continue to grow in
is known. In making a positive correlation, therefore, we popularity as biomarker and isotope techniques are fur-
are forced to build a case of probability based on a num- ther refined. They have proven to be of aid in establishing
ber of reasonably good positive correlations and no unex- the source rocks for some oils, as well as in identifYing
plainable negative correlations. This process is analogous contributions from multiple sources. Gas correlations
to building a case on circumstantial evidence in a court of have shown conclusively that vast amounts of gas in many
law. We cannot prove the correlation conclusively, but we commercial reservoirs are of biogenic origin. Correlation
can make it vel}' plausible. It is thus vel}' important in any studies should be undertaken wherever a better under-
correlation study to amass as many different pieces of standing of the relationships between individual reser-
evidence as possible. voirs, or between source rocks and reservoirs, would be of
Negative correlations are more straightforward than value in exploration.
positive correlations. If two samples differ in a single bulk
parameter that cannot be explained on the basis of trans-
CORRElATION PARAMETERS
formations, then the samples do not correlate. Disagree-
ment in a single specific parameter is not as serious, BULK PARAMETERS
because of the possibilities of alteration or contamination. The most commonly measured bulk parameters include
However, a repeated pattern of disagreement on several the following:
specific parameters indicates a negative correlation be-
tween the samples.
1. API gravity, reported in degrees API (oAPI). API
There are several factors that can make correlations
gravity is a measure of density (or specific gravity).
unusually difficult. Mixing of oils from different sources
Specific gravity and API gravity are related by equation
can be difficult to detect. Transformations of oils in reser-
(10.1).
voirs by biodegradation, water washing, cracking, or
deasphalting also causes severe changes in some of the
chemical and physical properties of crudes (see chap. 5),
rendering some correlation parameters completely use-
°API = - - -141.5
---- - 131.5. (10.1)
Specific gravity
10. CORRELATIONS 157
J~_
5 I
o
•
0' o
o
,.
California are prominent examples.
SAT .~--.
I I
6. Other bulk parameters less commonly employed in-
clude infrared spectroscopy (IR; useful for distin-
-
AROM
- HET
"----.-. ,,~
Jurassic oils
North Sea
1
oxidizing.
Sediment Type PristanelPhytane unr •• 'rlcted
heavy n-alkanes, and, by preserving more oftheir original red uc Ingtev .porltlc
character, they have a better chance to be correlated with
a source rock. In general, wholly marine samples are very
difficult to correlate by means of n-alkanes because they Phi
In-C1B
always look mature.
3. Isoprenoid distributions, also measured by gas FIGURE 10.5 Use of isoprenoid/n-alkane ratios as correlation
chromatography of the saturated-hydrocarbon fraction. parameters and indicators of biodegradation, maturity, and
More accurate results can be obtained by removing the n- organic facies.
alkanes by urea adduction or molecular sieving prior to
gas-chromatographic analysis. Most commonly used are
pristane/phytane ratios and C15 to C20 isoprenoid profiles, still reported from gas chromatograms, but they are not
both of which are mainly related to diagenetic history. used regularly for interpretation.
Pristane/phytane ratios (PrlPh) are useful correlation
4. Isoprenoidln-alkane ratios, obtained by gas
parameters, in part because they are believed to be sensi-
chromatography. Combining isoprenoid and n-alkane
tive to diagenetic conditions (Illich, 1983). Very high Prl
data provides valuable information on biodegradation,
Ph ratios are associated with terrestrially influenced
maturity, and diagenetic conditions. A good way to
sediments, including coals (table 10.1). Pr/Ph ratios sub-
display these data is by plotting pristaneln-C 17 versus
stantially below 1.0 are taken as indicators of highly re-
phytaneln-C 18 (chosen because each pair of compounds
ducing depositional environments.
elutes almost simultaneously from the gas chro-
However, the accuracy of these generalizations has
matograph)(fig. 10.5). The trend of higher Pr/Ph ratios as
been challenged at times. Pratt (1984) has shown that
oxygen content of bottom waters increases is along the
sediments from the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway
line marked "depositional environment" in figure 10.5.
that were deposited under anoxic conditions have Pr/Ph
With increasing maturity n-alkanes are generated faster
ratios considerably above 1.0. Thus, we must temper our
than isoprenoids (fig. 5.13), resulting in a decrease in
environmental interpretations based on isoprenoid distri-
isoprenoidln-alkane ratios and regression along the line
butions with other geological data. Furthermore, because
toward the origin in figure 10.5. Biodegradation, in con-
Pr/Ph ratios decrease during catagenesis (fig. 5.12), we
trast, removes n-alkanes faster (table 5.4), increasing
must be careful not to overuse them as correlation
isoprenoidln-alkane ratios away from the origin in figure
parameters.
10.5.
Profiles of C15 through C20 isoprenoids have been used
for many years as correlation fingerprints, but because 5. Porphyrins, measured either by visible-ultraviolet
the mechanisms by which these compounds are formed spectroscopy, high-performance liquid chromatography
are not well understpod, the technique has remained (HPLC), or mass spectrometry. UV gives a measure of the
strictly empirical. Concentrations of these isoprenoids are relative amounts of vanadium and nickel porphyrins, a
10. CORRELATIONS 161
Gammacerane
Oleanan
C~I
Group I GI'OUp :J
Regular hopane C2 ' 1 mz 191 /llIZ 191
C 2'1
(;I'OUp 2 Group 4
mz 191 nllz 191
Demelhylaled hopanes
C2iI
. ...
FIGURE 10.9 Four oil types in the San Jorge Basin, Argen-
tina, as demonstrated by m/z 191 mass chromatograms. The
triterpanes of Group 1 oils have not been demethylated. The
oils of Groups 2 and 3 contain both regular and demethy-
lated species, while those of Group 4 are fully biodegraded,
showing only the demethylated species. Reprinted with per-
mission from Philp, 1983. Copyright 1983, Pergamon Press,
Ltd.
10':>
-
N ORIG I
U
10 3 I
I
I
U Hlgne' 1
Hydroco r bons r
Oepteled 1
Du"ng I
Mlg'o ,on I
I
-I.
10 2 I
I
/
/
ZO E *' " FIGURE 10.12 Crossplot of 8D and 013C of methane for natu-
10 1 OF 0'>-,,::- ------ ral gases, by which gases of various origins can be distin-
THERMO, guished. Reprinted by permission of ErdOl und Kohle, Erdgas,
CATALVTIC Petrochemie from &lwell, 1981.
OR IGI I I M.. lure ' ..
R
WEST SEA HORSE.,
48 AP •
...
% .. 1 ._-----l 3
....."'
o
a: lAKES ENTRANCE
..
a: '6 AP. mIl 217
o
...o
0-
tON
w 4
Q ABUNDANCE
,
..,..:e
LAKES ENTRANCE
weST se" HORse 4- I ..
e .... R2
II 7
'" 1
" 10
mlz 191
~.1
Ill. "
ION
II
11 "
12
.... 11o. ....
'V/I'\" .1J"
1
1\
... n '" ,. I
ABUNDANCE
RETENTION TIIiIIE(m l nul •• )
I~r--------------------------r------------------------~r-------------------------~
NORTHVILLE GRANT 26 BENTLEY
OrdovIc Ian Slkrlan
CPl. \.29 CPl.' O!>
10
I-
Z
W
<.J
a:
W
0..
I~ 20 2~ 30 20 30 I~ 20 ~
CD
.
~-27
>
/. -29
~
..0
-3'
-33
'2 '4 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
n-ALKANE CARSON NUMBER
1
• AI.L SILURIAN
.. ORDOVICIAN
~ 30-
~
I/) ..•
~
~ 2.0 -
.
. .... .
.. ...." ....
.2-
I- "
:z
I&J
,O.O_-------""'T---------------------~
• OCVO/OlIAN
• ~H£RN SILURIAN
• SOIITH£RN SILURIAN
•
- .....•
.. ORDOVICIAN
8 .0-}-_ _ _ _ _ _ ~
.,
•
.
. •
,~
• • ,•""'
/"
SAGINAW(8(REAI.. •
...... 6
•
. ..
"t/'
A ........ iltCli #tUN lOtJHO(c)
2 .0-
6 "'001111 lOfTIIOIT IIMII'
~O-t~~-r_·~I~~~~~,~~-,~-~I~T-T-~r-,r-r-~~I~~~~~
0 .0 10.0 20.0 30.0 400 !}()D 600
PERCENT NORMAL PARAFFINS
I CN' t 1016 t 1017 loll"
FIGURE 10..20 Crossplnt of isoprenoid content versus n-alkane content for Michigan Basin oils. Reprinted with permission
from Illich and Grizzle, 1983. Copyright 1983, Pergamon Press, Ltd.
10. CORRELATIONS 169
SOURCE-ROCK·OIL CORRELATIONS oils are only moderately enriched in sulfur (less than
Oils are produced from several fields in the Basin and 0.7% ).
Range province of Utah and Nevada. Poole and Claypool One implication of this study is that oil generation from
(1984) have succeeded in classitying most of these oils the lacustrine source beds in the Basin and Range prov-
into two groups, based on numerous geochemical ince occurs at very low levels of maturity, probably as the
analyses. result of the combined effects of great richness of the
They also found excellent correlations between the two source rocks and high sulfur contents of the kerogens.
groups of oils and two very different types of source rock. This knowledge derived from the correlation studies
The Chainman Shale of Mississippian age was deposited should then be incorporated into future exploration mod-
in a marine basin. The Sheep Pass and Elko formations, els for the area.
in contrast, are of Paleogene age and represent lacustrine
facies.
The most useful analytical techniques for correlating
specifc oils and source rocks were gas chromatography
(fig. 10.21) and gc/ms (fig. 10.22). The Trap Spring oil,
for example, has a very similar gas chromatogram to that
from a mature sample of Chainman shale (fig. 10.21): Prl
Ph ratios are near 1.5, CPI values are near 1.0, and the
samples are low in heavy n-alkanes. Oils from the Eagle
Springs and Currant fields, in contrast, have PrlPh ratios
below 1.0, display even-carbon predominances, and con-
tain moderate to large amounts of heavy n-alkanes.
The most powerful arguments for the proposed source-
rock-oil correlations come from sterane and triterpane
distributions (fig. 10.22). The lacustrine rocks all contain
large amounts of gammacerane (peak 7 in fig. 10.22), an
indicator of lacustrine origin. Five of the oils analyzed,
including the previously mentioned Eagle Springs and
Currant oils, also contain large amounts of gam-
macerane.
These five oils correlate very well with the lacustrine
source rocks in other respects as well. All have more of
the 20R- than 20S-epimer of the C29 sterane (peaks D and
A in fig. 10.22), which indicates low maturity.
The remaining four oils shown in figure 10.22 correlate
well with the Chainman shale extracts. Gammacerane
contents of all samples are low; maturities are high, as
indicated by an excess of the C29 20S-epimer over the 20R-
epimer.
Surprisingly, sulfur contents of the lacustrine oils are
greater than 1%, with some biodegraded oils above 4%.
The unusual Rozel Point crude, which is asphaltic, highly
biodegraded, and produced from basalt, contains 12%
sulfur. The origin of the sulfur in the ancient lakes is an
interesting question. In contrast, the Chainman-sourced
~
~, I I I I I 30
I
30
"'lW.LUJJ~ .llllil.ll.J.l h ,j ~ L
11.1
D. CHAINMAN SHALE
ESU NO 2 (9497 ft ) ~
is.li
is.
s:.
c.-'
30
I
~ ~
FIGURE 10.21 Gas chromatograms of saturated hydrocarbons from three oils (top) and three source-rock extracts (bottom) from the
Basin and Range province. Each oil correlates with the extract immediately below it. From Poole and Claypool (1984).
ROCK EXTRACTS
C29
n
CRUDE OILS TERPANES STERANES
::,.------=--~ ~-~
0-
1.0
Uool D U
SHEEP PASS FORMATION
11810'
0.5
0.5
1.0
CHAINMAN SHALE 10,121'
RGURE 10.22 Relative amounts of selected terpanes and steranes for oils (left) and rock extracts (right) from the Basin and
Range province. Peaks 1 and 2 are tricyclic terpanes; peaks 3 and 4 are the C-29 and C-30 hopanes, respectively; peaks 5 and
6, 8 and 9, and 10 and 11 are the pairs of 22S and 22R epimers of C-31, C-32, and C-35 extended hopanes, respectively; peak
7 is gammacerane; arut peaks A-D are the aa20S, ~~20R, ~~20S, and ao:2OR steranes, respectively, From Poole and Claypool
(1984).
172
1,9()()1II
I I I I
Old . , Initially
. ~:;: =~ 12C Dtplt t td <}::::::> P'nduced
10' <- Gas (,as -:
,,
M I ZONE O~ I
U ,
I
,,,
MICROBI AL
15 20 25 JO 15 20 25 JO 15 +N I
,,I
--- ,
ORIGI I
-
- - - - - - - - CARBON NUIl8ER - - - - - - -- U I
I ,
10 3 I
I ,
I
-:
U ,,
Hlghe' I
I
FIGURE 10.23 Distributions of n-alkanes and isoprenoids for Hydrocar bons I
MIXING
,
three oils from different depths in the Handil Field, Maha- Ceplet ed I I
DUling I I
,
kam Delta, Kalimantan. ZO E I
10 2 .-
Migration I
,I ,
,, ,,
~ ,
•, -
,, ~~
., ~
~
--
0---'::- --- -
ZO E *~'
OIL MATURITY ~
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
common source. Data for the oils are compiled in table 10.2,
and gas chromatograms are shown in figure 10.28.
1~ ASSLING
16 AMP~ ING
__~,~J lJ~,
ENOORF
16 AMPF ING
Blue
Well
Green
Well
Aquamarine
Well
,. .,
.. II
t7
Depth (ft)
Reservoir age
8100
L. Cret.
10,200
E. Cret.
8700
Eocene ..
,. 27
.
API gravity (deg) 46.1 44.3 32.5
..
% Sulfur
CPI
& 13C whole oil (0/00)
& 13C saturates (0/00)
0.12
1.01
-26.1
-27.9
0.08
1.02
-27.0
-29.5
0.21
-26.6
-28.3
-A 1.J 1
....
t~J LlI.I I' ! Jo li III III lL LII. Il 1 i I
,~
23 " '9 Po.
17
'9
"
J~
. 16
3'
....
3.
...
• 18 ' '16
TABLE 10.3 Geochemical data on twelve produced oils and a spill oil from the South Hootchiekootchie Basin
1 8100-8150 C 30.5 0.8 -26.7 1.02 1.55 0.81 0.68 1.2 1.01 17
2 6763-6849 A 27.5 0.3 -29.7 0.00 0.03 0.03 0.43 0.1 1.13 18
3 8460-8610 C 34.5 0.1 -27.9 0.16 0.12 0.23 0.92 0.2 1.02 17
4 7998-8016 C 19.7 0.7 -26.7 1.21 1.02 0.21 0.67 0.3 1.04 16
5 9001-9202 C 31.8 1.3 -28.0 0.92 1.45 1.02 0.88 1.2 0.99 17
6 6887-6990 C 29.7 1.2 -28.1 1.02 0.34 0.92 0.91 1.0 1.07 17
7 7421-7503 C 25.7 1.7 -26.4 0.99 0.29 0.19 0.66 0.3 1.04 17
8 9023-9112 B 24.3 2.2 -26.2 0.15 0.05 0.31 1.72 0.2 0.87 18
9 6810-7020 A 28.1 0.1 -30.1 0.02 0.00 0.11 0.51 0.2 1.17 17
10 9100-9140 D 36.1 0.2 -28.4 0.15 0.13 0.49 0.96 0.5 1.06 18
11 8321-8520 D 24.3 1.7 -27.2 0.88 0.21 0.97 0.79 1.2 1.03 16
12 8169-8230 C 21.2 0.6 -26.9 1.15 0.96 0.16 0.81 0.2 0.98 17
Spill oil 12.7 3.7 -25.7 0.72 0.27 3.65 16.1 0.2
•
I 1
oil is strongly biodegraded, with the n-alkanes and isoprenoids
[BJ
1 1
1 1
t removed. The paraffinic oil, in contrast, appears to be unal-
:.
I 1
1
1 "'~ I • MolOSSQ
tered. Thus the oils could be related; in order to test that idea,
1
.,11./ :
m
.1
1
1 ·1 I we will have to look at biomarker parameters that would have
:..
I
1
I. II been unaffected by biodegradation.
1
1 I t
Mass chromatograms of the steranes (fig. 10.26) show no
I
1
1
1 l'" Vigallo
• DO: .. ~ '"
05 1 1
I
I significant differences between the paraffinic and naphthenic
1
~I.a 1
1 I
1 oils, indicating that (1) biodegradation has not yet strongly af-
0.2 ~.D 1 1 1 • PlEISJOCENE
fected the steranes, and (2) the oils could be related. This one
1 1 1
I
D~. • U.·".PUOCENE
0.1 ':1,00 D
I. 1
1 o l PLIOCENE piece of positive evidence should not be taken as proof, however.
·-0• •. • • 1I •
""\:i ~.D
• D Medesano""· ... MESSINIAN
Other techniques, such as analysis of mass chromatograms of
0.05
•
1
i
...
1 '" " "'OCENE
other fragment ions, should be utilized to strengthen the
.:
1 1 • PRE·"'OCENE
1
0.02 D 1
.... , mlgtol.d g05
correlation.
1
•-70
1
0.01
-80 -60 -50 -40 -30
2. The correlation between m1z 217 mass chromatograms of two
6 Be vs. poe [ppt] samples of Fischschiefer extract (fig. 10.27, top) and two
Molasse Basin oils (fig. 10.27, bottom) is vel}' poor. However,
the most obvious poor correlations are due to maturity differ-
FIGURE 10.29 Wetness versus carbon-isotopic composition
ences between the vel}' immature shale and the mature oils.
for natural gases from the Po Basin, Italy. Reprinted by per-
mission of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists These maturity-related differences themselves do not rule out a
from Mattavelli et al., 1983. mature Fischschiefer as the source.
Much more important in comparing these shales and oils are
parameters that do not change appreciably with maturity. The
10. CORRELATIONS 179
relative proportions of the 50:,140:,170: 20R steranes (C Z7 to CZ9 ) affected somewhat by biodegradation, the ratio should remain
are not affected by maturity. In the Fischschiefer CZ7 is by far the unchanged. Sulfur content would probably have risen slightly
largest peak, and CZ9 the smallest. In the oils, however, CZ7 is not during biodegradation. The carbon-isotopic composition would
nearly as dominant. This difference casts doubt on even a ma- have become slightly heavier (less negative) as a result of the
ture Fischschiefer as the principal source for these oils. loss of isotopically light alkanes and aromatics through biodeg-
Because of the great difference in maturities of the samples radation and water washing. Porphyrin content would have
being compared, even a negative correlation is somewhat uncer- been increased as a consequence of the preferential loss of hy-
tain. Thus it would be advisable to strengthen these conclusions drocarbons. NW ratios would not have changed, however.
with other analyses. We can evaluate the data in table 10.3 in light of all these
facts. Data for oil samples from the wells that are definitely
incompatible with those of the spill oil are set in boldface type,
3. Some differences are apparent between the oils from the Blue
and all dubious correlations are in italic (table 10.4).
and Green wells. The close similarities of several independent
The PrlPh ratio of the spilled oil is 0.2. The oils having Pr/Ph
parameters (carbon isotopes, hydrocarbons, sulfur contents)
ratios above 1.0 do not correlate with the spill. The very high Prl
suggest that these two oils could have a similar source. The
n-C 17 and Phln-C 16 ratios are the result of biodegradation and
substantially lower n-alkane content of the Green oil might indi-
thus cannot be used for correlation.
cate a slight amount of biodegradation. The most striking differ-
Because the NW ratio of the spilled oil is about 3, those oils
ence, in the PrlPh ratios, cannot be attributed to biodegradation;
whose NW ratios are not near 3 can be eliminated. Further-
it might instead indicate some mixing. Alternatively, the two oils
more, oils 2 and 9 are probably not the source of the spill
could come from different sources, with high levels of maturity
because their total porphyrin contents are too low.
in both oils being responsible for some of the gross similarities
Sulfur content of the spilled oil is higher than in any of the
(API gravity, hydrocarbon content, n-alkane distributions). The
possible source oils. Although sulfur will be concentrated as a
substantial difference in the isotopic compositions of the
consequence of biodegradation, there are limits to how much
saturated hydrocarbons of the two oils further suggests a source
the sulfur content will increase. Certainly the low-sulfur oils
difference. Stronger evidence about the similarities and dis-
(less than 0.5% S) could not be the source. Those with less than
similarities of the Blue and Green oils would be furnished by gcl
1% S are doubtful but should not be eliminated completely.
ms analysis of biomarker hydrocarbons.
& 13C values of the various fractions of a crude oil seldom
The oil from the Aquamarine well is clearly different from the
differ by more than about 2 0/00. Thus even if the spilled oil had
other two. However, all the tabulated properties except API
lost all its saturated hydrocarbons, the isotopic composition of
gravity and saturated-hydrocarbons are very similar to those of
the whole oil would not have changed by more than 2 0/00. The
the Blue oil. Biodegradation could be responsible for the ab-
most-negative value possible for the original spill oil is thus
sence of n-alkanes and the lower API gravity of the Aquama-
-27.70/00.
rine oil. Evidence for biodegradation at the depths of the
After looking at all these data, it is apparent that only two oils,
Aquamarine and Green oils is unusual, which suggests either
numbers 7 and 8, are possible sources for the spill. Of these, oil
that geothermal gradients are quite low, or that biodegradation
8 gives a closer fit, but there is not a clear choice between the
took place when the reservoir was at a shallower, cooler depth.
two.
In this latter case, migration into the reservoir would have oc-
The next logical step is to look at sterane and triterpane distri-
curred prior to substantial amounts of additional burial.
butions by gc/ms. Given the low level of biodegradation experi-
The fact that such diverse parameters as carbon isotopes,
enced by the spilled oil, none of these parameters should have
sulfur contents, and isoprenoid hydrocarbons are in agreement
been affected. If oils 7 and 8 are different, then we may be able
indicates that there may be a genetic relationship between the
to determine which was responsible for the spill. On the other
Blue and Aquamarine oils. Gc/ms should be used to test this
hand, if they are identical, we would not be able to determine
hypothesis.
which of the two was spilled.
This analytical program could have been improved slightly.
4. The spilled oil has probably undergone a significant amount Measuring API gravity was a waste of money. In other respects,
of evaporation and biodegradation as a result of exposure to sea however, the battery of analyses ordered was well designed. By
water and air. Neither API gravity nor n-alkane analyses are saving gc/ms for last, we could limit our applications of this
therefore very meaningful. Because pristane and phytane are most expensive technique to only three samples instead of
still present, the Pr/Ph ratio is valid. Even if they had been thirteen.
180
1 8100-8150 C 30.5 0.8 -26.7 1.02 1.55 0.81 0.68 1.2 1.01 17
2 6763-6849 A 27.5 0.3 -29.7 0.00 0.03 0.03 0.43 0.1 1.13 18
3 8460-8610 C 34.5 0.1 -27.9 0.16 0.12 0.23 0.92 0.2 1.02 17
4 7998-8016 C 19.7 0.7 -26.7 1.21 1.02 0.21 0.67 0.3 1.04 16
5 9001-9202 C 31.8 1.3 -28.0 0.92 1.45 1.02 0.88 1.2 0.99 17
6 6887-6990 C 29.7 1.2 -28.1 1.02 0.34 0.92 0.91 1.0 1.07 17
7 7421-7503 C 25.7 1.7 -26.4 0.99 0.29 0.19 0.66 0.3 1.04 17
8 9023-9112 B 24.3 2.2 -26.2 0.15 0.05 0.31 1.72 0.2 0.87 18
9 6810-7020 A 28.1 0.1 -30.1 0.02 0.00 0.11 0.51 0.2 1.17 17
10 9100-9140 D 36.1 0.2 -28.4 0.15 0.13 0.49 0.96 0.5 1.06 18
11 8321-8520 D 24.3 1.7 -27.2 0.88 0.21 0.97 0.79 1.2 1.03 16
12 8169-8230 C 21.2 0.6 -26.9 1.15 0.96 0.16 0.81 0.2 0.98 17
Spill oil 12.7 3.7 -25.7 0.72 0.27 3.65 16.1 0.2
NOTE: Boldface type indicates a definite negative correlation. Italic type indicates a probable negative correlation.
.
~ 60. however, a trend that is probably attributable to mixing ofther-
1.0 ~o •
-55
mal gas with the biogenic gas; it runs from the lower left toward
~i; •
.,. 40 the upper right in figure 10.29. Those gases with B 13C values
less negative than about - 50 0/00 are probably mainly thermo-
•
genic. Most of the thermogenic gases are from pre-Pliocene
I Spilamberto I
20
-60 rocks. The wettest, heaviest (purely thermogenic) gases are
those from the pre-Miocene.
V613CBacterial end member Mattavelli et al. (1983) have attempted to estimate the propor-
-63ppt tion of biogenic and thermogenic gases in reservoirs in the Po
1 2 3 4 5 Basin by plotting B 13C versus gas wetness (fig. 10.30). Whether
C2+ [pphJ
such a calibration curve could be used in other areas with some
confidence is not known.
FIGURE 10.30 Estimating relative proportions of biogenic and
thermal gas in the Spilamberto Field, Po Basin, Italy. Re-
printed by permission of the American Association of Petro-
leum Geologists from Mattavelli et al., 1983.
Chapter 11 Surface Prospecting
181
182
3 -~
a:
i'°LAw....
u. 0
o 1 :2 3 ...V POPULATION 3
~WE ~
~
~
V,OPULATION 2
2 r-~-+--~~-----+--+----------+-----~7.'------r----~--------~
>
...
TRANSITION •••
'~
/~
many light-hydrocarbon measurements emphasize eth- porting the notion that light-hydrocarbon surveys provide
ane and heavier alkanes. Concentrations of light hydro- an excellent means of locating faults.
carbons are usually determined by collecting a syringe of Of much more economic importance is whether light-
soil gas or by canning a sample of rock or soil and later hydrocru:bon surveys can locate hydrocarbon accumula-
removing the headspace gas (chap. 7). Measurements are tions. According to Jones and Drozd (1983), only those
carried out by gas chromatography. faults immediately above oil production showed high
The results of the analyses are then plotted on a map concentrations of propane and butanes. Neither study
showing sample locations, and contours are drawn. delved into the problem of using light-hydrocarbon sur-
Those areas having high concentrations of hydrocarbons veys to locate hydrocarbon accumulations not associated
are considered to be of interest. with faults.
One of the main problems in interpreting all kinds of
surface-prospecting data is deciding which concentra- Qffshore. Light-hydrocarbon sampling offshore is more
tions represent anomalies, and which are background. It complicated and expensive than onshore and has there-
is imperative that this decision be made objectively and fore attracted a greater variety of innovative technologies.
that background be determined independently in each The added expense of offshore surveys is often compen-
area. It is not always correct to assume that the highest sated by the larger exploration prizes being sought, how-
values in an area represent anomalies. One way in which ever.
anomalies can be identified objectively is by plotting the One technique commonly used in offshore surveys is
raw data on probability paper. A Gaussian distribution of analogous to onshore sampling. Sediment samples are
the raw values, which might be expected if all samples obtained by piston coring or grab-sampling and are then
were from a single population, gives a straight line when canned or frozen until gas analyses can be carried out.
plotted on linear probability paper. If two or more data Because biogenic methane is a much greater problem
populations exist, however, a separate line will appear for in subaqueous sediments than in most soils, analytical
each population (fig. 11.3). Inflection points occur be- procedures must be able to separate small amounts
tween the populations and mark the approximate limiting of heavier hydrocarbons from much larger quantities of
values for each population. methane.
Unlike most other techniques, light-hydrocarbon anal- Evidence for thermogenic hydrocarbons in the North
yses can be applied offShore as well as onshore. Light- Sea was obtained from gas-chromatographic data and
hydrocarbon prospecting is less expensive than most confirmed by carbon-isotope analyses (Faber and Stahl,
other regional high-grading techniques. 1984). The added expense of carbon-isotope measure-
ments was probably not prohibitive in their study, given
the investment in obtaining the samples.
Onshore. Light-hydrocarbon surveys are carried out most Another technique for measuring light-hydrocarbon
conveniently and cheaply onshore, where access to soils is concentrations in offshore areas is to sample the bottom
easy. Most samplers penetrate the upper zone of possible water, where the concentrations of hydrocarbons reflect
contamination by drilling, pounding, or augering a few the rates at which seepage is occurring directly below. In
feet below the surface. There is no general agreement the system developed by InterOcean Systems ("Sniffer"), a
about the distance of penetration necessary to avoid con- device towed beneath a seismic vessel pumps water con-
tamination and problems with fluctuating water tables. tinuously to the ship, where hydrocarbon gases dissolved
The optimal distance of penetration probably varies con- in the water are analyzed by gas chromatography. This
siderably from area to area. system is rather expensive, because massive data reduc-
Richers et al. (1982) and Jones and Drozd (1983) per- tion is done by computer. Three-dimensional contour
formed light-hydrocarbon analyses on soil-gas samples, maps of hydrocarbon concentrations are provided.
headspace gases, and adsorbed gases from soils. Both The system offered by Hydrochem Surveys Interna-
groups found their largest anomalies along faults, sup- tional is similar. The main difference between their tech-
11. SURFACE PROSPECTING 185
nique and InterOcean's is that Hydrochem analyzes those onshore. It is more expensive than light-hydrocarbon
samples high in methane for carbon-isotopic composition analyses, with analytical costs alone running in excess of
in order to distinguish between biogenic and thermogenic $60 per sample. However, if an area of interest can be
origins. Hydrochem claims that their surveys are much clearly defined ahead of time, the Petrex method may
less expensive than techniques that employ sediment prove very useful in selecting drilling locations or in
sampling. If marine seismic surveys are already planned, choosing among several available structures (Klusman
the incremental cost of the light-hydrocarbon analysis and Voorhees 1983).
is modest.
MAGNETICS
HEAVY HYDROCARBONS
High-wave-number magnetic anomalies detected in low-
Until recently, analysis of heavy hydrocarbons was not
altitude aeromagnetic surveys are thought to be indicative
feasible for surface prospecting because the low vola-
of the presence of shallow accumulations of magnetite
tilities and mobilities of those molecules kept their con-
formed as a result of reactions with seeping hydrocar-
centrations below detection limits. In the last few years,
bons. An oxidation-reduction reaction between hydrocar-
however, application of mass spectrometry has greatly
bons and ferric ( + 3) iron in the subsurface reduces the
increased analytical sensitivity for heavy hydrocarbons.
iron to the ferrous (+2) state. The mobile Fe+ 2 species
In a technique patented by Petrex, vials are placed just
move in water solution until they are oxidized back to
below the surface of the ground for a few days. The vials
immobile Fe+ 3 near the surface. The resulting concentra-
contain a small wire made of a special metal alloy, one
tion of magnetite at shallow depths is responsible for the
end of which is coated with activated charcoal. Any hy-
observed magnetic anomaly.
drocarbons emanating from the earth during the collec-
Magnetic anomalies have been observed above the Ce-
tion period are adsorbed on the charcoal. The samples
ment Field in Oklahoma (Donovan et aI., 1979), the Bell
are then retrieved and analyzed by inserting the wire
Creek Field in Montana (Dalziel and Donovan, 1984),
directly into the ionizing chamber of a mass spectrometer.
and in Alaska (Donovan et aI., 1984). Whether such
When an electrical current is passed through the wire, it
anomalies occur over most fields remains to be proved.
heats up almost instantaneously to the Curie point, a pre-
Although application of aeromagnetics to petroleum ex-
cise temperature characteristic of that particular alloy.
ploration is not yet fully developed, the relatively low ex-
The adsorbed hydrocarbons are vaporized, ionized by the
pense of such surveys makes them attractive (Foote,
mass spectrometer, and the ions recorded as the mass
1984).
spectrum of the mixture.
Petrex has found that both the total quantity of hydro-
carbons adsorbed and their molecular size are diagnostic ~C
of whether hydrocarbons are accumulated in the underly- The ~C method is a proprietary technique employed by
ing strata. Furthermore, they claim to be able to distin- Geochemical Surveys, Inc. Neither the details of the ana-
guish oil from gas, as well as hydrocarbons that have lytical process nor the theory behind it have been fully
moved up a fault from those that have diffused through divulged, but it supposedly relies on detection of"abnor-
unfaulted strata. mal" carbonate species produced by migrating hydrocar-
The fact that the Petrex technique measures hydrocar- bons. Soil samples are analyzed by pyrolysis, which
bons that have more than ten carbon atoms makes it very decomposes the carbonates and releases carbon dioxide
attractive as an indicator of oil microseeps. Its stated abil- to a detector. Duchscherer (1982) claimed that 85% of
ity to identifY accumulations unrelated to faults also dis- producing oil and gas fields show some sort of halo
tinguishes it from the light-hydrocarbon techniques. anomaly.
Petrex claims to have had an excellent success rate in The ~C method is moderately expensive. Duchscherer
exploration applications. (1981) stated that a survey encompassing 250,000 acres
At the present time this technique can only be applied (1000 km2 ) could be completed for U.S. $180,000, and he
186
made the point that surface prospecting is far cheaper an inexpensive reconnaissance technique where condi-
than reconnaissance seismic. tions are appropriate (Sternberg and Oehler, 1984).
Geochemical SUIVeys, Inc. has had a long history of
exploration applications and claims a good rate of success SURFACE GAMMA-RAY MEASUREMENfS
(e.g., Duchscherer, 1984a, b). Until recently, however, Surface SUIVeys of gamma-ray intensity were carried out
secrecy about their method had hurt their credibility in a sparsely drilled part of the Powder River Basin, and
among scientists. Further applications should help deter- the predictions of these sUIVeys were later evaluated by
mine the effectiveness of the ac method compared to drilling. Results seemed to indicate that the technique was
other surface-prospecting techniques. useful in distinguishing productive features from non-
productive ones (Curry, 1984).
Numerous questions remain about the best ways to
CARBONATE CEMENf
carry out gamma-ray sUIVeys. The various detectors have
The carbonate produced from oxidation of migrating hy-
different sensitivities to the principal gamma-ray emitters
drocarbons can decrease porosity and increase density of
(potassium, thorium, and uranium). Because the origins
the rocks in which it precipitates. If the host rocks are
of these three species are quite different, a better under-
poorly consolidated, the density contrast between ce-
standing of the movement of these elements in the subsur-
mented and uncemented surface material can be detected
face would certainly help with future interpretation.
and mapped using micro gravity surveys (McCulloh,
1969b).
OTHER TECHNIQUES
Another application of carbonate minerals formed by
Gallagher (1984) has promoted the use of iodine anoma-
oxidation of hydrocarbons utilizes carbon-isotope ratios
lies in petroleum exploration. Soil samples are taken from
of carbonate cements. Because carbonates formed by
a few inches below the surface and analyzed for total
oxidation of organic carbon have carbon-isotope ratios
iodine. Hydrocarbon accumulations are supposed to be
similar to those of the hydrocarbons (fig. 3.16), hydro-
surrounded by a halo of high iodine concentrations.
carbon-derived cement is easily distinguished from inor-
Vegetation anomalies have been frequently used by
ganically derived carbonate (Donovan, 1974).
mineral explorationists as indicators of trace-element
Carbon-isotope measurements on carbonate cements
deficiencies or excesses. Such anomalies can either be
would probably be used as a confirmatory tool rather
visible to the naked eye (Richers et aI., 1982) or entail
than for reconnaissance. The number of analyses and
abnormally high concentrations of certain elements in the
expenses could thus be minimized.
vegetation (Dalziel and Donovan, 1980). Although there
have been few applications to petroleum exploration,
INDUCED POLARIZATION UP) with Landsat's ability to discern vegetation anomalies
IP measurements are predicated on the idea that shallow there may in the future be more interest in using plant
electrical anomalies due to pyrite occur over leaking hy- abnormalities as indicators of hydrocarbon microseeps.
drocarbon reservoirs. An electrical current is passed into A variety of other surface-prospecting techniques has
the ground from a wire grounded at both ends, and the been used in exploration. Some of these are discussed in a
potential that is set up is detected by a receiver located in review by Philp and Crisp (1982).
the middle of the array.
A number of simultaneous conditions must be met for SUMMARY
IP to work well. For example, pyrite formation requires Although direct-detection methods for hydrocarbons en-
anoxic conditions where sulfate reduction and hydrocar- able us to monitor present-day microseeps, there remain
bon oxidation occur. Apparently the proper combination many unresolved problems in applying the various tech-
of circumstances is rather rare. Furthermore, false anom- niques to exploration. Growing interest in using the
alies have been observed (Oehler and Sternberg, 1984). heavier hydrocarbons as more reliable indicators of seeps
Nevertheless, IP has definite exploration applications as indicates that, at least onshore, this approach may in the
187
SUGGESTED READINGS
189
190
EXAMPLES
~
N
sin developed during the Permo-Triassic rifting of North
America from Africa and subsequent opening of the Gulf ,~, :h_ 1 ...............
OlC20)o
SC A LE IN L£ S
of Mexico. It is dominated by extensional tectonics with
relatively minor restructuring by salt movement during
theJurassic and Early Cretaceous. The basin is bounded
on the east by the Sabine Uplift, a relative positive feature
FIGURE 12.2 Major structural ftatures of the East Texas Ba-
that was most prominent in Cenomanian-Turonian sin. Reprinted by permission of the SEPM from Siemers,
(Woodbine-Eagle Ford) time (mid-Cretaceous). The 1981.
western and northern limits of the basin are defined by
the Mexia-Talco Fault Zone, a tensional feature related
in complex and indirect ways to rifting. The approximate formably by Eagle Ford shale, which is generally
southern boundary is the Angelina-Caldwell Flexure, accepted as the principal source rock for the Woodbine
which coincides with the Edwards Reef Trend and is oil.
thought to perhaps represent the ancient shelf-slope break Maturity in the Eagle Ford is the primary concern from
(fig. 12.2). a source-rock perspective, since the Eagle Ford generally
The most productive reservoir in the East Texas Basin has very satisfactory source-rock character where it has
is the Woodbine sand: more than 7 billion barrels of been studied. Results of maturity (TTl) modeling carried
recoverable oil are trapped in Woodbine fields. The out for 67 wells throughout the basin were found to be in
largest of these, the East Texas Field, has itself produced good agreement with available measured data. Because
more than 5 billion barrels. of the tectonic and thermal stability of the basin since the
The East Texas Field is a classic stratigraphic trap, Early Cretaceous, there is an excellent correlation be-
with Woodbine sand pinching out erosionally on the west tween present-day depth and maturity in the Eagle Ford.
flank of the Sabine Uplift (fig. 12.3). The Woodbine is The Eagle Ford is only marginally mature in most parts
capped unconformably near the Sabine Uplift by im- of a modest trough that trends approximately north-
permeable Austin Chalk; elsewhere it is overlain con- northeast along the axis ofthe basin (figs. 12.2 and 12.4).
192
.
Arkansas
:".t'.
'-..
~'~ . 'r Louisiana
I •, r
St."ilk in mill'!'.
o 10 :!O :10 40
FIGURE 12.3 Woodbine oil and gas fields (dark areas) in the
East Texas Basin,
Most of the mature Eagle Ford shale occurs near or be-
yond the southern margin of the basin, where regional
dip has allowed deeper burial of the source rock. Long-
distance migration is thus required in order for Eagle distance migration (fig. 12.5). In some areas Eagle Ford
Ford oil to have charged Woodbine sands. sands may also provide long-distance migration conduits
Woodbine sands were deposited in a variety of environ- or, more importantly, provide a means to move Eagle
ments, including channel-overbank facies in the far Ford oil into the Woodbine pipeline.
north, meander-belt facies in the northern and central Juxtaposition of a map of mature Eagle Ford source
parts of the basin, and channel-mouth-bar and coastal- rocks with a map of the areas where migration can occur
barrier facies in the south. In the extreme south the shows that there is plenty of opportunity for Eagle Ford oil
Woodbine shales out. Along the Angelina-Caldwell to enter the Woodbine plumbing system, particularly in
Flexure the facies is thought to be shaley. Except where the vicinity of the Angelina-Caldwell Flexure (fig. 12.5).
shales predominate, there is probably excellent continuity Migration pathways can be traced perpendicular to struc-
within the Woodbine sands, thus permitting long- tural contours in the Woodbine (not shoWn, but deduced
12. INTEGRATED APPLICATIONS TO EXPLORATION 193
Arkansa
Loui iana
- ...
~
FIGURE 12.4 Areas of mature Eagle Ford source rocks, based FIGURE 12.5 Migration pathways in the Woodbine for Eagle
on TTl calculations for 67 wells calibrated with measured Ford oil. Fair to excellent long-distance migration conduits
data. are likely within the shaded areas. Arrows show migration
directions perpendicular to dip in the Woodbine. Mature
Eagle Ford source rocks are outlined with a heavy line.
from present-day structure on the base of the Austin
Chalk, which is an easy pick on logs). The relatively thin
Eagle Ford that separates the Woodbine from the Austin duced by both extensional faulting and halokinesis. The
does not introduce much error into this assumption, nor Mexia-Talco Fault Zone usually forms an impenetrable
does the use of present-day structure (although migration barrier to hydrocarbon migration, leading to accumula-
was primarily a Tertiary phenomenon) because of the tions along the fault.
tectonic stability of the basin. This analysis is very useful to an explorationist because
Correspondence between predicted results from this it suggests unproductive areas through which Woodbine
analysis and actual Woodbine accumulations is quite oils have migrated (fig. 12.7). The large, irregularly
good (fig. 12.6). Most of the Woodbine oil lies within the shaped, "Best-oil" area in the middle is of particular
high-graded areas through which the Eagle Ford-sourced interest. Drilling in that area has been very sparse to date
oil was expected to flow. The model accounts nicely for because of an almost complete lack of structure in the
the large East Texas Field , into which a large portion of Woodbine. This absence of structural traps undoubtedly
the hydrocarbons generated in the kitchen to the south was an important factor in permitting so much hydrocar-
drained. Accumulatiohs on the west side of the basin are bon to reach the East Texas Field. However, facies analy-
much smaller because of more structural barriers in- sis within the Woodbine suggests that stratigraphic traps
194
\\ -+- ,
s...d.. In nil,",
U IO ZONJ-W
C] Highcst
o Good
o Fair
Arkansa
Loui iana
\\ • I
Oil Gas
CI SCSI
m
0.. . Good 1:3
0 Fair
\. ,
IEiRASU
---....
•
FIGURE 12.8 Lack of maturity in mid-Cretaceous source FIGURE 12.9 Maturity in mid-Cretaceous source rocks from
rocks at middle Maestrichtian time. Contour lines show middle Eocene to /ate Oligocene time. Contour lines show
structure on] Sandstone; datum is top of Fox Hills Sand- structure on] Sandstone; datum is top of Dawson Arkose
stone (Uppermost Cretaceous). Reprinted by permission of the (lower Eocene). Reprinted by permission of the ROCky Moun-
Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists from Tainter, tain Association of Geologists from Tainter, 1984.
1984.
Denver Basin: J Sandstone. Tainter (1984) has analyzed Pliocene. The evolution of the oil kitchen through time is
generation and migration patterns for oils reservoired in shown in figures 12.8-12.11.
the D and] Sands in the Denver Basin. The source beds Migration into D and] Sandstones requires that con-
for these oils are a variety of mid-Cretaceous marine rocks tinuous sand bodies be in contact with mature source
(Niobrara, Greenhorn, Mowry, etc.) of approximately rocks. Figure 12.12 shows the distribution and thickness
the same age as the reservoir rocks. TTl calculations of the] Sandstone in the Denver Basin. The thickest sands
(checked with measured maturity data) showed that hy- are assumed to have transported the majority of the oil.
drocarbon generation in the deep part of the basin com- Development of subtle structures within the] Sandstone
menced at the beginning of the Eocene and continued occurred by middle Campanian (Late Cretaceous) time
until cooling of the bqsin as a result of uplift in the late (fig. 12.13). Subsequent deepening of the basin toward the
12. INTEGRATED APPLICATIONS TO EXPLORATION 197
I
IC
-
."
."
...
C
FIGURE 12.10 Maturity in mid-Cretaceous source rocks at FIGURE 12.11 Maturity in mid-Cretaceous source rocks at
end of Tertiary. Contour lines show structure on] Sandstone; present day. Contour lines show structure on] Sandstone;
datum is top of Ogallala Formation (Pliocene). Reprinted by datum is sea level. Reprinted by permission of the Rocky
permission of the Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists Mountain Association of Geologists from Tainter, 1984.
from Tainter, 1984.
west (figs. 12.8-12.11) did not appreciably alter the dis- Predicted areas for occurrence of oil reservoirs in the J
tribution of trapping structures. Sandstone are compared with the fields that actually pro-
Accumulation of oil in the J Sandstone will occur duce from the J Sandstone (fig. 12.15). The correspon-
where oil transported from the kitchen encounters anti- dence is fairly good and undoubtedly could be improved
clinal structures (stratigraphic-trapping possibilities are if stratigraphic trapping were taken into account. Use of
ignored in Tainter's study). Patterns of hydrocarbon mi- such a model could greatly reduce the areas under con-
gration through the J Sandstone can therefore be deter- sideration for future exploration.
mined by juxtaposing figures 12.8-12.11 with figures
12.12 and 12.13. The migration pattern for the end of the
Tertiary is shown as -an example in figure 12.14.
198
'- ,0 ~t
':" \,5 : %J
:, ,,,
....
,... . ~
,
8
\"
",
:; • CIII.,.MtI
. 1500
I100
I
....
...,
-
....
"'"
• ~I\Ch'DM Tf'uCkMu > 100' C) P,"oil,uc;lur.' Htth'
C I • SO' C I • ~OO'
FIGURE 12.12 Sandstone isolith ofl Sandstone. Reprinted by FIGURE 12.13 Structure on] Sandstone at milklle Campanian
permission of the Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists time. Datum is top of Niobrara Formation (lower Campa-
from Tainter, 1984. nian). Reprinted by permission of the Rocky Mountain Asso-
ciation of Geologists from Tainter, 1984.
IEIRASU
FIGURE 12.14 Hydrocarbon-migration pathways in] Sand- FIGURE 12.15 Comparison of high-graded areas for future]-
stone at end of Tertiary. See figure 12.10 for fur'ther details. Sarulstone exploration with actual productive fields in]
Reprinted by permission of the Rocky Mountain Association Sarulstone. Reprinted by permission of the Rocky Mountain
of Geologists from Tainter, 1984. Association of Geologists from Tainter, 1984.
pletely immature) and 1 (fully mature). The value ofJis TTL units must be converted to the unitless scale in which
equivalent to (Go - G)lGo • The value of the conversion fractional conversion if) is expressed. Sluijk and Nederlof
constant k is governed by the units desired for the hydro- (1984) have published a useful series of calibrations be-
carbon volumes and by our assumptions about the densi- tween Ro and J (fig. 12.16).
ties of the source rock and hydrocarbons. If the volume A sample calculation will make the procedure clear.
units desired are millions of barrels per cubic mile of Suppose we have a proposed source shale whose mea-
source rock, if the source rock is a shale with density 2.3 sured Toe is 1.2%, whose hydrogen index was 120 when
glee, and if the hydrocarbons correspond to an oil of 25° the rock was immature, and whose present-day vitrinite-
API gravity (density = 0.9 g/cc), the value ofk is 0.7. If reflectance value is 0.9%. From its hydrogen index, the
the source rock is a limestone (density = 2.6 g/cc), the kerogen present in the shale appears to be Type III. Let us
value of k is about 0.7B. assume further that Type III kerogen can generate about
Measured or calculated maturity values in TAl, R" or 20% oil and 80% gas (these proportions are mostly just a
200
0 .8
1.0
,2
vA l e
2.·111• • • •
THREE TYPES OF SOURCE ROCK :
MAINLY- HUMIC MAINlY-KEROG . KEROGENOUS
TO MIXED TO KEROG . 8ACT. ALGAL
.....
gg;;
.,
06 1.0
0.62 +'-.l...._--'-_--'
DB
,.0
'.2
VR/E
2 ••••••
Volume of gas = (0.7)(6)(0.96)(120)(0.07) (12.3) If 80% of this gas is expelled, nearly 13 billion cubic feet
= 33.87 billion cubic feet gas per of gas will accompany each 300 million barrels out of the
cubic mile of source rock. source rock. This small amount of gas is probably not
enough to saturate the oil, and therefore it will move in
The question of generation is important, but expulsion solution in the oil.
is critical in order for migration and accumulation to Once the volume of hydrocarbons expelled per unit of
occur. As we saw in chapter 6, Momper (1978) proposed source rock has been calculated, we must determine the
that a threshold value of 50 million barrels of hydrocar- total volume of source rock available. This step requires
bons (oil or oil-equivalent) had to be generated in a that we define our area of interest, usually as a drainage
source rock before any expulsion could occur. We further area (see chapter 6). We then simply multiply the volume
noted in chapter 6 that once this threshold is reached, of source rock in the drainage area times the volume of
expulsion efficiency for oil is about 50%. Let us assume hydrocarbons expelled per unit volume of source rock to
that the expulsion efficiency for gas is higher-say 80%. get the total volume of hydrocarbons expelled (eq.
We can therefore calculate the volumes of hydrocarbons [12.6]).
expelled from any source rock.
For the rock cited earlier, the total volume of hydro- Total He volume = (He volume!cubic mile) (12.6)
carbon generated is 7 million barrels of oil and another X (cubic miles of source rock).
5.6 million barrels of oil-equivalent in gas (33.87 -;- 6).
Because the sum of these two quantities is not enough
The problem of estimating source-rock volume is
to reach the expulsion threshold, no expulsion has yet
mainly geological and can be addressed by a variety of
occurred.
In contrast, let us assume we have a rich shale contain- traditional geological and geophysical methods that help
ing 3.8% TOe that had a hydrogen index of 500 when us create source-rock isopachs. In carrying out such
volumetric calculations it may be necessary to divide the
immature. The present Ro is 0.8% (f = 0.50). Let us
assume that this 1)rpe II kerogen generates 90% oil and source rock into packages within which the geochemical
properties (maturity, richness, kerogen type) remain
10% gas. What volumes of hydrocarbons have thus far
relatively constant. If several different packages are
been generated and expelled?
The volume of oil generated is given by equation (12.4): present, the hydrocarbons contributed by each are simply
summed in the final step.
Volume of oil = (0.7)(3.8 x 0.9)(500)(0.5) (12.4)
Once the total volume of hydrocarbons expelled from a
particular drainage area has been calculated, migration
= 598.5 million barrels oil per and accumulation efficiencies must be factored in. 1)rpi-
cubic mile of source rock. cal values used by some workers (e.g., Barker and Dickey,
1984; Webster, 1984) are in the neighborhood of 5% to
Because this quantity greatly exceeds the threshold, we 10% for rich source rocks for the combined efficiencies of
can assume that about 50%, or 300 million barrels of oil, expulsion and migration. We have already assumed that
will have been expelled from each cubic mile of source expulsion efficiency for a rich rock is about 50%, and
rock. have included that factor in our previous calculations.
The volume of gas generated is given by equation Thus the general efficiency of secondary migration and
(12.5): accumulation is probably in the neighborhood of 10%-
20%.
Volume of gas = (0.7)(6)(3.8 X 0.1)(500)(0.02) (12.5) Sluijk and Nederlof (1984) showed that migration is a
= 15.96 billion cubic feet gas per process that has similar efficiencies in most systems, be-
cubic mile of source rock. cause they found a very poor correlation between their
202
ability to predict accumulation size and both migration the values proposed in this chapter are probably accurate
distance and difficulty. Thus migration efficiency proba- enough to be useful. Factors influencing migration
bly varies within fairly narrow ranges (perhaps from 5% efficiencies were discussed in chapter 6 but were not
to 30% for good source rocks) and cannot be predicted quantified. Those discussions could become the basis for
well from first principles. quantification of migration and trapping efficiencies. Fi-
In order to calculate the volumes of hydrocarbons that nally, inhomogeneous systems and systems where some
are successfully migrated and accumulated, we simply or all of the input parameters are poorly known are best
multiply the volume expelled, obtained from equation handled in a probabilistic model, which is discussed in
(12.6), by the proposed efficiency, given by equation the next section.
(12.7).
PROBABILISTIC MODELS
HC volume trapped = (HC volume expelled) (12.7) The greatest advantage of probabilistic models is that they
x (migration efficiency). take into account our uncertainties about the various fac-
tors involved in a volumetric calculation and allow us to
Finally, we must worry about preservation of oil in the interpret the output data in a number of ways, depending
reservoir. Destruction can occur via either cracking or upon our needs. For example, suppose we have ten TOC
biodegradation; the greatly different thermal regimes re- values for a proposed source rock in the area of interest,
quired in the two cases generally prevent both phenom- but realize that these data are not a perfect summary of
ena from occurring in a single sample. These factors the entire source-rock volume under consideration. If em-
could be taken into account, using equation (12.8): ployed deterministically, the calculations discussed in the
preceding section would require that we calculate an av-
Oil preserved = (oiltrapped)(preseIVation factor). (12.8) erage TOC from these data and apply that to the entire
source-rock volume.
The preservation factor for oil varies from 0 (total de- The probabilistic method, on the other hand, permits
struction by either biodegradation or cracking) to 1 (no us not only to input all the raw data, but also to consider a
destruction). Total destruction would probably be best range of possible values for samples we have not ana-
defined as the absence of any producible oil. A preserva- lyzed. A probability distribution of TOC values is then
tion factor for gas could also be introduced if oxidation of computed using a standard statistical approach. The
methane is anticipated. probability distribution is often shaped like the curve in
Volumetric calculations are, in principle, simple to figure 12.1. The same process is repeated for each term in
carry out, but in practice they offer some complexities. the volumetric calculation (hydrogen index, maturity,
Among the potential difficulties are the following: source-rock volume, expulsion and migration efficiencies,
and even the conversion constant if desired).
1. How can we predict accurately the oil-gas mix from a The volumetric calculation is then carried out using a
particular source rock? Monte Carlo approach. One value of each term is selected
2. How certain are we of (a) the threshold for expulsion randomly from the probability distribution, and the cal-
and (b) expulsion efficiencies? culation is performed. Then a second value for each term
3. What are the factors that influence migration and trap- is selected randOInly, and the calculation is repeated. This
ping efficiencies, and how can we predict them? process is repeated a large number of times (typically
4. How can we handle systems in which our geochemical 1,000). The 1,000 calculated output values also form a
and geological parameters change significantly over probability distribution like that shown in figure 12.1.
the area of interest? Anyone interpreting the output of a probabilistic model
is therefore not constrained to looking at a single "most
The answers to the first two questions are poorly docu- likely" output value. Instead, he or she can select what-
mented and could profit by additional research. However, ever confidence level best suits his or her purposes. In the
12. INTEGRATED APPLICATIONS TO EXPLORATION 203
example shown in figure 12.1, for example, there is only a Geologists Memoir 35, Tulsa, American Association of Petro-
6% probability that recoverable oil in the study area will leum Geologists, pp. 1-14.
exceed 200 million barrels, but a 60% probability that Demaison, G. and R.). Murris, 1984, eds., Petroleum
there will be at least 25 million barrels. Furthermore, Geochemistry and Basin Evaluation: American Association
of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 35, Tulsa, American Associ-
there is about a 99% probability of finding at least 3
ation of Petroleum Geologists, 426 pp.
million barrels. Such statistics are much more useful than Moshier, S. o. and D. W. Waples, 1985, Quantitative evaluation
a single average value in making exploration decisions. of Lower Cretaceous Mannville Group as source rock for Al-
Standard computer programs are available that can be berta's oil sands: Bulletin of the American Association of
adapted easily for Monte Carlo simulations. Probabilistic Petroleum Geologists, v. 69, pp. 161-172.
models are thus much more accessible for most explora- Sluijk, D. and M. H. Nederlof, 1984, Worldwide geological ex-
tion personnel than are the complicated, expensive, and perience as a systematic basis for prospect appraisal, in G.
generally proprietary deterministic programs. Demaison and R.). Murris, eds., Petroleum Geochemistry
and Basin Evaluation: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Memoir 35, Tulsa, American Association of Petro-
SUMMARY
leum Geologists, pp. 15-26.
In order to achieve maximum effectiveness, the applica- Tainter, P. A., 1984, Stratigraphic and paleostructural controls
tion of geochemistry to exploration should involve full on hydrocarbon migration in Cretaceous D and) Sandstones
integration of geological and geochemical data. An excel- of the Denver Basin, in). Woodward, F. F. Meissner, and). L.
lent way to accomplish this objective is to develop inte- Clayton, eds., Hydrocarbon Source Rocks of the Greater
grated models that describe the complete hydrocarbon ROCky Mountain Region: Denver, Rocky Mountain Associa-
system in the area of interest. tion of Geologists, pp. 339-354.
Some such models are primarily qualitative and de-
scriptive, and can be applied using standard geological
techniques of mapping and construction of cross sections.
Other models are quantitative and mathematical. Prob-
abilistic models are preferable to deterministic models for
routine exploration application.
Use of both qualitative and quantitative models is not
limited to maturely explored areas. Although studies in
areas from which much drilling data are available will
generally be more detailed and accurate than in areas
where data are sparse, application of models even in fron-
tier areas will often permit important comparisons and
high-grading at an early stage of exploration. Considering
the very low cost of using such models, they can serve as a
very effective reconnaissance technique.
SUGGESTED READINGS
205
206
process that occurs where only very small amounts of O2 (less boghead coal: a coal formed mainly from algal material. It is
than 0.1 mLlL water) are present. 3. bacteria that are active usually quite similar to oil-shale kerogen in chemical com-
under conditions where O2 is absent or very low. position.
anoxic: 1. conditions where O2 is absent. 2. conditions where branched-cyclic fraction: saturated hydrocarbons from a
the concentration of O2 is very low (less than 0.1 mLlL water). bitumen or crude oil from which the unbranched hydrocar-
aromatic: an organic molecule having a cyclic system consist- bons (n-alkanes) have been removed.
ing of alternating single and double bonds. Aromatic burial-history curve: An age-depth plot that traces the burial
molecules are unusually stable. and tectonic history of a rock from the time of deposition to
aromatization: the process of converting an alicyclic system the present day, using the sea bottom as the datum. cf.
into an aromatic one. Aromatization is an oxidative process geohistory diagram.
that occurs during catagenesis and metagenesis. CAl: See Conodont Alteration Index.
AlThenius equation: an equation that relates the effects of C15 +: essentially the same as bitumen, so named because it con-
time and temperature to the rates of chemical reactions. tains most of the compounds having 15 to 35 carbon atoms
asphaltene: large organic molecules that are highly aromatic that were present in the original sample. Compounds having
and often relatively high in heteroatoms. They are found in fewer than 15 carbon atoms are lost partially or completely
crude oils and bitumens and are apparently formed during during evaporation of the extraction solvent. See also bitu-
diagenesis and catagenesis, as well as in oil reservoirs as by- men.
products of cracking. Because of their large molecular sizes, capillary cohmin: a very long, narrow-diameter tube often used
asphaltenes exhibit some of the behavior of kerogens and are in gas chromatography. Because of the column's narrow diame-
only sparingly soluble in petroleum. ter, the stationary phase is coated directly on the walls of the
atomic mass unit (amu): a mass approximately equal to that column. cf. packed colunm. See also gas chromatography.
of one neutron, used in describing the masses of atoms, capillary-entry pressure: the pressure that opposes the defor-
molecules, or ions. mation of a hydrocarbon globule and thus its movement into
p: beta, a designation meaning that the indicated group in a a constricting pore throat. It retards migration and thus can
polycyclic compound is attached above the plane of the ring. influence migration pathways and velocities. Capillary-entry
cf. ()t. pressure is the force that ultimately leads to accumulation of
bactericide: a chemical that kills bacteria. hydrocarbons.
biodegradation: destruction or alteration of crude oil or gas by carbon cycle: the cycle through which carbon moves from its
bacteria that consumes or transforms certain chemical com- inorganic reservoirs in the atmosphere, in aqueous solution,
pounds as sources of energy. and in carbonate minerals to the biosphere via photosyn-
biogenic: formed biologically, by an organism or within an thesis, and finally back to the inorganic reservoirs via oxida-
organism. tive decomposition.
biogenic gas: dry gas (virtually pure methane) formed by Carbon Preference Index (CPI): the ratio ofn-alkanes having
anaerobic microorganisms called methanogens. odd numbers of carbon atoms to those having even numbers
biological markers: See biomarkers. of carbon atoms. CPI is calculated over a specified range of
biomarkers: chemical compounds derived from specific carbon numbers, typically from 23 to 33. The CPI value de-
biological precursors. The transformation of precursor to pends upon both the type and maturity of organic material.
biomarker can often be traced directly, permitting the utiliza- carbonaceous: containing organic carbon or graphite.
tion of biomarkers as environmental and maturity indica- carbonaceous residue: material that has a relatively high or-
tors. Important biomarkers include n-alkanes, isoprenoids, ganic-carbon content compared to its content of hydrogen
steranes, triterpanes, and porphyrins. and heteroatoms. Such residues are often the oxidized prod-
biopoiyIners: polymers created by enzymes. They have very ucts of thermal-disproportionation reactions.
regular, predictable structures. cf. geopolymers. carboxyl: a functional group consisting of -COOH. The hydro-
bis: prefix meaning two. gen in carboxyl groups is acidic.
bitumen: in a sedimentary rock, that portion of the organic catagenesis: thermal decomposition of large kerogen or as-
matter that is soluble in ordinary organic solvents, such as phaltene molecules into smaller molecules that then become
benzene or chloroform. In practice, the lighter components of part of the bitumen fraction in the source rock. Catagenesis is
the original extract ru:e lost during solvent evaporation. See the stage of kerogen decomposition where oil generation oc-
also C 15 +. curs. cf. diagenesis, metagenesis.
GLOSSARY 207
catalysis: the speeding-up of a chemical reaction by offering an zene-methanol or chloroform) can elute many NSO com-
alternative pathway having a lower activation energy. pounds. Asphaltenes do not move easily through the column
catalyst: a material that causes catalysis. Clay minerals are and are not recovered by column chromatography. Column
probably the most important catalysts for hydrocarbon trans- chromatography is the first step in most bitumen analyses
formations in the subsurface. because it separates the complex bitumen mixture into rela-
chlorin: a precursor molecule for a porphyrin. The difference is tively homogeneous packages.
that porphyrins have an aromatic structure, whereas chlorins condensate: 1. material that exists in the gas phase under re-
have one double bond less than a completely conjugated aro- servoir pressure-temperature conditions but which con-
matic structure. Chlorophyll is a chlorin. denses to the liquid phase when brought to the surface. 2.
chromatograph: an instrument for performing chromatog- light oil, often any light-colored oil having an API gravity of
raphy. See also gas chromatograph. apprOXimately 45° or more.
chromatography: separation of individual chemical com- conduit: a continuous migration pathway. Conduits can in-
pounds or groups of compounds according to the velocities clude coarse-grained rocks, fractured or jointed rocks, and
with which they move through a stationary phase. The mix- possibly active fault planes.
ture to be separated is introduced onto the stationary phase, conjugated system: a series of alternating single and double
which has been saturated with a mobile (liquid or gas) bonds between adjacent carbon atoms, as in the benzene
phase. The mobile phase is then passed through the station- molecule.
ary phase, and, depending upon the strength of the interac- Conodont Alteration Index: A maturity scale with values
tions of the compounds in the mixture with both the ranging from 1 to 8 that is based on darkening of conodonts,
stationary and mobile phases, the mixture will separate into microfossils found in many Paleozoic rocks. It is most valid
individual components or groups of components. These sepa- and useful beyond peak oil generation.
rated components can be collected, analyzed, or both at the cOITelation: comparison of gross or detailed chemical and
end of the chromatograph path. Common forms of chroma- physical properties of two or more samples of organic matter
tography include gas chromatography (gc or glc), paper in an effort to compare their origins, diagenesis, catagenesis,
chromatography, thin-layer chromatography (tic), column migration, and alteration.
chromatography, and high-pressure liquid chromatography CPI: see Carbon Preference Index.
(hplc). cracking: 1. breakdoWn oflarge organic molecules into smaller
cis: a configuration in which two groups attached to a molecule ones. It is a process usually associated with the formation of
are on the same side of the molecule. cf. trans. condensates, gasoline-range hydrocarbons, and gas from oil.
clathrate: a chemical compound in which a loose molecule 2. thermal decomposition oflarge organic molecules, such as
is trapped inside a crystalline network of surrounding kerogen and asphaltenes, to yield bitumen molecules of vari-
molecules, usually of a different compound. See also gas ous sizes. In this usage it is similar to catagenesis.
hydrates. cyclics: compounds having one or more rings in their struc-
coalification: 1. formation of coal from peat and lignite (brown tures. Most cyclic compounds in geological environments
coal). 2. the subsequent increase in coal rank. have six-membered rings, although five-membered rings also
column chromatography: in petroleum geochemistry, chro- occur occasionally. Cyclic compounds can include alicyclics,
matography carried out in a vertical column filled with a aromatics, and naphthenoaromatics.
stationary phase, such as silica gel or alumina, and a mobile cyclization: formation of cyclic structures by chemical reac-
liquid phase, which initially is an aliphatic hydrocarbon like tions.
n-hexane. The mixture to be separated is introduced at the cycloalkanes: saturated hydrocarbons containing one or more
top of the column, and the liquid phase is allowed to flow rings.
through the column by gravity into a collecting vessel at the deadline: See hydrocarbon deadline.
bottom. The liquid phase is continually replenished at the top decarboxylation: loss of a carboxyl group. Decarboxylation is
of the column. The saturated hydrocarbons quickly pass often induced by heating and liberates carbon dioxide.
through (elute from) the column. After a predetermined delocalization: freedom of movement of electrons through a
amount of n-hexane has flowed through, a more-polar liquid conjugated system. Delocalization greatly increases the stabil-
phase, usually benzene, replaces the n-hexane. The benzene ity of a molecule compared to a nondelocalized analog. De-
rapidly elutes the aromatic hydrocarbons, which are collected localization also increases the stability of an ion formed from
in a second vessel. Successively more-polar solvents (ben- a molecule containing delocalized electrons or of excited-
208
energy states of such a molecule or ion by spreading the epimer: isomers that differ only in the configuration at one
excess charge or energy (which represents a stress on the carbon atom.
system) over a greater number of atoms. epimerization: the conversion of one epimer into the other.
diagenesis: low-temperature transformations of organic matter equilibrium isotope effect: the effect derived from the fact that
in sedimentary environments. Much diagenesis is biological, the heavier isotopes of an element prefer to exist in more
mediated by macro- or microorganisms. Ordinary chemical oxidized compounds, the lighter isotopes in the more reduced
reactions may also contribute, especially in formation of compounds. Thus, for any reversible reaction that has come
kerogen and asphaltene molecules. Diagenesis precedes oil to equilibrium, the isotopic distribution among the compo-
generation, but includes the formation of biogenic gas. cf. nents is dependent on the relative stabilities of the compounds
catagenesis, metagenesis. rather than their rate of formation. In organic geochemistry
diffu.sion: the slow movement of material from an area of high the equilibrium isotope effect is important primarily in the
concentration or pressure to areas of low concentration or carbon dioxide-carbonate equilibrium. cf. kinetic isotope
pressure. It may be an ancillary mechanism for expulsion of effect.
hydrocarbons from a source rock. Diffusion plays a role in esr: See electron-spin resonance.
hydrocarbon movement in the subsurface, but as a dispersive exinite: a kerogen maceral formed from pollen grains and
force cannot account for accumulation. It will in fact help spores. The name comes from exine, the outer coating of such
destroy accumulations because much leakage is diffusional. a grain.
disproportionation: conversion of a single starting material expulsion: movement of bitumen, petroleum, or gas through
into two products. One of the products will be oxidized rela- the source rock and out into a migration conduit; also called
tive to the starting material; the other will be reduced. The primary migration.
process thus represents an internal oxidation-reduction (re- extraction: removal of bitumen from a rock matrix. Extraction
dox) system. It is important in kerogen catagenesis and crack- can be accomplished by solvent or by heat.
ing. The light hydrocarbon products are reduced and rich in flO: See flame-ionization detector.
hydrogen, whereas the residue (asphaltics, dead carbon, etc.) fingerprinting: comparison of detailed characteristics (usually
is oxidized and hydrogen poor. specific chemical compounds) of two or more samples for
diterpanes: hydrocarbons formed from two terpane (four iso- correlation purposes. Parameters commonly used in fin-
prene) units. Many have three 6-member rings. They often gerprinting include isoprenoid and n-alkane distributions by
are derived from resinite. gas chromatography, gc/ms ofsterane and triterpane biomar-
double bond: a bond between two atoms in which four elec- kers, and isotope ratios.
trons are shared instead of the normal two. The most com- fixed carbon: a parameter for measuring coal rank (maturity).
mon double bonds encountered in petroleum geochemistry Fixed-carbon content is similar to percent carbon in kerogen.
are carbon-carbon and carbon-oxygen. Double bonds are Higher fixed-carbon values correspond to higher maturities.
stronger and of shorter length than single bonds. flame-ionization detector (FID): a detector used in gas
dry gas: gas containing more than about 99% methane. chromatographs in which molecules emerging from the col-
dysaerobic: a process occurring in a dysoxic environment. umn are burned in a hydrogen flame, and the ions produced
dysoxic: an environment depleted in oxygen but not quite are counted as a measure of the flux of material off the col-
anoxic. umn.
effective source rock: See source rock. fluorescence: radiation given off by a molecule when the
electron-spin resonance: a technique for estimating maturity molecule descends from an electronically excited state to a
of kerogen by measuring the number of unpaired electrons lower-energy state. If the wavelength of the emitted radiation
(free radicals) in the kerogen. At higher maturity levels the is in the visible region, the fluorescence will be apparent to
increased aromaticity stabilizes unpaired electrons. the eye. If not, it may be detectable by infrared or ultraviolet
elemental analysis: quantitative analysis of the various ele- sensors. The excited state was reached by absorbing radia-
ments present in a sample. The elements most commonly tion from light shined on the molecule. Aromatic molecules
analyzed for in petroleum geochemistry are carbon and hy- fluoresce well because of their capability to delocalize (sta-
drogen; oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen are next. bilize) the excess energy.
entry pressure: See capillary-entry pressure. Fluorescence is a useful measure of organic-matter type
EOM: bitumen. and maturity and of the presence of nonindigenous hydrocar-
GLOSSARY 209
bons. Longer wavelengths of fluorescent emissions indicate matography therefore is usually carried out on hydrocarbon
higher maturities because of greater delocalization of energy fractions previously separated by column chromatography
(and therefore greater stability). Fluorescence intensity de- from bitumen or petroleum.
creases with maturity. Degraded amorphous material does In order to achieve a good separation of compounds having
not fluoresce, whereas algal amorphous material fluoresces both low and high boiling points, programmed-temperature
strongly. chromatography (PTC) is usually employed. The column
fragment ion: an ion formed within a mass spectrometer by temperature starts out low, at 50° C or so, and is raised at a
decomposition of the molecular ion. predetermined rate by a temperature program in the
&agmentogram: a trace obtained from a gc/ms instrument in chromatograph's oven. If a low temperature were used
which all compounds that yield a fragment ion of a specified throughout, the heavier components would never emerge
mlz ratio are recorded, and all compounds that do not give a from the column. If only a high temperature were used, the
fragment with that particular mlz value are ignored. The light compounds would pass through the column so rapidly
detector response is directly proportional to the number of that no separation would be achieved. If gases are to be ana-
fragment ions with the correct mlz ratio. The number offrag- lyzed, the column temperature will be low.
ment ions, in turn, depends upon the concentration of the gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (gc!ms): a se-
precursor molecule and the frequency with which the precur- quential combination of these two instruments. The gas
sor breaks down to yield that particular fragment ion. chromatograph separates components, which then pass indi-
free radical: An unpaired electron in a molecule. vidually into the mass spectrometer. Coupling the two in-
fulvic acids: humic substances of relatively low molecular struments permits separation by gc and identification of
weight that are soluble in both aqueous acid and base. cf. compounds by ms without human intervention, and thus
hurnic acids, humin, kerogen. greatly increases sensitivity and accuracy.
functional group: any group of atoms containing a func- gas deadline: See hydrocarbon deadline.
tionality. gas hydrates: solid crystals in which gas molecules are trapped
functionality: any portion of an organic molecule that is not a inside a cagelike network of ice molecules called a clathrate.
carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen single bond. Examples Molecules containing up to four carbon atoms (butanes) are
include double bonds and any heteroatom. known to form gas hydrates, but methane hydrates are by far
'Y.factor: temperature factor used in calculating TTl values the most common in nature. Gas hydrates are stable under
by Lopatin's method. high-pressure, low-temperature conditions existing in many
gas chromatogram: the output data in analog form from a gas areas below the sea floor or below permafrost. Extremely
chromatograph. large quantities of methane are thought to be trapped in hy-
gas chromatograph: an instrument for performing separation drates.
of hydrocarbon mixtures. The mixture is introduced via sy- gc: See gas chromatograph.
ringe into the heated injection port, where it is vaporized gc!ms: See gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer.
immediately. An inert gas, usually nitrogen or helium, flows geohistOIY diagram: an age-depth plot tracing the burial and
through the injection port and sweeps the vapor onto and tectonic histories of a rock from the time of deposition to the
through the column, which is a narrow-diameter metal or present day. It differs from a burial-history curve in that the
glass tube containing the stationary phase. The components of datum is sea level rather than the sea floor, thus permitting
the mixture partition between the stationary phase and the water depth to be shown at all times.
mobile gas phase, depending on their volatility, affinity for the geopolymer: a polymer formed in the geosphere as the result of
stationary phase, and column temperature. More volatile, chemical combination of small molecules. Their structure is
less-polar components pass through most rapidly. The sepa- random, lacking almost completely the strict ordering of
rated components are detected, usually by a flame-ionization biopolymers. Because of their irregular structures, they are
(FID) or thermal-conductivity detector (TCD), and are re- not susceptible to microbial attack. Geopolymers include
corded on a gas chromatogram, which is a record of detector fulvic acids, humic acids, asphaltenes, and kerogens.
response as a function of time. graphitization: the process leading to graphite, which is the
All components to be analyzed must be volatilized at the ultimate polycyclic aromatic material. Graphitization is what
injection-port temperature, or they will remain as a residue in happens to kerogen during metagenesis when aromatization
the injection port and eventually contaminate it. Gas chro- is very advanced.
210
heavier ones. Thus any irreversible reaction in which 100% of cal compounds. The compound is vaporized in the inlet sys-
the reactant has not yet been consumed will show an enrich- tem and then bombarded with large amounts of energy. The
ment of the light isotope in the products. if. equilibrium energy knocks one electron out of some of the molecules,
isotope effect. forming ions with essentially the same mass as the original
kinetics: the study of the rates at which chemical reactions compounds. These "molecular ions" can then decompose by
proceed, and the dependence of these rates on various factors, a number of pathways, depending upon the specific struc-
such as time, temperature, pressure, and concentrations of tures of the original compounds. A large number of fragment
the reactants. ions are formed in this way. The ions are then accelerated into
Leco carbon analyzer: an instrument in common use for a magnetic field whose intensity allows only certain masses to
measuring TOC values by combustion of the organic carbon pass through (the remainder being deflected to one of the
and- subsequent measurement of the carbon dioxide pro- magnets). The intensity of the magnetic field is varied rapidly,
duced. so that, in turn, ions of a wide range of mass-to-charge ratios
lignin: highly aromatic organic polymer that forms the struc- (mJz) can be detected. The pattern of ions passing through
tural material of land plants. It has a very low potential to the magnetic field is a fingerprint characteristic of the original
source oil and only a slight potential for gas. compound. This fingerprint is called the mass spectrum.
lipids: fatty, waxy, and oily materials derived from organisms. When coupled with a gas chromatograph, a mass spec-
These compounds are similar to, identical with, or the pre- trometer can also be used to look for ions having particular
cursors for many petroleum hydrocarbons. characteristics. For example, most steranes easily form frag-
liptinite: a kerogen maceral made up of lipid components, in- ment ions having mJz 217. Thus, by scanning the entire gas-
cluding exines, resins, cuticle, and marine-algal material. As chromatographic effluent for the presence ofmJz 217 ions, we
used by many workers the term liptinite is not as specific as can detect any steranes that are present.
other maceral names. Mass spectrometers are also used to determine isotope
LOM: Level of Organic Metamorphism; source-rock maturity ratios. Because molecules containing heary isotopes are
calculated by a method developed by the Shell Oil Company. heavier than normal, so are the ions formed in the mass
To calculate LOM one need only know a rock's maximum spectrometer. These differences can be detected easily and
paleotemperature and the length of time spent by the rock exactly.
near that temperature. if. Lopatin's method. Mass spectrometry is used in fingerprinting, for maturity
Lopatin's method: a method developed by N.V. Lopatin determinations, and for environmental determinations. See
(1971) for predicting thermal maturity of rocks from a de- also gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer.
tailed knowledge of their burial and thermal histories. if. mass spectrum: the recording of the ions present and their
LOM. relative abundances in a sample that has been analyzed in a
low-gray: term applied to the vitrinite population having the mass spectrometer. See also mass spectrometer.
lowest reflectance value. Except where caving has occurred, mature: having enough thermal maturity to be within the hy-
the low-gray population should represent the indigenous, drocarbon-generation window.
first-cycle material. maturity: the degree to which hydrocarbon generation has pro-
M +: the molecular ion formed in a mass spectrometer. See ceeded in a kerogen.
molecular ion. metagenesis: the late stages of thermal maturity when gas gen-
m/z: ratio of mass to charge for an ion in a mass spectrometer. eration and cracking predominate.
The charge is virtually always + 1, so the mJz value is actually methane hydrates: See gas hydrates.
the mass of the ion in amu. Methylphenanthrene Index: ratio of several methylphenan-
macerals: the organic "minerals" that make up kerogen in the threnes, tricyclic aromatic molecules found in the aromatic
same way that true minerals make up rocks. The various fractions of oils and bitumens. The index is related to vitrinite
types of kerogen macerals are formed from different types of reflectance by the empirical equation No = 0.60(MPI) +
organic matter that have undergone different degrees of dia- 0.37.
genetic transformation. Common macerals include alginite, micell: an aggregation of a few molecules in which the polar
exinite, liptinite, vitrinite, and inertinite. Most kerogens con- portions of the molecules align themselves close together. The
tain a mixture of maceral types. nonpolar parts of the molecules can thus also lie near each
mass spectrometer: an instrument used for identifYing chemi- other. In a polar medium the polar parts of the micell are
212
pointed outward, interacting favorably with the medium, oil-generation window: the range of depths, temperatures,
while the nonpolar parts are together in the middle, protected maturities, or, less commonly, times during which oil genera-
from the medium. In a nonpolar medium the roles would be tion was or is occurring in a particular area.
reversed. Oil could form micells, since most rocks are wetted oil-preservation window: the range of depths, temperatures,
with polar water molecules, and oils do contain some polar or maturities at which oil is thermally stable in a particular
components in addition to nonpolar hydrocarbons. MicelI area.
formation would increase the compatibility of water and oil. Oil Show Analyzer: an instrument that performs both TOC
microbes: microscopic organisms such as bacteria and measurement and Rock-Eval pyrolysis in a single opera-
methanogens. They play vel)' important roles in diagenesis. tion.
microfractures: tiny fractures that open up temporarily as a olefins: alkenes.
result of overpressuring in source rocks, at least partially in OM: abbreviation for organic matter.
response to hydrocarbon generation. Microfractures may be OML: See oxygen-minimum layer.
important pathways for expulsion. Because they apparently organic: 1. a chemical compound containing one or more car-
heal rapidly and without leaving a trace in most cases, mi- bon atoms. However, carbonates and metal carbides are not
crofractures are not well understood. considered organic. 2. originating in or derived from an or-
migration: movement of bitumen, oil, and gas in the subsur- ganism.
face. Migration includes expulsion (primal)' migration), sec- overmature: hydrocarbon generation has already occurred.
ondary migration, accumulation, and leakage. The term usually refers to oil generation.
molecular ion: the ion formed in a mass spectrometer by the oxidation: loss of electrons by an atom, ion, or molecule dur-
initial loss of a single electron from a molecule. Its mass is ing a chemical reaction.
essentially the same as of the parent molecule. The molecular oxidizing agent: a molecule, atom, or ion that promotes oxida-
ion can subsequently decompose to give fragment ions. tion in some other material. The oxidizing agent is itself re-
molecular sieves: zeolites used in the laboratol)' separation of duced during the reaction. cf. reducing agent.
n-alkanes from branched and cyclic saturated hydrocarbons. oxygen index: the amount of CO2 produced from kerogen dur-
See also urea adduction. ing Rock-Eval pyrolysis. Oxygen index is measured as mg
moretanes: pentacyclic triterpanes that are not vel)' stable ther- COz/g TOC and is supposed to be related to the oxygen con-
mally. Their presence is a good indicator of thermal immatu- tent of the kerogen. cf. hydrogen index.
rity, although some oils sourced from rocks rich in high-sulfur oxygen-minimum layer: layer of water within which the dis-
kerogens may still contain moretanes. solved-oxygen content is lower than in the over- and underly-
MPI: See Methylphenanthrene Index. ing water layers. It is caused by excessive demand for oxygen
ms: See mass spectrometer. by decaying organic matter falling from the photic zone
n-alkanes: See normal alkanes. above.
naphthenes: saturated cyclic hydrocarbons. packed column: a relatively large-diameter gas-chromato-
naphthenoaromatics: compounds containing both saturated graphic column that is packed with a solid material upon
and aromatic rings. which the stationary phase is coated. cf. capillary column.
nmr: See nuclear magnetic resonance. PAH: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon.
nor: prefix meaning without, indicating that a methyl group has paraffins: alkanes.
been lost from the base compound at the position indicated by PDB: Belemnites from the PeeDee Formation, Cretaceous of
the preceding number. South Carolina. PDB is the standard for comparing carbon-
normal alkanes: straight-chain alkanes (those having no rings isotope ratios.
or branching). Also called n-alkanes. permil: parts per thousand, written as 0/00. Used in expressing
NSO compounds: See heterocompounds. the difference in isotope contents between a sample and the
nuclear magnetic resonance: a type of spectroscopic analysis standard.
used in organic geochemistry to distinguish aliphatic carbon Ph: abbreviation for phytane.
atoms from aromatic ones. Application has been rather rare phenol: 1. a group of organic compounds containing a hydroxyl
but may increase in the future in kerogen studies. (OH) group attached to an aromatic ring. 2. the simplest
oil deadline: See hydrocarbon deadline. member of the phenol family.
oil window: See oil-generation window and oil-pres- photic zone: the depth range within which photosynthesis oc-
ervation window. curs in marine or lake waters. The thickness of the photic
GLOSSARY 213
zone is seldom greater than 200 m, and is limited by light R,,: vitrinite reflectance measured in air. This technique is used
penetration, which in turn is limited by turbidity. mainly by Russian workers. Charts exist that convert Ra
phytane: isoprenoid hydrocarbon containing 20 carbon atoms; values to Ro.
derived from the chlorophyll molecule. Ro: vitrinite reflectance measured in oil immersion. See also
phytoplankton: unicellular photosynthetic organisms that vitrinite reflectance.
mainly live in marine or lacustrine waters. They are responsi- rank: See coal rank.
ble for approximately half of the annual photosynthetic pro- reducing agent: an atom, molecule, or ion that promotes re-
ductivity on the earth. They are also called algae and include duction of another substance. The reducing agent is itself
coccolithophorids, diatoms, and dinoflagellates. oxidized in the process.
plankton: See phytoplankton and zooplankton. reduction: the gain of electrons by an atom, molecule, or ion
polycyclic: having many rings in its chemical structure. during a chemical reaction. if. oxidation.
polytners: large molecules consisting of many small subunits. reflectance: See vitrinite reflectance.
Biopolymers have regular structures, whereas geopolymers resinite: a kerogen maceral formed from fossil tree resin.
have irregular, unique structures formed from a wide variety resins: NSO compounds that are smaller than asphaltenes.
of subunits. retention time: the length of time a compound takes to come
porphyrins: large, complex NSO compounds derived from out of a chromatographic column. Retention time will vary
chlorophyll and_related molecules. There exist several homol- greatly as chromatographic conditions (flow rate, tempera-
ogous series of porphyrins that can be useful as biomarkers ture, nature of stationary and mobile phases, etc.) are
and fingerprints. changed.
possible source rock: See source rock. Rock-Eval: an instrument for carrying out pyrolysis of rocks
post-mature: See ovennature. and sediments. The Rock-Eval is in common use throughout
potential source rock: See source rock. the oil industry. Information on both kerogen type and matu-
Pr: abbreviation for pristane. rity can be obtained with it.
primary migration: See expulsion. 8: chemical designation for sinister (lift), which indicates the
pristane: isoprenoid hydrocarbon haviqg 19 carbon atoms. relative positions of the four groups bonded to a carbon atom.
Production Index: See Transfonnation ratio. There is not necessarily a correspondence between the R,S
programmed-temperature chromatography (PTC): gas system and the a,13 system.
chromatography carried out beginning at a low temperature 81: thermally extracted hydrocarbons obtained during Rock-
and progressing to higher temperatures according to a prede- Eval analysis prior to the onset of true pyrolysis. These hydro-
termined temperature program. See also gas chromato- carbons are roughly similar to bitumen or EOM. if. 82.
graph. 82: hydrocarbons generated by kerogen decomposition during
pseudo-activation energy: a parameter used to describe the Rock-Eval pyrolysis. if. 81.
average activation energy of a system consisting of numerous 83: carbon dioxide released by kerogen decomposition during
different chemical reactions. See also activation energy. Rock-Eval pyrolysis.
PTC: See programmed-temperature chromatography. sapropel: an infrequently used term that is usually synonymous
pycnocline: a sharp density discontinuity between water layers, with "amorphous material of algal origin." See also amor-
caused either by thermal stratification (thermocline) or salin- phous organic matter.
ity differences (halocline). saturated: containing the maximum possible amount of hydro-
pyrobitumen: a term with various usages, but particularly a gen that can be accommodated in the molecular structure
bitumen that has lost its volatile components and solidified, without breaking single bonds.
often with concurrent polymerization. saturated hydrocarbons: hydrocarbons containing no double
pyrolysis: heating a sample in the absence of oxygen to bring bonds.
about thermal-decomposition reactions. Pyrolysis (e.g., Rock- secondary migration: movement of hydrocarbons through a
Eval) is used to measure remaining hydrocarbon-generative permeable conduit from the edge of a source rock to the site of
capacity of sedimentary rocks. accumulation.
R: chemical designation for rectus (right), which indicates the sill: the point in a restricted basin through which the deepest
relative positions of the four groups bonded to a carbon atom. waters enter into the basin.
There is not necessarily a correspondence between the R,S single bond: a chemical bond in which two electrons are
system and the a,13 system. shared. Most bonds are single bonds.
214
source rock: a much-used and rather ambiguous term. The TOC: total-organic-carbon content, in weight percent of dry
following specific usages are proposed here: rock or sediment.
effective source rock: a rock that has actually generated and trans: arrangement in which two groups attached to a
expelled hydrocarbons. molecule are on opposite sides. if. cis.
potential source rock: a rock that could generate and expell Transformation ratio: the ratio SlI(S1 + S2) derived from
hydrocarbons if its level of thermal maturity were higher. Rock-Eval pyrolysis. High transformation ratios supposedly
possible source rock: a rock under consideration as an ef- indicate either the occurrence of catagenesis or contamination
fective or possible source rock but about which we do not yet by migrated fluids or drilling additives. Low ratios indicate
have enough data to make a determination. either immaturity or extreme overmaturity.
Soxhlet: a device used for extracting bitumen from rock sam- tris: prefix meaning three.
ples. Its design allows clean solvent to reflux continually triterpanes: polycyclic (mostly pentacyclic) isoprenoid hydro-
through the powdered rock sample while the extracted bitu- carbons composed of three terpane units. They are useful in
men is accumulating in the reserve pot. maturity determinations and in interpreTanons of depositional
spectroscopy: various techniques for analyzing samples by environments as well as in fingerprinting.
looking at a range of energies (wavelengths) given off or ab- triterpenoids: biological precursors for triterpanes.
sorbed, or by observing a range ofions produced, as in mass TTl: Time-Temperature Index of maturity calculated using
spectrometry. Lopatin's method.
spore darkening: See TAl. unsaturated: able to accomodate more hydrogen in the
steranes: tetracyclic saturated hydrocarbons derived from the molecular structure by adding it to double bonds.
steroids present in all organisms. They are useful in determin- upwelling: the vertical movement of subsurface marine or lake
ing maturity and the type of organic matter and can be of waters to the surface. Upwelling occurs where surface waters
value in fingerprinting. are moved aside by water and wind currents. Nutrients are
stereochemistIy: the spatial arrangement of atoms in a brought into the photic zone by upwelling, and photosyn-
molecule. thetic productivity is greatly enhanced.
steroids: biological precursors of steranes. urea adduction: a method for separating n-alkanes from
sterols: steroids containing an alcohol ( - OH) group. branched and cyclic hydrocarbons, similar in principle to
stratification: development of nonmixing water layers of differ- molecular sieving.
ent densities, as a result oftemperature or salinity differences. UV: ultraviolet.
TAl: Thermal Alteration Index, a measure of kerogen maturity van Krevelen diagram: a diagram developed by the coal sci-
obtained by observing the color of bisaccate pollen grains in entist van Krevelen in which the atomic HlC ratio of a coal is
transmitted light under a microscope. plotted against its atomic O/C ratio. The diagram distin-
tar: very heary, viscous oil formed either by biodegradation or guishes coals according to the combined effects of type of
evaporation of a normal crude oil or by precipitation of as- organic matter and rank (maturity). Van Krevelen diagrams
phaltenes in a reservoir as a result of cracking. if. heary oil. have also been adopted in modified form (hydrogen index
TCD: thermal-conductivity detector, used to detect hydrocar- versus oxygen index) for interpreting pyrolysis data of
bons as they emerge from a gas chromatograph. kerogens.
terpanes: ten-carbon hydrocarbons containing two isoprene vitrinite: a kerogen maceral formed from terrestrial plant mate-
units. rial, mainly of woody, cellulosic, or lignin origin, but which
Thermal Alteration Index: See TAl. also may contain minor amounts of waxy or resinous mate-
thermal-conductivity detector: See TCD. rial. Vitrinite is considered to have generative potential
thermocline: See pycnocline. mainly for gas, but if waxes or resins are significant con-
thin-layer chromatography: chromatography carried out on tributors, it may also generate oil or condensate.
a thin layer of stationary phase spread out on a flat plate. The vitrinite reflectance: a method of determining the maturity of
mixture to be separated is placed in a spot on one edge of organic material by measuring the ability of tiny vitrinite par-
the plate. The plate is then placed in a vertical position, with ticles in kerogen or coal to reflect incident light. The phenom-
the spot at the bottom, in a shallow tray of solvent (the mo- enon of increasing reflectance was observed and utilized by
bile phase). Upward movement of the solvent and mixture coal workers in the 1930s, and has been applied to kerogens
is by capillary action.. since about 1970. Application of vitrinite reflectance in deter-
Time-Temperature Index: See TTl. mining kerogen maturity is more difficult than in measuring
GLOSSARY 215
coal rank for several reasons: the scarcity of vitrinite in many waters that are in contact with the oil. Water washing often
kerogens, the abundance of reworked vitrinite in many sam- occurs in conjunction with biodegradation, and their effects
ples, the lack of direct connection in most cases between oil are not easily distinguishable.
generation and changes in vitrinite, and the sensitivity of wet gas: gas containing more than about 10/0 ethane, propane,
vitrinite-reflectance values to contamination by migrated and other hydrocarbons heavier than methane.
bitumen. zooplankton: tiny unicellular animals that feed on phytoplank-
water washing: the removal of the more soluble components ton for their source of energy. They are not photosynthetic
(light hydrocarbons and aromatics) of oil by dissolution in organisms.
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Index
225
226
Geohistory diagrams, 128, 130-131, 209 Hydrocarbons-Continued Ka1imantan, 13, 115, 172
Geopolymers, 32, 209 Saturated, 21 Kansas, 10
Geothennal gradient Separation of, 74-76 Karabogaz, 11
Calculation of, 125 Unsaturated, 21. See also Hydrocarbons, Keweenawan Rift, 10
Doglegs in, 126-127 aromatic Kentucky, 172
Effect on maturity, 134-135 Hydrocarbons, already generated, 94 Kerogen,2,31-41,210
In thrusted regions, 128, 130, 131 Hydrochem Surveys International, 184-185 Analysis of, 82-89, 97-103, 106-108
Variation through time, 125-128, 130-131, Hydrogen Aromaticity of, 34, 36-38, 98
134-135, 136-137 Role in cracking, 27-28, 36 Composition of, 33-35
Gennany, 174-176 Hydrogen index, 95, 106, 210 Concentrate of, 82, 86-89
Gippsland Basin, 13, 115, 165-166 Effect of maturity on, 95, 106 Darkening of, 37. See also Thennal Alter-
Graneros Shale, 12 Interpretation, 36, 45, 59, 206 ation Index
Graphite, 23, 26 In volumetric calculations, 198-201 Effect of source on, 31, 33-35
Graphitization, 209 Hydrogenation, 22,27,210 Elemental analysis of, 82-83, 86, 98, 107
Gravity of oil. See API gravity Hydroxyl group, 25,210 Flotation of, 82
Gravity surveys, in surface prospecting, 186 Fluorescence of, 86, 88, 97-98, 102
Green River Shale, 10, 33, 68, 86, 94 Iatroscan, 75-76 Fonnation of, 32-33
Greenhorn Fonnation, 196 Idaho, 93 Hydrocarbon generation from, 32, 38-41.
GuifCoast, 12,59,114,137-138, 147 Indonesia, 115 See also Catagenesis
Induced polarization, 186 Maturation of, 35-41. See also Catagenesis
Hadriya Fonnation, 12 Inertinite, 33, 98, 106, 107, 210 Maturity detenninations, 86-89, 98-104
Halo, geochemical, 181-182, 185, 186 Infrared spectroscopy, 159 Microscopic analysis of, 86-88, 97-102
Hanifa Limestone, 12 Interocean Systems, 184 Molecular size, 2, 31-32
Headspace gas, 83 Iodine, 385 Nitrogen in, 34, 36
Heptane Index, 158 Isoheptane Index, 158 Ovennature, 98
Hennosa Fonnation, 12 Isomerization, 28, 210 Oxygen in, 33-34, 36-37
Heteroatoms, 24, 210 Isomers, 25-27, 210 Pyrolysis of. See Pyrolysis
Heterocompounds, 24, 44, 210. See also NSO Isoprene, 21, 210 Pyrolysis-gas chromatography of, 85-86,
compounds Isoprenoidln-alkane ratios, 51-52, 160, 178- 96
High-grading, of exploration areas, 1 180 Quantity of, 84
High-perfonnance liquid chromatography Isoprenoids, 21-22, 39, 44, 210 Reflectance of. See Vitrinite reflectance
. (HPLC), 81-82, 160-161,210 Analysis of, 44, 76, 77 Source capacity of. See G; Go
Homologs,210 Biodegradation of, 56, 160 Structure of, 33-38
Hopane,48,50,54 As biomarkers, 45, 47 Sulfur in, 32, 34, 36, 39, 41, 50-51, 58, 59,
Hopanes, 48, 210. See also Triterpanes In correlations. See Correlations 135-136, 158
C27 ,161 Maturity effects on, 51 Kerogen type, 33-35
C2 8> 79, 161 Source of, 47 AJnorphous, 86,88,97-98, 102, 105, 106
C29 , 48, 50 Isotope fractionation, 29-30 Determination of, 84-86
C30 , 48, 50, 54 Isotope profiles, 159, 166-167,210 Effect on oil generation, 39-40, 135-136,
In correlations, 161-163 Isotope ratios 146, 152
Demethylated by biodegradation, 56, 161- Of bitumen, 157, 159 Fluorescence, 97-98, 102, 105, 106
163 Carbon,29-30,80-81,83, 157, 159, 164, Gas-prone, 86, 97, 106, 199-201
Extended,48,50,53 172,177-180,184,186 Herbaceous, 210
Maturation of, 53 Of carbonates, 29-30, 186 High-sulfur, 32, 34, 36, 39, 41, 50-51, 58,
Origin of, 48, 50 In correlations. See Correlations 59, 135-136, 158
Humic substances, 32, 210 Effect of biodegradation on, 56, 57, 179 Inert, 33, 86, 106. See also Inertinite
Hydrates, gas, 69, 210 Effect of migration on, 157 Oil-prone, 86,97, 106, 146,201
Hydrocarbon generation, 2, 38-41. See also Effect of source on, 158, 159 Relation to source potential, 106-107
Oil; Bitumen; Gas Of gas, 30, 59-60, 83, 157, 164, 172, 178, 180 TJpeI,33-34,37, 106-107, 146
Hydrocarbon-source capacity. See Source ca- Hydrogen,29,80,83, 157-158, 164 TJpeII,33-35,37, 106-107, 115, 136, 146,
pacity Interpretation of, 157-159, 164, 179-180 152,201
Hydrocarbons, 19-24,210 Ofkerogen, 30, 38, 157, 159 Type III, 33-35, 37, 106, 115, 136, 146,
Analysis of, 76-81 Maturity effects on, 38 152, 199
Aromatic, 22-24,44,45 Measurement of, 30, 80-81, 83 Type IV, 33, 106
Branched,21,44 Nitrogen, 29, 80 Kimmeridge Clay, 12, 119-120, 161
Cyclic, 21-24, 44 Ofoil,30,57,157-158, 177-180 Kinetics, 211
Light. See Light hydrocarbons; Gas Of plants, 30 Of oil destruction, 139, 143
Naphthenoaromatic, 23-24, 44, 49, 54 Sulfur, 29, 80,157 Of oil generation, 121-122, 139, 142-145
Polycyclic aromatic, 23, 45 . Table of, 29, 30 Kingak Shale, 114
Released during pyrolysis, 85-86 Isotopes, 29-30, 210 Kreyenhagen Fonnation, 12
INDEX 229
Porphyrins-Continued Resinite, 33, 54, 97, 106, 115, 213 Source-rock evaluation-Continued
Nonbiodegradability of, 57 In coals, 115 Philosophy of, 93-94, 117
Source of, 47-48 Geochemistry of, 39, 161 Practice problems, 118-120
Types of, 24, 51, 81, 108-109 Oil generation from, 39-41, 115, 135-136, Soxhlet extractor, 74, 214
V~iratiosin,47,51,81, 104, 160, 178- 146 Spores
180 Resins, as NSO compounds, 44, 213 Color of. See Thermal Alteration Index
Powder River Basin, 186 Retention time, 77, 213 In kerogen, 33, 86
Preservation, 8-14. See also Diagenesis Richness, organic, 6-16 Stagnation, 10, 11, 17
Pristane, 22, 48, 213 Rift basins, 10, 134 Starch, 25
Pristane/phytane ratio Rock-Eval, 85, 94-95, 98, 102, 213. See also Steranes, 21, 23, 50, 214
As correlation parameter, 160, 166-170, Pyrolysis Aromatized, 23-24, 49, 54,80, 109, 163
172, 177-180 Biodegradation of, 56, 162-163, 165
Effect of maturity on, 51-52, 160 Sl peak, 85, 94, 95, 106, 213 As biomarkers, 45, 47-50, 53
Environmental interpretation of, 47,160, S2peak, 85-86, 88, 94-95,106,213 In correlations. See Correlations
172 S3 peak, 85, 94-95, 106,213 Effect of migration on, 109-110
Production Index, 95, 213 Salinity, effect on circulation and preservation, Epimerization of, 28, 51, 53, 109
Productivity, 6-8,16-17 12-13 As environmental indicators, 48-49, 162-
As cause of anoxia, 17 San Jorge Basin, 162-163 163
In evaporitic environments, 12 Sanjuan Basin, 135 Isoskeletal, 53
Factors influencing, 7-8 Santa Barbara Basin, 12 Mass fragmentograms of, 110, 165,175-
High, 7-8, 11, 12 Saturates, 21, 213 176
Modeling of, 8, 16-17 Saudi Arabia, 12, 66 Mass spectra of, 78-80
In pelagic environments, 7, 13 Screening procedures, 74, 84, 90, 98, 106 Maturation of, 51, 53, 104, 108-111
Relation to upwelling, 7-8, 11 Sediment-accumulation rate, 14, 15, 17 Numbering in, 23
Programmed-temperature chromatography, Sedimentation rate Rearranged, 53, 110
77,213 Effect on dilution, 14-15, 17 Stereochemistry, 25-29, 214
Propane, 21, 83, 164 Etrect on preservation, 14-15, 17 Steroids, 45, 47-49, 214
Propene, 21 In abyssal waters, 13 Sterols, 48-49,162,214
Propylene, 21 Seeps, 181-182 Stratification, 7, 10-13,214
Protein, 25, 32, 34 Seismic, integration with geochemistry, 16, Sudan, 10
Pseudo-activation energy, 122, 132, 139, 142- 69,111,184 Sugars, 25
143, 144-145 Sheep Pass Formation, 169-171 Sulfate ion
Puente Formation, 12 Shelf, continental, 11 Conversion to organic sulfur, 32, 34, 51, 57
Pycnocline, 10,213 Shublik Formation, 12, 114 In fresh waters, 13, 34, 51, 169
Pyrite Sills Role in diagenesis, 9, 186
And anoxia, 9, 15-16, 34, 186 Igneous, 238 Role in hydrocarbon oxidation, 27, 57, 59,
In kerogen concentrates, 82-83 Tectonic, 11-13,213 139, 163, 186
In nonmarine sediments, 34 Single bond, 213 Sulfur
Relation to TOC, 34 Sisquoc Formation, 9 In asphaltenes, 25, 44, 51, 157
In surface prospecting, 186 Smackover Formation, 12, 59 In carbonates, 34, 58-59, 139
Pyrolysis, 213 Sniffer, 184 As heteroatom, 24
In determining kerogen type, 85-86 Solid bitumen, 64, 98 Isotope ratios of, 29, 80, 157
Hydrocarbons released during, 85-86 Solvent extraction, 74 In kerogen, 32, 34, 36, 39, 41, 50-51, 58,
Interpretation of, 94-96, 102, 106-107 Solvent evaporation, 74, 76 59,135-136,158
Rock-Eval, 85, 94-95, 102,213 Source capacity Measurement of, 82-83
Strengths and weaknesses of, 95-96 Evaluation of, 73-74 In oil, 36, 41, 47, 50-51, 56-59, 69, 157,
T max of. See T max Original. See Go 169, 179-180
Pyrolysis-gas chromatography, 85-86, 96, 115 Remaining. See G Surface prospecting, 181-187
Source rock, 3, 93-94, 214 Carbonate cements in, 186
Ra, 87, 213 Ages of, 16 Cost of, 184-187
Ra, 87, 213. See also Vitrinite reflectance Bitumen content of, 38-39 ~C method in, 185-186
Rainfall, as cause of stratification, 13 Effective, 93, 214 Gamma-ray surveys in, 186
Reconcavo Basin, 134 Models for deposition of, 16, 114, 190 Gravity surveys in, 186
Reducing agent, 27, 213 Possible, 93, 214 Heavy hydrocarbons in, 185
Reduction, 27-28, 213 Potential, 93, 214 Induced polarization in, 186
Reflectance. See Vitrinite reflectance Source-rock evaluation, 93-120 Iodine in, 186
Reservoir rocks, deposition of, 16 Analytical methods for, 84-89 Isotope ratios in, 184-185, 186
Resin Direct method, 84-86, 94-96 Light hydrocarbons in, 183-185
Plant, 14, 33, 49, 115 Examples, 111-117 Magnetics in, 185
Fossil, 33, 35, 86. See also Resinite Indirect method, 86, 96-98 OflShore, 184-185
232