J. DRUG EDUCATION, Vol.

31(4) 343-351, 2001

THE INFLUENCE OF SPIRITUALITY ON

SUBSTANCE USE OF COLLEGE STUDENTS

CHRIS STEWART, PH.D.

University of Alabama

ABSTRACT

Objectives: The issue of substance use and the problems resulting from that
use has become a major concern in the United States. The past decade has
seen several new trends in substance use by college students and an increase
in the effort to try and determine factors that may ameliorate the problem.
Spirituality is one possible factor that may have some role in the phenomenon.
Some research has been conducted on the relationship of spirituality to
substance use but the results are mostly descriptive and concerned with
religiosity rather than spirituality. The purpose of this study was to explore the
relationship between a student’s spiritual and religious beliefs and the impact
of those beliefs on the decision to use substances. Method: A sample of 337
university students was surveyed using the CORE Alcohol and Drug Survey
and several supplemental questions. Results: In general, spirituality had a
moderate buffering effect upon the decision to use alcohol and marijuana.
This general protective effect exists for both alcohol use and binge drinking
but dissipated as the students reached upper-class levels. Conclusion:
Spirituality may play a significant role in the decision of college students to
use substances. Further research should focus on this important factor. Also,
implementation of spiritual aspects into university prevention and treatment
programs may help boost efficacy rates.

INTRODUCTION
Drinking, drug use, and the college experience have been seen, in the past, as
inextricably linked with the student’s rite of passage [1, 2]. The environment of the
incoming freshman allows for, and might even encourage, experimentation and a

343
 2001, Baywood Publishing Co., Inc.
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discovery of individual values and beliefs. It has been suggested that this explor-
ation of self and curiosity is strongly associated with the use of substances [2].
Recent evidence has suggested several substance use phenomena may be on the
rise, particularly involving alcohol. In 1990 college presidents reported that
alcohol use was the biggest problem they had to face [3]. Exemplifying such a
problematic trend has been the recent concern with binge drinking on campuses
throughout the United States [4-6]. While a relatively recent concern of university
administrations, binge drinking has maintained a constant presence on campuses
since 1993 with two of five students reporting participating in binge drinking
episodes [4].
Though alcohol is the primary drug of choice among college students, there is a
relatively high use of marijuana and an increase in the use of designer drugs such
as ecstasy [2, 7]. So, while the use of some drugs such as cocaine appear to be
decreasing, there is evidence to suggest that other drugs are becoming more
popular and that these substances may also cause problems for the university
population [8].
Variables such as gender, ethnicity, GPA, and age have been investigated in an
effort to produce information concerning college substance use [2, 9, 10]. Other
factors such as environment, peer influence, and expectancies have also been
found to play a role in the phenomenon [10-12]. The research suggests that college
drinking has begun to change as polarization in substance use occurs on campuses
nationwide. There are more students reporting abstinence as well as an increase in
binge drinkers [4]. This fact, combined with new information, such as an increase
in off campus drinking and a simultaneous decrease in residence hall drinking
suggest that this phenomenon is extremely complex with many contributing
elements [4].
One concept that may play a significant role in college drinking is spirituality.
Some research has been done with this concept and its relationship with substance
use but much of the work is demographic and descriptive, concerned with denom-
inational differences in drinking patterns [2]. The empirical research tends to
suggest that a moderate protective influence exists for those students that partici-
pate in some religious practice [13-15]. This finding is not unanimous as some
results contradict this finding and some evidence even suggests that some students
may use substances to induce a mystical experience [14, 16].
This study is an effort to further explore the relationship between spirituality
and the use of substances by college students. The research is lacking in direct
evidence of the influence that a student’s spirituality might have on their decision
to drink or use drugs. Similarly, there is little research concerning the concept of
spirituality as distinct from religion. There may be some differences in influence
of individual spiritual beliefs and practices and those social, more community-
oriented religious beliefs and practices. By examining this relationship it may be
possible to gain further knowledge in how the concept of spirituality contributes to
the phenomenon of substance use of college students.
 SPIRITUALITY AND SUBSTANCE USE OF COLLEGE STUDENTS / 345

METHOD

Sample
A purposive sample of 337 students was surveyed at a large southern university.
Attempts were made to sample students from as many representative groups as
possible. The survey was administered in classes offered on campus that con-
tained all classifications, freshman through seniors, and was as racially diverse as
possible. It was also attempted to include students that lived both in the residence
halls and off campus, as well as including special populations such as athletes and
student’s participating in organizations such as student service organizations and
fraternities and sororities.
The sample consisted of 199 (59 percent) males and 138 (41 percent) females.
The ages ranged from 17 to 29 years old. The vast majority was single (327) with
only 10 students reporting that they were married. There were 242 (72 percent)
students reporting that they were Caucasian, 91 (36.5 percent) African American,
and 4 (.01 percent) in other categories.

Measurements
The CORE Drug and Alcohol survey was utilized in this project. This survey
was constructed to measure actual substance use and attitudes concerning sub-
stance use of college students. It has been used on 800 campuses over the past
several years. The survey consists of 39 multiple level questions. The responses
follow a Likert format. The instrument has good reliability and validity and has
been compared with several other national survey projects including Monitoring
the Future and the PRIDE projects with good results [17].
From questions in the survey, variables were constructed which determined
the use of substances. These outcome variables measured the individual’s self-
reported use of the particular substance. Alcohol (Etoh), marijuana (Marj), cocaine
(Coca), LSD (Lsd), and MDMA (ecstasy) were all evaluated using separate
variables that measured a combination of weekly, monthly, and yearly use. Two
survey questions which asked the number of drinks per week and the number of
times the student had five or more drinks at one sitting were used to create a
variable that measured binge drinking (Bngdrk).
In addition to the CORE survey, supplemental questions were asked in an
effort to ascertain the student’s perception of spirituality influence and degree of
religious participation. These questions were: 1) How important are your spiritual
or religious beliefs in your decision to use drugs?; 2) How important are your
spiritual or religious beliefs in your decision to use alcohol?; and 3) How impor-
tant are your spiritual or religious beliefs in other life decisions? There were
also questions that surveyed the students as to the number of times they
attended religious services and activities and whether spirituality and religion
were similar concepts.
346 / STEWART

From these questions variables were created that measured total religious
participation and the influence of spirituality on drug and alcohol use and in all
decisions. The variables that questioned the influence of spirituality and religious
beliefs in the importance to use drugs and alcohol were used separately to create
the Ralc and Rdrg variables, which measured the influence of spiritual and
religious beliefs on the decision to use alcohol (Ralc) and the influence of spiritual
and religious beliefs on the decision to use drugs (Rdrg). The questions were then
combined to create a measure of the overall influence of spirituality and religious
beliefs in the decision to use all substances (Totdec). Finally, the number of times
the student reported attendance at church or other place of worship weekly and
monthly was combined to create a variable that measured church attendance
(Chattn).

RESULTS
The analysis began with analyzing the correlations between the four inde-
pendent variables (Totdec, Ralc, Rdrg, Chattn) and the six dependent variables
(Etoh, Marj, Lsd, Mdma, Coca, Bngdrk). The descriptive statistics for the study
variables can be found in Table 1. The significant correlations between the study
variables can be seen in Table 2. Significant correlations occurred between the
Totdec variable and Alcohol use (Etoh), (r(335) = .406, p < .01), Binge drinking
(Bngdrk), (r(335) = .378, p < .01), and Marijuana use (Marj), (r(334) = .290,
p < .01). Overall alcohol use was also significantly correlated with the Ralc
variable which measured the influence of the student’s spiritual and religious
beliefs in the decision to use alcohol (r(336) = .622, p < .01).
The distribution of the marijuana variable was examined and it was found to
be fairly evenly divided between those students that reported no use (60 percent)
and those that used marijuana with some frequency (40 percent). Similarly, the

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for Study Variables

Variables Mean Standard deviation

Totdec 1.45 .4986

Ralc 23.35 39.57
Rdrg 23.33 39.90
Chattn 16.55 32.76
Etoh 8.78 3.88
Bngdrk (dichotomized) 1.59 .4911
Marj (dichotomized) 1.27 .44
LSD 2.22 1.02
Mdma 2.07 5.75
Coca 1.1 3.88
 SPIRITUALITY AND SUBSTANCE USE OF COLLEGE STUDENTS / 347

Table 2. Correlation Matrix for Study Variables

Totdec Ralc Rdrg Chattn

Etoh .406** .622** –.031 .072

Bngdrk .378** –.015 .113 .072
Marj .290** .006 .002 .002
LSD .074 –.034 –.034 .035
Mdma .068 .059 .045 .014
Coca .092 .101 .019 .007
**Correlation is significant at the .001 level.

variable that measured the influence of spiritual beliefs on both drug and alcohol
use (Totdec) was also fairly evenly distributed between those students that felt that
spirituality was important in the decision and those individuals that reported
little influence of their beliefs. It was determined that the most accurate analysis
would be to dichotomize the variables and run a chi square with any significantly
correlated independent variables, which was the Totdec variable. The model
proved significant (chi-square (1) = 23.28, p = .000). Only 15.3 percent of those
that reported high importance of religious and spiritual beliefs were high frequent
users of marijuana, while 41 percent of students reporting low importance of
spirituality were frequent users. The odds ratio was 3.880,which signifies that
students reporting low importance of spiritual and religious beliefs are 3.8 times
more likely to be frequent users of marijuana.
A logistic regression was then performed to further determine the extent of the
effect of spirituality on the decision to use marijuana. The analysis was conducted
using gender and classification [freshman (n = 86), sophomore (n = 104), junior
(n = 65), senior (n = 82)] to determine if these demographics may influence the
original outcome. The results of the logistic regression are listed in Table 3.
Gender proved to have no effect. The inclusion of the classification variable
increased the odds ratio to 4.619, which states that those students with low
influence of spirituality are almost five times more likely to be users of marijuana.
The regression analysis also reports that freshmen are three times more likely to
use the drug than seniors.
Alcohol use was also significantly correlated with the Totdec variable. There
were two aspects of alcohol use that displayed significance, overall alcohol use
(Etoh) and binge drinking (Bngdrk). The Etoh variable is a continuous variable
that measures the amount and frequency of alcohol used. The Bngdrk variable is
also a continuous variable that measures the number of times the student drank five
drinks in one sitting in the past two weeks. The distribution of the Etoh variable
was basically normal and did not exhibit the characteristics of the marijuana
distribution and, therefore, ANOVA analyses were performed on this variable. As
348 / STEWART

Table 3. Logistic Regression for Marijuana Use and

Overall Influence of Spirituality

95% CI for Exp(B)

B Sig. EXP(B) Lower Upper

Totdec 1.53 .000 4.16 2.45 8.69

Gender –.59 .0824 .551 .288 1.05
Class .016
Freshmen 3.19 1.35 7.52
Sophomores 1.08 .473 2.48
Juniors 2.08 .751 5.77

with the marijuana analysis, gender and classification were included to present as
descriptive a picture as possible of the relationship.
The results for overall drinking show a significant effect for Totdec (F(1,336) =
32.98, p = .000) and Classification (F(1,336) = 38.46, p = .000). Gender did not
achieve significance. Also, the variable Ralc did not produce any significant
results. Those students that rated spiritual beliefs as important tend to drink less
than those that report this is not important in their decision to use alcohol and
drugs. Individual tests were conducted to determine if the differences by classifi-
cation in alcohol use between those that reported spirituality important and those
students that did not were significant. The differences are significant for freshman
(t(84) = –3.55, p = .001) and sophomores (t(102) = –6.79, p = .000) but are not
for juniors (t(63) = –1.07, p = .097) or seniors (t(80) = –.495, p = .622).
The Bngdrk variable produced similar results. This distribution was also
heavily skewed, with 40 percent of the sample reporting not binge drinking in the
past two weeks. The variable was dichotomized to more accurately portray
the phenomenon. The ANOVA model exhibited significant results for Totdec
(F(l,336) = 22.101, p = .000) and Classification (F(1,335) = 13.74, p = .012), but
gender was also not a significant contributor to this model. Students with low
spirituality/religious influence tended to binge drink less but that buffering effect
diminished as the students got older. The significant differences for freshmen
(t(84) = –3.031, p = .003) and sophomores (t(102) = –6.045, p = .000) were absent
with juniors (t(63) = –1.517, p .139) and seniors (t(80) = –.219, p = .827).

DISCUSSION

Several results from the study support the current identified trends in the
literature. The first is the polarization of students in the use of substances. There is
evidence that the extremes of use, abstention and binge drinking, are on the rise
 SPIRITUALITY AND SUBSTANCE USE OF COLLEGE STUDENTS / 349

while moderate use is tapering [1, 4]. This dichotomy requires a unique approach
in treatment and prevention efforts. The results from this project demonstrate that,
in the case of alcohol and marijuana, the population is divided in the use of
substances and that those that use heavily may be at risk for substance related
problems.
The other identified aspect of the results is the moderate buffering effect of
spirituality on the use of substances. The existing evidence has reported that
religion and spirituality have proven to be protective factors against alcohol and
drug use [13-15]. This agrees with these results, as spiritual and religious beliefs
tended to provide a mild effect against use of substances. There was some
difference, however, as spirituality proved to have no effect against the use of
substances such as cocaine, LSD, or ecstasy.
The buffering effect should also be considered with caution, for further
examination reveals some disturbing facts. Even among those students that report
that spiritual and religious beliefs are very important in their decision to use drugs
and alcohol, 45 percent drank five or more drinks at one sitting at least twice in the
past two weeks. Also, within the high importance of spiritual beliefs group, 16
percent used marijuana on a regular basis. This, while a statistically significant
buffering effect, does imply that, clinically, effort needs to be expended toward all
college students in prevention of this dangerous practice and that even those who
may not be considered at risk may indeed benefit from intervention.
An unexpected result was the reduction of the influence of spiritual and
religious beliefs as the students moved through college. Both alcohol and mari-
juana demonstrated this trend. There was an extreme dichotomization of those that
considered spiritual and religious beliefs important and did not use for the early
years in college that gradually became insignificant in the upperclassmen. The
literature has reported that those that begin drinking in freshman year tend to
continue the pattern in the second year [6].
This was observed as the pattern for those students that did not consider spiritual
and religious beliefs important. There was a stable, though high, use of alcohol,
binge drinking, and marijuana use throughout the classes with a slight decrease
in use in the senior year. Those students that reported spiritual and religious
values as important, however, exhibited quite different characteristics as the use
of both alcohol and marijuana increased quite sharply over the first two years.
This raises the question as to whether the influence of spirituality and religious
beliefs is viewed by students as a positive part of life or whether it is imposed by
parents and the community and gradually loses influence as students achieve their
independence.
The final result is the clear differentiation of spirituality and religion. This was
exhibited by 61 percent of the students claiming that they saw a difference between
religion and spirituality. It suggests that, for these students, religion may not
be as influential in their decision to use substances. This is further supported by
the failure of any church participation variable to achieve significance in any
350 / STEWART

substance outcome. The implications for treatment and interventions is that going
to church or participating in church activities may not be as powerful in moder-
ating drug use as more individually-oriented approaches.

Limitations
There are some limitations that should be considered when interpreting the
results. The first is that this study took place in the south, a region with generally
conservative values and a high regard for religion. This university consists of
mostly in-state students who live off campus and these issues may have some role
in the results. Other research has discovered that differences from national studies
do exist in some regions [18]. Any regional differences would limit external
validity.
Another limitation concerns the small sample in examining substances other
than marijuana and alcohol. Few students reported using these substances, so the
lack of effect of spiritual and religious beliefs may be due to this fact.
Finally, there may be some issues with the validity of the independent
spirituality variables. The students were asked to report the importance of these
issues in their decision to use drugs and alcohol. The wide range of interpretations
or the fact that spiritual and religious beliefs were combined may have some
bearing on the outcome.

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Direct reprint requests to:

Chris Stewart, Ph.D.
School of Social Work
University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0314