530 Guide For Conducting Factory Capability Assessment For Power Transformers PDF

530
GUIDE FOR CONDUCTING FACTORY

CAPABILITY ASSESSMENT FOR
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Working Group
A2.36
April 2013
GUIDE FOR CONDUCTING FACTORY
CAPABILITY ASSESSMENT FOR
POWER TRANSFORMERS
WORKING GROUP A2.36

Task Force 3
Convenor: T. Breckenridge (UK)

Task Force Leader: A. Manga (CA),
WG Members
N. Buthelezi (SA), A. Cancino (MX), L. Cornelissen ( BE), E. de Groot (NL),
M. Figura (PL), T. Fogelberg (SE), T.Gradnik (SI), AC Hall (UK),
J. Lackey (CA), M. Lamb (USA), A. Mjelve (NO), M. Oliva (SP), V. Podobnik (HR),
S. Ryder (UK), K. Ryen (NO), C.Swinderman (USA), J.Velek (CZ), M. Zouiti (FR).
Copyright © 2013
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ISBN: 978-2-85873-224-1
WG A2-36 Guide for conducting factory capability assessment for power transformers
CONTENTS
1 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................1
2 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................4
3 MANAGING QUALITY ..........................................................................................................4
4 TECHNOLOGY BASE ..........................................................................................................5

4.1 Background Description of the Business ..................................................................... 5
4.2 Transformer Type produced by the Factories ............................................................. 7
4.3 Origins of Technology Base of Factory........................................................................ 7
4.4 Familiarity and Compliance with applicable Industry Standards ................................. 7
4.5 Documentation of the Design and Manufacturing Technology Base .......................... 7
4.5.1 Investigations and R&D Reports ..........................................................................8
4.5.2 Basic Design Theory ............................................................................................8
4.6 Product Design and Manufacturing Rules and Instructions......................................... 9
4.6.1 Product Design Rules ...........................................................................................9
4.6.2 Design Methods and Tools .................................................................................12
4.6.3 Manufacturing Technology in Production Standards .........................................13
4.6.4 Testing technology .............................................................................................14
4.7 Other means of evaluating the technical capabilities of a factory ..............................14
4.8 Summary.................................................................................................................... 15
5 DESIGN PROCEDURES AND IT TOOLS ..........................................................................15

5.1 Design experience of market ..................................................................................... 15
5.2 Design experience of product range .......................................................................... 16
5.3 Specification understanding ....................................................................................... 16
5.4 Design process quotation and order .......................................................................... 16
5.5. Research and Development Activities ....................................................................... 17
5.6 Design manual, design rules ..................................................................................... 17
5.7 Design software and it’s maintenance ....................................................................... 18
5.7.1 In House Development, Outsourced ..................................................................18
5.7.2 Software Purchaser Practice ..............................................................................18
5.7.3 Software Data Base Integrity ..............................................................................18
5.7.4 Maintenance of Software ....................................................................................18
5.7.5 Computer Modelling, Dielectric, Magnetic, Thermal and Mechanical Problems 19
5.7.6 Transient Modelling ............................................................................................19
5.7.7 Engineering 2-D or 3-D Method..........................................................................19
5.7.8 Feedback from Testing .......................................................................................19
5.8 Experience level of engineers .................................................................................... 19
5.9 Engineering organisation ........................................................................................... 19
5.10 Expert technical support ............................................................................................ 19
6 SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT ......................................................................................20

6.1 Background ................................................................................................................ 20
6.2 Bushings and Tap Changers ..................................................................................... 21
6.3 Winding Conductors................................................................................................... 22
6.4 Oil ............................................................................................................................... 22
6.5 Core Steel .................................................................................................................. 22
6.6 Insulation board and insulation components ............................................................. 23
6.7 Other Components and Materials .............................................................................. 23
6.8 Summary.................................................................................................................... 24
7 MANUFACTURING METHODS .........................................................................................24

7.1 General: ..................................................................................................................... 24
7.2 Production Planning and Material Warehouse: ......................................................... 25
7.3 Main Tank and Steel Fabrication: .............................................................................. 25
7.4 Core Cutting/Stacking: ............................................................................................... 26
7.5 Winding Room: .......................................................................................................... 26
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7.6 Winding Sizing: .......................................................................................................... 27

7.7 Active Part Assembly: ................................................................................................ 28
7.8 Final Dry Out: ............................................................................................................. 29
7.9 Final Assembly: .......................................................................................................... 29
8 TESTING .................................................................................................................................
8.1 Test Accuracy ............................................................................................................ 30
8.1.1 Calibration of test equipment .............................................................................30
8.1.2 Accuracy Analysis of Measurements .................................................................30
8.2 Test equipment .......................................................................................................... 30
8.3 Test engineers ........................................................................................................... 31
8.4 Standards ................................................................................................................... 31
8.5 Documentation ........................................................................................................... 31
8.6 Failure investigation ................................................................................................... 31
8.7 Others items ............................................................................................................... 32
9 WARRANTY AND SERVICES............................................................................................32

9.1 Warranty .................................................................................................................... 32
9.2 Services ..................................................................................................................... 33
9.2.1 Sales organisation ..............................................................................................33
9.2.2 After sales arrangement .....................................................................................34
10 PROJECT MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE .........................................................................35
11 HUMAN RESOURCES, HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT ...................................35

11.1 Human resources....................................................................................................... 35
11.1.1 Aims ....................................................................................................................35
11.1.2 Legal and Cultural Aspects .................................................................................36
11.1.3 Industrial Relations .............................................................................................36
11.1.4 Recruitment ........................................................................................................36
11.1.5 Training ...............................................................................................................37
11.1.6 Vulnerable Workers ............................................................................................37
11.2 Health, Safety and Working Environment .................................................................. 37
11.2.1 Working Environment .........................................................................................37
11.2.2 Working Hours ....................................................................................................38
11.2.3 Security ...............................................................................................................38
11.2.4 Health and Safety Management .........................................................................38
11.2.5 Dangerous Chemicals ........................................................................................39
12 TRANSPORT ..........................................................................................................................
12.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 40
12.2 Delivery Terms ........................................................................................................... 40
12.2.1 Purchaser to Collect (INCOTERMS Group E) ....................................................40
12.2.2 Main Transport Arranged by Purchaser (INCOTERMS Group F) ......................40
12.2.3 Main Transport Arranged by Factory (INCOTERMS Group C) ..........................41
12.2.4 Factory to Deliver (INCOTERMS Group D) ........................................................41
12.3 Methods ..................................................................................................................... 41
12.3.1 Air .......................................................................................................................41
12.3.2 Barge/ Coastal Ship ............................................................................................41
12.3.3 Ocean Going Ship ..............................................................................................41
12.3.4 Rail ......................................................................................................................42
12.3.5 Road ...................................................................................................................42
12.4 Voyage Assessment .................................................................................................. 42
12.4.1 Assessment of the Factory’s Preparation capability...........................................43
12.4.2 Preparation and Execution of transport ..............................................................43
12.4.3 Personnel Training / Education Considerations .................................................43
12.4.4 Standards of Care for Transportation / Freight Forwarding Vendors .................43
12.4.5 Checks for All Shipments, Lifting, Ocean vessels ..............................................44
12.5 Inspection on Receipt ................................................................................................ 44
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13 INSTALLATION, COMMISSIONING AND STORAGE ......................................................45

13.1 Installation and commissioning .................................................................................. 45
13.1.1 General ...............................................................................................................45
13.1.2 Oil .......................................................................................................................45
13.1.3 Auxiliary Electrical Wiring ...................................................................................46
13.1.4 Health and Safety ...............................................................................................46
13.2 Storage ...................................................................................................................... 46
14 FINANCIAL, COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS ......................................................47
15 FACTORY PERFORMANCE (LEAD TIME DELIVERY, ON TIME DELIVERY…) ............47

15.1 On-time delivery performance ................................................................................... 48
15.2 Factory test failure performance ................................................................................ 48
15.3 Other factory performance measures ........................................................................ 49
15.4 Customer References ................................................................................................ 49
16 SERVICE PERFORMANCE................................................................................................50
APPENDIX 1: QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ...................................................................52

A1.1 Quality Management System, Document Requirements (ISO9001-2000, chapter 4) ..
................................................................................................................................... 52
A1.2 Management Responsibility (ISO9001-2000, chapter 5)........................................... 52
A1.3 Resource Management (ISO9001-2000, chapter 6) ................................................. 53
A1.4 Product Realisation (ISO9001-2000, chapter 7) ........................................................ 53
A1.4.1 Planning of product realisation ...........................................................................53
A1.4.2 Purchaser related processes ..............................................................................53
A1.4.3 Review of requirements related to product .........................................................53
A1.4.4 Purchaser communication ..................................................................................53
A1.5 Design and Development .......................................................................................... 54
A1.6 Purchasing ................................................................................................................. 55
A1.7 Production and service provision ............................................................................... 55
A1.7.1 Production Control ..............................................................................................55
A1.7.2 Production Process Validation............................................................................55
A1.7.3 Product Identification, Traceability......................................................................55
A1.7.4 Purchaser property .............................................................................................56
A1.7.5 Preservation of product ......................................................................................56
A1.7.6 Monitoring and Measuring Devices ....................................................................56
A1.8 Measurement, analysis and improvement (ISO9001-2000, chapter 8) ..................... 56
A1.8.1 Customer Satisfaction ........................................................................................56
A1.8.2 Internal audits .....................................................................................................57
A1.8.3. Monitoring and measurement of processes .......................................................57
A1.8.4. Monitoring and measurement of product ............................................................57
A1.8.5. Control of non-conforming product .....................................................................57
A1.8.6 Analysis of data ..................................................................................................57
A1.8.7 Improvement .......................................................................................................58
A1.8.8 Corrective action .................................................................................................58
A1.8.9 Preventive action ................................................................................................58
APPENDIX 2: EXAMPLE OF QUESTIONNAIRE .......................................................................59
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1 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES

This guide to the assessment of the capability of a manufacturers’ factory has been
produced under the headline of “Transformer Procurement Process” and is one of a
number of key steps in the process. A typical procurement process is shown in figure 1
and this process diagram clearly shows where this guide fits into the whole
procurement process with various quality factors other than just the cost. It also
represents a typical process for transformer procurement for a multi-year's contract
agreement.
Decisions made during the procurement process have a major impact on the future
reliability of the transformer and one of the most important is the decision – which
manufacturer should be considered, and which of their factories is capable of
manufacturing the unit?
While a good specification (refer CIGRÉ Technical Brochure 528: Guide for
Preparation of Specifications for Power Transformers) is important, and the need for a
thorough design review (refer CIGRÉ Technical Brochure 529: Guide for Conducting
Design Reviews for Power Transformers) can never be understated, the selection of
the factory at contract placement may often be the greatest risk in the whole
procurement process. Before any contract is placed it is extremely important that the
purchaser clearly understands what he will be getting for his money. This can only be
ensured by an in-depth knowledge of the capability and competencies of the proposed
manufacturer’s facility and what the manufacturer has understood and interpreted from
the specified requirements. It should also be remembered that by the time the detailed
design review is completed, it is often too late to change manufacturer.
The importance in understanding the capability of a manufacturers’ particular factory is
key to ensuring the procurement and commissioning of a quality product that is fit for
purpose. This does not necessarily mean that there is a clear pass or fail criteria for
the assessment system or a series of hurdles that the factory must clear, rather the
assessment is intended to provide the purchaser with sufficient information on the
factory’s processes and procedures in order to assist the purchaser in making an
informed decision. Where the assessment highlights shortcomings in capability, these
may be acceptable to the purchaser based on the balancing of the risks involved, or it
may be that the purchaser can mitigate the shortcomings by committing more technical
resources to work closely with the factory through the contract.
It is intended that this guide will assist the purchaser to obtain most, if not all, of the
information required in order to answer the key question - “Should I purchase a
transformer from this facility?”; and the following question, “If I do purchase from this
facility, what else do I need to do to ensure the transformer eventually delivered to site
meets all the specified requirements?”
This document has been prepared by CIGRÉ Working Group A2.36 as an aid to
purchasers in the assessment of the capability of the manufacturer's factory. It gives
guidelines and recommendations for the assessment of the whole delivery process
where the purchaser and factory are acting together as a cross functional team to
perform the assessment.
The purpose of this guide is to serve both the purchaser and factory in the efforts to
mitigate risks. It expresses the best practices in the industry to secure high quality of
the delivered transformer. The guide can be applied as a pre-qualification process
prior to issuing a tender to avoid unsuitable factories for being invited to tender. If used
for this purpose it is unlikely to be as comprehensive as a pre-contract award
1
assessment. Alternatively, it could form part of a proposed transformer purchase

contract.
As transformers are the key elements in the electrical infrastructure, with their
requirement on highest availability, tender evaluations must be made on more factors
than only first price. As minimum requirements, the guide covers many areas such as
commercial risks, design and engineering, manufacturing and test facilities, transport
capability, quality control etc. It does not point out specific solutions or methodologies
but aims more at seeking evidence that the methods chosen are all proven by testing,
measurements or simulations.
The content of the guide is made with the expectation that a purchaser shall be getting
some guidance to perform such an assessment on his own, where the assessment is
relative among many factories. Purchasers need to develop their own check list and
evaluation criteria based on their own business needs, however an example of such
check list is provided in Appendix 2 for guidance.
2
Identify Prepare and Issue Assess Tender

Determine List of Pre Contract
Transformer Technical Issue Tender Returns Place Contract
Tenderers Design Review
Requirements Specifications Technically
Yes
Is Tenderer No Post Contract

Assess Capability Do Not Use
Capable of Clarification of
of Manufacturer Manufacturer
Manufacturing? Requirements
Any previous
Service
Experiences of
manufacturer?
On Going Factory On Site installation

Post Contract End of Procurement
Manufacturers Acceptance Shipping to Site and
Design Review Process
Inspections Testing Commissioning
Concerns over No
Continue to Use
suppliers’
Manufacturer
capability?
Yes
Re-assess
Capability of Enhanced
Manufacturer inspection and
review
Is Manufacturer Yes
Capable of
Manufacturing? Yes
No Can issue be
resolved with No
Terminate Contract
additional
supervision?
Figure 1 - Example of a transformer procurement process
3
2 REFERENCES
(Final report of CIGRÉ working group A2.05), “An international survey on failures in
large power transformers in service”, Electra 88, pp 22-48, 1983
CIGRÉ Technical Brochure 528: “Guide for Preparation of Specifications for Power
Transformers”
CIGRÉ Technical Brochure 529 “Guide for Conducting Design Reviews for Power
Transformers”
IEC 60050 all relevant parts, “International electro-technical vocabulary”

IEC 60076-5 Power transformers: Part 5 – ability to withstand short-circuit
IEC 60076-8 Power transformers: Part 8 – application guide
IEC 60296 Fluids for electro-technical applications – unused mineral
insulating oils for transformers and switchgear
ILO convention 1 Hours of work (industry), 28 November 1919

ILO convention 14 Weekly rest (industry), 17 November 1921
ILO convention 29 Forced labour, 28 June 1930
ILO convention 105 Abolition of forced labour, 25 June 1957
ILO convention 111 Discrimination (employment and occupation, 25 June 1958
ILO convention 132 Holidays with pay, 25 June 1958
ILO convention 138 Minimum age, 26 June 1973
INCOTERMS 2000 ICC Official Rules for the Interpretation of Trade Terms,” ICC
publication 560, 2000 edition
ISO 8501-1 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and

related products – visual assessment of surface cleanliness
ISO 9001 Quality management systems – requirements
ISO 12944-2 Paints and varnishes – corrosion protection of steel structure by
protective paint systems – classification of environments
ISO 14001 Environmental systems – requirements, with guidance for use
ISO 19011 Guidelines for auditing management systems
OHSAS 18001 Occupational health and safety management systems –

requirements”
Note: The above references can be obtained from the following web sites:
IEC Standards - www.iec.ch
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) standards - www.iso.org
ILO (International Labour Organization) documents - www.ilo.org
OHSAS (Occupational Health & Safety Advisory Services) standards - www.ohsas.org
INCOTERMS (International Chamber of Commerce)- www.iccwbo.org
3 MANAGING QUALITY
Power transformer design and manufacturing is a very complex set of operations with a
high percentage of manual work, where each process step should be managed in terms
of quality. Essentially almost all factories have implemented a quality management
system that complies with the ISO 9001 Standard.
The ISO 9001 Standard defines quality management principles based on a process
approach, which is applicable to all kinds of industries. That is why it defines basic
4
processes which appear at any organisation independent of what product is

manufactured.
The word “product” does not necessarily mean the final product; it should be understood
to be the result of any activity (process) the company performs in order to develop and
manufacture the final product (transformer) that fulfils the purchaser requirements.
The ISO 9001 Standard has undergone changes and developments during the past 15
years, but the basic idea has remained the same:
To ensure that all operations involved in all processes are carried out under
controlled conditions.
The Standard covers basically the following areas:
 Quality Management System

 Management Responsibility
 Resource Management
 Product Realisation (includes Design and Purchasing)
 Measurement, Analysis, Improvement
The requirements of the ISO Standard are explained in Appendix 1 in more detail with
specific focus on transformer manufacture. Continual improvement and customer
satisfaction are the basic prerequisites of successful Quality Management.
As soon as the factory fulfils the requirements of the ISO 9001 standard, it can be
certified by an external QMS certification authority. This certification procedure usually
has to be repeated every three years. The certification authority issues a QMS
certificate which carries the precisely defined subject of certification e.g. “Design,
manufacturing, testing …of power transformers….” the quality management
standard and the certificate expiration date. The certificate proves that the factory’s
processes comply with the requirements of the Quality Management Standard.
However, even in the case of a certified factory, it is important a purchaser makes his
own assessment of the factory's capabilities before placing an order to be sure the
factory is capable of meeting all requirements for a transformer, especially if the factory
is new to the purchaser or otherwise unproven. The ISO 9001 certification is a
necessary requirement in the evaluation of a factory, but it is not sufficient as the sole
basis on which to evaluate the quality of the factory.
Many transformer factories have also implemented Environment Management Systems
relying on International standards ISO 14001 and/or Health and Labour Safety
Management Systems based on OHSAS 18000. The rules described by these
standards are similar to those given by the ISO 9001 standard for quality management
systems including the certification (see appropriate chapters for details).
4 TECHNOLOGY BASE
4.1 Background Description of the Business

The power transformer is a product based on fundamental technology that has been
available for more than 100 years. However, continuous improvement over the years in
areas such as materials, research and development advancements, design engineering
capabilities, verification testing capabilities and computer modelling has led to some
5
significant differences in the technologies used by the various power transformer

factories engaged in today’s worldwide industry.
Power Transformers are built by an electrical manufacturing industry which is
characterised as an Engineering to Order (ETO) business. In simple terms it means that
it is an industrial process which differs considerably from very Standardised Processes
(e.g. factories producing HV and LV cables) or the Assembly to Order processes (e.g.
factories producing HV & MV breakers, bushings and tap changers).
In an ETO process the products are unique, almost one at each order, engineered to
fulfil one specification. The production flow is very specific to each order and the
factories must have very functional layouts to fit the wide variety of products. A third
dimension is the complexity and size of the power transformers, see Fig.2
An ETO Business
Types ofProducts
T&D Manufacturing Process
Complexity charter
Power Volume
Transformers Many unique
products:
Many
products:
Many products:
medium
Several
products:
One product:
very high
one each low volume volume high volume volume
Large Power Transformers

Functional layout, Job GIS Substations
flow extremely
varied Shop
Complexity and Size
Small Power Transformers

Layout and Flow
Cellular layout, Batch HV Switchgear

flow varied with
patterns
Flow
Distribution Transformers
Large Motors
Line flow, operator OLTC Operator Paced Small Motors
paced, flow mostly
regular MV & HV Breakers Line Flow Bushings
MV Apparatus
Line flow, Machine Paced
equipment paced, Line Flow
flow regular Machining & Components
LV Breakers
Continuous flow: Continuous
© Copyright year ABB - 4 -
flow rigid
Insulation Materials Flow
HV & LV Cables
ETO ATO STD

ETO Business = Engineering to Order Business
Figure 2 - T&D Product Complexity Charter

The whole business aim is to optimise, engineer and manufacture individual
transformers to lowest cost plus capitalised losses according to detailed purchaser
specifications.
As variations of requirements are the highest challenge in this business, purchasers and
factories must find ways to mitigate all the risks in all sub-processes from specification
production through to commissioning on site. The end products are expected to last for
many years of service. Most of the processes involved are referred to in this guide but in
this section of the guide a closer look is taken on what is required and what is meant by
a Technology base, and what essential areas need to be reviewed in assessing an
Engineering to Order business.
6
4.2 Transformer Type produced by the Factories

There are two basic types of transformer core and coil assemblies which are referred to
as the core-type design or the shell-type design. See IEC 60076-8 for further details.
While the two types of designs can be adopted for any given transformer application,
each design type does have certain basic differences that need to be understood when
evaluating the technology base of a transformer factory. However the requirements of
the Technology base for the two design types are fundamentally the same.
4.3 Origins of Technology Base of Factory

When evaluating a transformer factory, it is often beneficial to gain a basic
understanding of the origin of a factory's technology base.
Today there are three types of factories that are the owner of the technology:
 belonging to a global manufacturer with factories in different countries, sharing

technology or not
 regional manufacturers for both local and global supply
 local manufacturers for mainly local supply
In all above groups there can be a license agreement with a licensor. In such cases it
can be worthwhile to ask for the signed license agreement and check the contents and
what the licensor is obliged to give the licensee. In some cases the license agreement
has been terminated meaning that the licensee is no longer supported by the licensor.
In some other cases the current licensee agreement is shared with many factories and
the licensee gets all the R&D results, development results, instructions and IT tools by a
structured implementation system. In the last case the licensee will be provided with all
results from international development work and does not need to have its own large
development team. A factory with such a license agreement shall be honoured with the
same assessment as one with a full R&D organisation. That means that the source of
the technology can differ from the factory which is using it. Therefore when the
technology is being assessed, discussions need to involve the factory which provides the
technology base.
4.4 Familiarity and Compliance with applicable Industry Standards

Around the world, a number of different industry standards exist for transformers. Some
standards are national standards applicable to transformers used in a given country or
region, while other standards are international standards adopted by a wide range of
countries around the world. Examples of industry standards are IEC and IEEE
standards to name a few, while several other industry standards exist as well.
If a purchaser wants to ensure that transformers utilised on their system comply with the
applicable industry standards in the purchaser’s country, it is important for the purchaser
to verify that potential manufacturing facilities being considered for the supply of
transformers to that purchaser are capable of understanding and complying with the
applicable industry standards the purchaser desires.
4.5 Documentation of the Design and Manufacturing Technology Base

Power Transformer technology must be documented. This documentation must be kept
up to date as new experiences are acquired from R&D, more sophisticated programs,
7
new materials, improved manufacturing methods and feedback from testing and years of
field service experience. Transformer engineering is today more or less supported by
integrated IT programs which are based upon these documents; well ordered
documentation supported by regular updates and clarity are the basic characteristics to
look for when assessing a technology. It is more important to first see the
documentation structure and interrelationships in the technology descriptions before
going more deeply into the technical content or details.
Documentation should consist at least of the data sets or aspects below:
4.5.1 Investigations and R&D Reports

Investigations and R&D Reports describing the evolution of the technology at the factory.
A typical power transformer factory shall have such a library where it is possible to track
the background for chosen rules, criteria, methods in design and manufacturing. These
reports are of course intellectual proprieties but show the factory’s Technology base. (A
licensor shall give access to the company as a licensee for the licensor’s report
libraries). To go through the last 5 -10 years content of the Reports is one part of the
assessment, it shows that the management understands the needs to maintain
competence and knowledge as an intangible asset. If there are no Technology Report
systems in the factory, enquiries need to be made to determine how the knowledge and
competence is maintained and spread. It is possible in some cases that some “technical
gurus” are the carrier of the Know-How but in the long term this is a very risky practice.
There has been a tradition that the technology has been much related to persons but this
is no longer viewed as reliable.
4.5.2 Basic Design Theory

Basic Design Theory where the basis for calculation of power transformer characteristics
are described (specifically how the verification of a design is documented) e.g. short
circuit calculations, no load loss calculations, load losses in windings and structural
parts, acoustic sound levels, windings temperature rises etc. It is also here that the
dielectric design is documented from which the main insulation in windings between
windings and to earth are determined
 Technical Standards where a given element, component consisting of

several elements, are described, (Geometry rules and parametric
interrelationships). Here you can find how the core or a specific winding with
its elements are built up. Very often you can find here the factory’s detailed
description of the Main Insulation system (between the windings and towards
the yokes) or how the winding exits or the cleats and leads are built up.
 Material Specifications for all Material or Components which are referred to
at all Material and Component purchases.
 Set of Standard drawings, Corporate Standards, document and drawing
numbering system.
 Production Standards where the manufacturing methods, processes with
check and control points, tools and equipments are clearly described and
visualised. Nowadays those documents can normally be found close to the
work cell PC’s integrated with the drawing system.
The assessment of the Technology as described is not so much about the content,
dimensions, calculation formulas, acceptance criteria etc., but more about how the
documentation is built up, its structure and the responsibilities of those to edit and
approve. It is important to find out how the continuous improvement process is
documented and how the management of the maintenance is led and structured. The
8
Power Transformer Technology is a slow evolution where the input is the feedback from
production, final acceptance testing and field service. A modern Technology
assessment today needs to focus on these aspects rather than the design elements or
formulas.
One of the biggest reasons for this is the interrelation between all the electrical, thermal
and mechanical rules and design/component standards. If one part or chain of the inter-
relations is questioned the dependence to another chain may be overlooked. In this
guide the aim is to depart from the more subjective assessment made by single
individuals.
Another most important part is to validate that above documented content is built into the
design programs (IT Programs) that are used by the electrical and mechanical design
engineers. Instead of questioning a rule or a formula the assessment shall concentrate
more on proving the documentation is fully used and updated in the IT programs.
Greater reliance on an audit where rules and criteria have a documented origin which
leads to elements and combined structures is more important.
4.6 Product Design and Manufacturing Rules and Instructions

The Technology base for an ETO industry can be broken down into three major areas:
 product design rules

 design methods and tools
 manufacturing/Testing methods and tools
4.6.1 Product Design Rules

There are different views how to structure Transformer Design rules.
Very often the rules are divided into three major areas as:
 dielectric rules
 thermal rules
 mechanical rules
But it is possible to define the transformer physics according to a more practical view
that takes into account the most important areas that verify the design, manufacture and
testing of a transformer.
a) Dielectric Rules
Electric breakdown is a stochastic process and usually follows an extreme value
(weakest link) statistical distribution, most commonly used is the Weibull distribution.
Correct dielectric dimensioning of transformers is very important and needs to balance
between the margins and failure rate. All factories must have documented evidence in
how they transfer the knowledge of electrical break down strength into design rules and
insulation structures.
It should be clear how a distance is chosen from the knowledge of calculation of fields
taking into account amplitudes, directions, durations, material borders (creep).
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Very often today the main insulation is calculated automatically from the purchaser’s
specification of dielectric tests. This has been verified over years of production and fits
the factory’s production and insulation sourcing procedures. It is not so meaningful
today to question every stressed area if the factory has a documented insulation system
and can demonstrate its application.
In general, this concept applies to a continuous insulation system but where
discontinuities occur, such as at winding exits, leads and bushing entries, 3-D calculation
tools and the stress criteria with volume considerations need to be documented and
followed by the designer.
In a capability assessment it is not so helpful to argue about stresses but instead to let
the factory show from factory acceptance testing (FAT) results where normally the
weaknesses over many years production have normally occurred. If profound test failure
analysis documentation is presented extending over many years this offers good
evidence to judge the soundness of the dielectric rules.
b) Magnetic Core Performance Rules

The factory needs to show that it has all the tools required to calculate the no load losses
from a given geometry of a core. Here it is a must to show how one calculates the core
losses from the iron losses for different core steel grades. With the losses the factory
must also be able to show the rules used to calculate in-rush currents, excitation
currents and their harmonics.
One important area is to calculate core internal and surface temperatures at rated and
over rated conditions.
Very often the purchasers need to know the stress in the core at dc bias or under GIC
conditions.
Also here the best way to assess the Magnetic Core Performance technology is to
assess the accuracy between measured performance data over years versus calculated
data. Such files of analysis results should be available at the factory.
c) Acoustic Sound Rules

Sound limitation requirements are more and more common. Nowadays both sound at
load and no-load are of importance. Calculation of vibration modes, resonances at
different frequencies plays an important rule to calculate the sound.
Accurate calculation of the Core Noise Level and its frequency spectrum components,
must include consideration of the core steel magnetostriction characteristics, type and
core geometry, joints and flux density, core clamping efficiency and of course voltage
frequency and form factor.
Transmission of vibration and sound between core and tank is the next step and the final
step is to determine the sound radiation properties of the tank.
Accurate calculation of core & tank resonance frequencies allows accurate prediction of
the noise level at the design stage and later avoids serious noise level problems later.
There are a number of noise reduction techniques available that involve core steel, tank
design, core & tank damping and vibration isolation aspects.
The factory's own statistics cover calculated and measured noise levels and spectrums
and are the best indicator of quality.
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Purchasers should consider requesting sound levels for both no-load and loading in the
specifications.
d) Load Losses and Load Temperatures

This area is one of the most critical design aspects to assess as it greatly affects the
long term life expectancy of the transformer. Different transformers have different
loading profiles and for those units that will be loaded up to the rated power and above
such as Generator Step-Up (GSU’s) must have an accurate design and accurate tests.
As the Standards of verification of the thermal integrity are weaker than electrical
insulation tests it is important to investigate the factory’s thermal calculation rules and
comparisons to measured data.
Therefore it can only be stressed here that the winding losses and the temperatures in
oil and along the windings should be evenly distributed and that the factories today
should be able to show how the daily order design programs are working, backed up by
the physical thermal rules and design practice.
Current practice is not to use CFD (Computerised Fluid Dynamics) as a common tool to
be used for each particular design but rather to solve specific problems; today it is
possible to fully check the thermal design programs by CFD programs that are now
available on the market and measure internal hot spot measurements by fibre optic
sensors.
One area which is not covered by the current standards is proving the capability to
calculate hot spot temperatures of the tank, core, and internal clamping structures at
maximum operating ratings.
The factory must demonstrate their experience by using 2D or 3D electro-thermal
calculation using Finite-Element Method (FEM) coding. Again such programs are now
available. It is the manufacturer’s task to prove calculations versus measurement,
internally by hot spot measurements and externally by infrared cameras.
e) Short Circuit Strength and Mechanical Integrity

The other most critical technology area today is to show competence in verification that
the factory can design and build short circuit proof transformers.
The first consideration is network factors. There is an expanding cross border electricity
trade bringing network operations closer to their physical limits. Transmission reserve
margins are decreased. Development of wind generation parks often integrates regions
without taking into account available network capacities. Load flows are varying and
network components are ageing.
The second consideration concerns the transformer itself. Transformers are built closer
to their physical limits and as stated earlier all transformers will see more severe short
circuit duty than before. Therefore short circuit strength is the key to long transformer
service life and when short circuit events occur they may cause catastrophic
consequences.
Very few units are short circuit tested nowadays and this due to commercial and short
circuit (sc) test capacity reasons. This means that one of the most critical parameters of
the transformer is not tested.
In a way the industry has given up and one of the most important capability assessments
is therefore to go deeper into the manufactures technology base with regard to building
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short circuit proof transformers. It is therefore very important that the factory can prove
by short circuit calculation and test experience that it has the capability to design short
circuit proof transformers. IEC 60076-5 provides good guidelines and these should be
followed.
IEC 60076-5: “Ability to withstand short circuit” identifies requirements for power
transformers to withstand the effects of over currents originated by external short circuits
without damage.
The ability to withstand the dynamic and mechanical effects of short circuits shall be
demonstrated either:
 by special short circuit tests

 by calculation, design, manufacturing considerations,
 given in guidelines Appendix A
There are no clear statistics of short circuit failures in the world for various reasons. This
failure mode might be hidden and it might be interpreted as a dielectric failure or the
evidence may be destroyed by a fire.
Therefore the factory must clearly show how the axial and radial mechanical stresses in
the windings during short circuits are calculated, and what radial and axial stress criteria
are applied, including the maximum ratio short circuit withstand strength to short circuit
force. The best method is to judge all short circuit tests the factories has made over the
years, see above IEC method.
It is also important to judge the manufacturer's rules to design inner tertiary and LV
windings where their location makes them very sensitive to radial compression forces.
The most straightforward design principle is to let them be self supporting and allow the
copper strength to determine the dimensions at free buckling. There are of course other
design principals and they too must then be proven by long term verifications.
Axial forces should be calculated for all tap positions and the axial tolerances at winding
manufacturing must be fully considered. There are numerous discussions about axial
pressing methods and what they mean for short circuit strength but there is only one
good way to judge and that is by examining the factory's short circuit test records. If the
factory has not made many short circuit tests, one must consider investing in such tests
during a longer time period of some years.
Another short circuit feature in power transformers is the capability to calculate the
spiralling effect, mostly in helical windings. (i.e. when the axial and radial pressures are
imposed on a helical winding there is a rotational force that tends to twist the windings
and move the leads exits and increase the risk of electrical break down).
Finally, the capability to mitigate risks during transport and seismic stresses must be
assessed. The factory must be able to state its design principles to withstand high
transport accelerations and earthquakes.
4.6.2 Design Methods and Tools

This section is not a technology per se, but it plays an important role when it comes to
building in quality and reducing the risks for test failures and service problems.
Modern industries today use simulations of all kinds to verify design, tools, building
blocks, production flows etc. IT simulation tools are readily available today.
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Some very important tools used in the design and engineering process which must be
taken into account in the capability assessment process are described below.
One type of simulation is the Optimisation tool which can have different levels of
sophistication.
It is possible to optimise material cost versus losses. The more accurate the user data
and updated cost factors is, the higher the purchaser value. Therefore the factory
should be able to describe the way the final product is optimised to comply with the
purchaser's specification.
Today all factories are using 2-D electrical transient IT tools to dimension the windings
for all types of impulse stresses. The accuracy may be shown by checking the analysis
of dielectric test failures over the years if they are attributable to engineering and
manufacturing causes.
Another way is to let the factory show all the RSO (Recurrent Surge Oscillograph)
measurements upon which the design calculations are based. The factory might also
show if it can calculate down to single turns. Transient tools such as four poles analysis
can also be a part of a complete transient analysis of the transformer.
Thermal calculation tools have been mentioned to calculate oil flow velocities and the
temperature gradient cross the paper wrapping from copper to oil insulation, taking into
account the losses in parts and sections of the whole winding length.
Another set of programs needed is to make a lot of 2-D calculations, normally based on
FEM codes, of leakage flux and electrical fields between different parts in the rotational
symmetries.
By these means it is possible to calculate magnitudes and locations of maximum
electrical stresses, leakage flux and eddy current losses and magnitudes and location of
maximum short circuit forces.
3-D programs are today used to study complex 3-D structures to calculate dielectric field
stresses. These programs are normally used with 3-D CAD modules for easy
descriptions of the geometry. The factory's internal stress criteria should be implemented
in those programs.
For specific complex units and for product development factories today also use 3-D
electro-thermal calculation using FEM code for tank heating and 3-D electro-mechanical
calculation of short circuit forces. The results of this modelling should be verified by
measurement where possible.
However, just having such tools available is not enough. They must be used by well
trained engineers. Simulation is also a way to give the engineers a better understanding
of the transformer physics and it is much easier now to estimate the intrinsic safety
margins of a design to further reduce test failures or future in service problems.
The capability assessments here are of significant importance because the engineering
design input constitutes some 80 % of the cost and a large part of the risk for
catastrophic failures.
4.6.3 Manufacturing Technology in Production Standards

Manufacturing methods will be discussed in more detail later in this guide.
For the moment it is simply emphasised that the production and process methods must
be documented in the same manner as for Technology and Engineering. The production
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flow and related manufacturing processes should be documented in Production

Standards. Those standards describe the material flow, start up and the continuous
process, tools and work cell layouts. The key here is to document checkpoints for
operator control and control points where inspection from Quality and Engineering shall
occur.
4.6.4 Testing Technology

The purpose of Testing is to prove the product not only complies with contract
obligations between purchaser and factory but also to give feedback to design and
manufacturing on performance data as:
 measured core losses

 measured load losses
 measured sound levels
 measured temperatures
 measured impedances
 measured partial discharge (pd)
 short circuit tests
 test failures
These basic performance characteristics form the base for the ongoing R&D and
improvement processes this ETO business needs for a step by step evolution to higher
and higher quality.
Therefore the quality of the testing process is of the highest importance in the capability
assessment process.
The need for accuracy is paramount. Measurement accuracy (measurement quality) is a
sum of best calibration and uncertainty evaluation.
The requirements of calibration and uncertainty should be in line with the international
standards/regulations. This need shall be proven at the assessment stage.
The calibration process shall be performed according to international standards by using
the best practice from available accredited calibration institutes. The Factory must
provide documented evidence showing the calibration process and the certified institute.
It is preferable that the whole calibration process is fully recorded, and the results
correspond to the uncertainty evaluation process.
An uncertainty value can be achieved based on calibration and equipment performance.
The calculated uncertainty range for each measurement is provided to the purchaser
and to the manufacturer's design team to establish the real level of transformer
performance.
4.7 Other means of evaluating the technical capabilities of a factory

While interacting directly with the technical staff of a factory is often the best way to
obtain an understanding of the technical capabilities, other more basic methods of
evaluating the technical capabilities of a factory can be adopted, typically when a
particular purchaser and factory are somewhat unfamiliar with each other.
Such basic, fundamental methods initially employed for gaining an understanding of the
technical capability of a factory include providing a questionnaire to the factory seeking
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information about the number of engineers and technicians employed by the factory at
the production facility, as well as any supporting or shared technical resources a factory
may have in their overall organisation. The purchaser may also wish to enquire how
many of the technical staff described has technical education degrees or certifications
from accredited organisations.
This information is typically confidential for a factory, but may be provided during a
qualification questionnaire exercise if the purchaser and factory are unfamiliar with each
other.
Given the aforementioned requirement to have the entire Technology base fully
documented, the major purpose is to use the documentation as the base for engineering
training and education. It is therefore important to assess how the above technology is
shared and communicated to all engineers. How is the engineering training executed?
How is it measured and controlled? Is there some form of certification of engineers?
Other means of evaluating the technical capabilities of the factory include reviewing any
industry available technical papers that have been authored or co-authored by the
factory's staff members. Such industry papers often give good insight into the technical
understanding and particular expertise of the factory.
4.8 Summary
An assessment of the technology starts by an in-depth examination of the
documentation structure and tracing this through into the design criteria/margins,
engineering IT tools and manufacturing Standards.
The real purpose of assessing technology is in order to mitigate risks by judging the
engineers and operators understanding and using the documented technology in this
ETO business.
5 DESIGN PROCEDURES AND IT TOOLS

The factory’s capability in design should be assessed generically. Whereas specific
designs are subject to design review, the factory capability assessment should cover the
capability of the factory in general. This means that, unlike with a design review (refer
CIGRÉ Technical Brochure 529) there is not a strong focus on a specific transformer,
but a more general focus on methods, engineers, documentation etc.
5.1 Design experience of market

It is important that the factory understands the purchaser’s needs clearly and in detail,
even when the specification is not clear or not sufficiently accurate. Experience with
widely used standards (e.g. IEC, IEEE), market regions or specific purchasers may be of
great help. This includes knowledge of the location of the transformer on the network,
previous operational problems, physical limitations and specific test requirements.
Some purchasers include a lot of detailed requirements in their specifications, from
protection and control equipment to very specific limitations on the electrical and
mechanical design, e.g. maximum allowable field strength. Other specifications are
more functional, and allow greater scope for interpretation by the designer. In both
cases background knowledge of the purchaser’s requirements is of benefit to the
designer. An optimal solution is one which meets both the purchaser’s requirements and
the factory’s standard practice. This reduces the scope for errors.
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5.2 Design experience of product range

A transformer factory may be specialised or focused on certain types of transformer.
Even though the underlying physics is the same for core-form and shell-form
transformers, they do have quite different properties. Very large generator transformers
and transformers for certain industrial applications face challenges with very high
currents. Phase-shifting transformers are rather complex to design and test. Testing of
shunt reactors gives rise to rather different challenges from testing transformers.
A factory may have experience or expertise in one or more of the following areas:
 core-form, shell-form
 autotransformers
 large generator transformers
 phase-shifting transformers
 electric arc furnace transformers
 rectifier transformers
 HVDC Transformers
 shunt reactors
a. fixed
b. variable
 high current
 high voltage
 high leakage flux
 low sound levels
a. no-load
b. load
 mobile transformers and sub-stations, including so called Wanderer
transformers
5.3 Specification understanding

 native languages and supported languages
a. Is the factory capable of understanding the purchaser’s specification with
respect to the original language?
 purchasers possibility to communicate directly with engineers
How is the communication between purchaser and factory organised? How direct are
communication lines with engineers, how many steps, response time?
5.4 Design process quotation and order

 information flow and throughput time
a. What is the process of producing a new design to a purchaser’s
specification for a quotation and for an order? How do the design
engineers communicate with other interested parties at the factory, e.g.
sales, mechanical design (drawing office), test, etc?
 quality assurance
a. There should be clear internal quality control procedures and it should be
clear who is responsible for the design. What are the detailed procedures
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for checking and approval of designs? How are internal and external
reviews organised? How are revisions to the design controlled?
5.5. Research and Development Activities

An important area to assess is the way the factory manages improvements in technology
through research and development. What process does the factory have to make
improvements in technology, build-up competences, benchmark, and share knowledge?
Is there a research and development organisation? Is the factory supported by a
corporate research and development organisation?
Gaining an understanding of a factory’s research and development activities also
provides a good gauge of the technical capability of a factory. Dedicated investment in
research and development helps to ensure that a factory remains at the leading edge of
technology, and suggests that the factory may be capable of adapting successfully to
changing needs of purchasers.
If a factory can present to the purchaser the resources used for research and
development this can give a deeper understanding of the overall capabilities of the
factory. The resources available for research and development vary between factories.
Some factories rely completely on outside resources for research and development,
whilst some use their day-to-day engineering resources to provide resources for
research and development in addition to their normal responsibilities, and others have
dedicated resources for research and development.
Research and development resources can be used to investigate and resolve
challenging problems in service. Research and development resources are also used to
improve design and performance of the factory’s products and to add new features,
thereby strengthening the factory’s competitiveness.
Concerning licenses, purchasers are referred to section 5.3 above.
The factory may be asked to provide information about:
 number of engineers involves in research and development

 annual investment in research and development (as percentage of Turnover)
 number of finished R&D projects annually
 number of research and development reports written annually
 number of papers published annually
 participation in professional organisations and standards bodies (e.g. CIGRÉ,
IEC, IEEE-PES)
5.6 Design manual, design rules

The design rules used must be documented in a design manual which should be part of
the quality management system. The design manual is used by design engineers to
maintain consistency and improve quality. When design criteria change, the design
manual must be updated immediately. The design manual is likely to contain cross-
references to research and development reports, published papers, etc.
The design manual should cover all necessary aspects, and may be organised either by
component (e.g. core, winding, tank, coolers, etc) or else by function/theme (dielectric,
magnetic, noise, thermal, etc).
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The criteria included in the design manual may be derived from experiments, from
experience with actual transformers, etc. Whatever their origin, it should be clearly
documented and explained. Any criteria included in the design manual should be
included in the design software, and vice versa.
Design engineers should be kept fully informed of test results, and any differences
between calculated and measured values, and of any test failures. Test failures should
be thoroughly investigated and the results of the investigation, together with the solution,
well documented.
The design engineers should be completely familiar with the contents of the design
manual, and able to access them easily. Note that design engineers often edit [parts of]
the design manual. Any changes in the design manual should be made according to a
controlled process with new versions being released only after management approval.
There should also be a proper process of informing engineers of changes to the design
manual.
5.7 Design software and it’s maintenance
5.7.1 In House Development, Outsourced

Transformer design is a very complex process, even though the theoretical background
is common knowledge. The application of physical rules in design is not only
multidisciplinary, but also has factory dependent characteristics.
Most factories use design software that is developed by them. Some use (partially)
commercial software or outsource the development to third party companies. Source
data has to be written in a structured and well documented way. Any programmer
should be able to trace down the source code easily.
5.7.2 Software Purchaser Practice

The design program must be easy to use, to avoid errors that can be assigned to “bad
input”. The input, as well as the program release version must be stored in order to
trace a result to its origin. The purchaser interface, input data and the program output
must be transparent for any designer or “purchaser” of the design output.
Any “fake” input, that is done to exceed the “normal” program limit, must be well
documented. This is of course exceptional, because if this would happen on a regular
basis, it would automatically mean a software change.
All designers should know the limits of the software and if possible the software
purchaser interface will indicate input errors or input limit violation.
5.7.3 Software Data Base Integrity

The specific material data that is used in the design process is preferably stored in a
separate data base, and not in the source code itself. This can be data like magnetic
core steel properties, price information of steel, copper, oil etc. The data must be
controlled by a QA system. Random changes must be impossible.
5.7.4 Maintenance of Software

The designers should have a documented list where they can put on all possible
suggestions for software improvements. An improvement that refers to a bug should be
18
addressed by the programmer immediately. All other items are categorised and
prioritised.
Any changes in the design program must be tested before being released to the
purchasers. A purchaser release means that all purchasers are informed about the new
release version, and of the actual changes.
5.7.5 Computer Modelling, Dielectric, Magnetic, Thermal and Mechanical

Problems
What are the methods or means to tackle complex problems with finite element
software? These problems can be of different kind: dielectric field plots, oil flow,
mechanical strength, thermal problems, magnetic problems, noise & vibration etc.
5.7.6 Transient Modelling

What are the possibilities of computing transient transformer behaviour, like impulse
stresses? Are the calculated transient signals verified by measurements, like RSO
(Recurrent Surge Oscillogram) on untanked active part?
5.7.7 Engineering 2-D or 3-D Method

How does the engineering of active part and tank connect to the electrical design? Is
there built-in intelligence in the models? Is there a product library that has proven to be
the right quality?
5.7.8 Feedback from Testing

In what way is data from tested transformers used to improve design and calculation
algorithms to reduce the performance deviations between calculated and measured
parameters? Is there regular performance deviation analysis procedures applied for
core losses, load losses, temperatures, noise, impedances?
5.8 Experience level of engineers

Owing to the complex nature of large transformers, the experience of the design
engineers is very important in maintaining quality and consistency alongside the design
manual. Design engineers also require a sufficient level of education and professional
development.
5.9 Engineering organisation

The engineering process should proceed according to documented procedures,
including defined handover points between electrical and mechanical design (drawing
office). There should be clearly documented procedures for both internal and external
design reviews. There should also be clearly documented procedures for ordering of
materials at the appropriate time.
5.10 Expert technical support

Concerning technical support during design, manufacturing and test, the factory may be
asked to provide information about:
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 availability of technical specialists to support the purchaser?

 the location of the technical specialists (e.g. based at the factory, or at another
factory owned by the same company)?
 the ease of communication with the technical specialists?
6 SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT
6.1 Background
In principle, there are many good ideas on supply chain management. This document
concentrates only on some very pragmatic recommendations on how to assess the
supply chain management ability of a transformer factory.
The following are the most important points to check:
 Does the factory have up to date component and material specifications, in

line with their basic technology and engineering requirements?
 Do the component and material specifications form part of the contract
between the factory and the suppliers?
 Is there a continuous auditing process for supplier by the factory (possibly at a
corporate level)?
 What are the quality requirements on the supplier?
 What is checked?
 What are the contract conditions when the supplier does not meet the
factory’s requirements? (What are the incentives to improve)?
The transformer business has good international standards on how contractual
performance is managed between the purchaser and the factory. This guide suggests
that these standards should be mirrored in contracts between the factory and its
suppliers.
The most important thing to find out is whether the transformer factory is choosing
suppliers solely on the basis of price or whether other quality considerations which will
bring added value to the purchaser, who may operate the transformer for many years,
are also taken into consideration. As the purchaser is unlikely to be informed of contract
prices as part of an assessment, the assessment must focus on the role of quality in
supply chain management.
Instead of repeating some of the general principles of supply chain management, it is
suggested that the assessment should go through some of the components and
materials using a risk approach. At the time of writing, and depending on changes in raw
material prices, the factory must procure components and materials comprising 60% to
80% of the value of a large transformer. Therefore supply chain management plays a
very important strategic role in mitigating future risks.
For many years reliability studies for transformers in service have shown that
components and materials make an important contribution to problems in service,
including forced outages. We shall therefore give some guidance on how these
problems may be avoided.
This guide therefore focuses on the following components and materials:
 bushings
 tap changers
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 winding conductor
 oil
 core steel
 insulating material and components
The following further components are slightly less critical, but may still contribute to
service problems over the years:
 steel fabrications
 coolers
 fans and pumps
 valves
 control cabinets
 current transformers
 indication and monitoring equipment
What precautions can be taken to avoid future problems?
In the transformer business, a lot of changes have happened on both the factory’s side
and the supplier’s side. Mergers have taken place, and production has shifted to
emerging markets. It is important both to follow up old suppliers and to assess new
suppliers. It is more or less impossible for the purchaser to assess individual suppliers
of components and materials. Therefore the capability assessment must be an in-depth
check of the factory’s supply chain management ability.
6.2 Bushings and Tap Changers

There are still a number of established suppliers left in the market, together with new
suppliers entering from emerging markets. Some of the new suppliers have license
agreements with the established suppliers.
As part of their quality management system, it must be established that the factory has
an established process for managing bushing and tap changer suppliers. It should
include the following principles:
 the factory should have a long term relationship with the suppliers
 the order documents should clearly specify the factory’s requirements
 the factory and the supplier should co-ordinate their production plans to meet
delivery times
 the factory and the supplier should meet annually to discuss quality problems,
e.g. delivery delays, non-conformance reports
 problems in service should be investigated
 there should be on-going development of the order and delivery process to
reduce delivery times
 the factory should make an annual quality audit of the supplier
 a strong relationship is characterised by common technology and process
development
 bushing suppliers should cover both high voltage and high current bushings
 the factory should check mechanical strength (seismic capability) and sealing
systems (fault currents)
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6.3 Winding Conductors

There are various types of conductor used today in power transformers, including:
 continuously transposed conductors (sometimes with epoxy bonding,

sometimes without paper)
 group-insulated flat wire
 individually insulated flat wire
The factory must have material specifications for all types. Very often the conductors
are insulated by the supplier. It is therefore very important that the supplier can show
that their quality system is able to prove that the copper dimensions and properties are
within the factory’s specification. The supplier must also have good control over the
surface finish of the copper to eliminate problems such as burrs. It is very important that
the factory has quality specifications concerning how the copper is packed and
transported, to avoid damage. See also below concerning insulating material and
components on how quality can be proven.
 co-ordinated production planning

 annual meetings to discuss quality problems, e.g. delivery delays, non-
conformance reports
 annual quality audits
6.4 Oil
It is strongly recommended for the purchaser to specify the type of oil which will be used
at site.
The purchaser should check that the oil to be used in the factory fully meets the
requirements of the relevant standard, e.g. IEC 60296.
It is important that the factory regularly checks the quality of the incoming oil, from
storage tanks or from deliveries. It is especially important to check for moisture or
chemical contamination. This is usually achieved by measuring DDF/tan delta and
interfacial tension. In any case, the factory should have access to a transformer oil
laboratory.
6.5 Core Steel

Core steel suppliers sell material of different thickness, which is graded according to the
type of grain orientation (conventional, high permeability, domain refined) and the
specific losses. The specific losses follow a Gaussian/normal distribution.
It is important to see the factory’s material specification and to check how the core steel
is purchased (annual contracts, spot market).
One good way to check quality is to see whether the factory checks the supplier’s loss
certificates and how they affect the calculation of no-load loss and current.
Normally the no-load loss and current are measured as part of final test, and the values
compared with guarantees. The scatter between calculated and measured values of no-
load loss may be revealing about the quality of the incoming material and the factory’s
ability to keep their calculation method updated.
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There are two other factors which may affect no-load losses and long-term reliability:
surface insulation (from the core steel factory) and burrs from cutting or slitting (by the
core steel factory, a cutting centre or possibly at the factory itself). The factory should be
able to show their specification and explain the tests they perform (e.g. Franklin test,
measurement of burr height, core cross-lamination tests). The factory may also
measure, or be asked to measure, no-load loss before and after dielectric test. It is
anticipated that excessive burr heights may cause additional no-load loss after dielectric
test.
One good way to check core steel quality is for the factory to compare calculated and
measured values of no-load loss, either continuously or as part of an annual review.
6.6 Insulation board and insulation components

There are very few factories of insulating material worldwide. Factories produce
insulating board in different thickness and different densities. The board may also be
glued to produce a laminated material.
A good quality insulating board will be clean, free from voids and have good mechanical
properties. The cleanliness and freedom from voids will be established by measuring
partial discharge on finished transformers.
The factory must have their own material specification for the insulating board, including
requirements for mechanical and electrical properties. This specification should be
referenced by purchase drawings for components or laminates. Production of insulation
components may be made internally or contracted out.
As part of the assessment, the purchaser should visit the insulation component
workshop and check carefully the standards of cleanliness in production. Where
insulation material and components are transported, it is important to check that it has
been packed correctly to avoid contamination by dust or moisture.
6.7 Other Components and Materials

Steel fabrication, including tanks, may be made either by the factory or by a contractor
who may supply steel fabrications to various transformer factories. There is a trend to
buy steel fabrications from contractors. In such cases quality audits and checks on the
quality of the product supplied need to be followed. Note the need for clear drawings
and specifications. Purchasers are also referred to following chapter 7.
Other possible suppliers to be checked include those for the following components:
 coolers
 fans and pumps
 valves
 control cabinets
 current transformers
 indication and monitoring equipment
The general rule is to assess how the factory are specifying the components; who is
supplying components; how good the relationship is between the factory and the
supplier; and how the quality management system functions. The simplest method for
checking how the quality management system works is to ask how quality is monitored
by measurements. (If there are no measurements, there are no quality checks).
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During an assessment, the factory should be able to describe the following:
 supplier qualification process for different categories of components and

materials
 quality audits and inspections of suppliers: the purchaser may wish to see a
report on a supplier quality audit
 supplier performance monitoring process, including what key performance
indicators are used and how they are analysed
 continuous improvement: the purchaser may wish to ask for a description of a
specific project
6.8 Summary
The following points are important when assessing the supply chain management ability
of a transformer factory:
 check the factory’s procurement procedures for the most important

components and materials
 does the factory have regular quality assurance processes in place with (say)
the ten largest suppliers?
 ask for information about quality audits and any follow-up action required
 does the factory ask for information on cost of poor quality at the suppliers?
 what are the factory’s requirement’s from the suppliers with regard to
performance monitoring
 what actions come from performance monitoring
7 MANUFACTURING METHODS
Besides distinguishing core or shell form transformers, which have fundamental different
geometry, there is no significant difference in manufacturing methods between factories.
Transformer manufacturing involves many manual steps that require processes and
methods that need to be fully documented to ensure consistent build quality. Workers
need to be properly trained for each task that they perform.
The objective of this section is to provide guidance on what to look for when inspecting
and evaluating factory manufacturing methods, to identify actual or potential problems,
and in the end to obtain a reliable transformer as specified. It is very important to
thoroughly inspect transformer manufacturing facilities close up to assess the facilities
used to build the transformers and to be sure the process controls are in place that
ensure uniform and reliable workmanship. Every factory is different, including those
within the same parent company, and all their manufacturing and quality control
processes have strengths and weaknesses. It is important to realise that you typically
get what you “inspect” and not always what you “expect”. Therefore it is important to
check the quality control records and the quality management effectiveness. In many
cases some of the points referred to below can be regarded as design
solutions/decisions more than manufacturing methods.
7.1 General:
The following conditions and work practices should be examined:
 are all detailed manufacturing procedures documented
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a. tolerances
b. tools
c. skills of workers
 safe working conditions and safety equipment used, including any
operational, health and safety programmes
 isolated clean areas (e.g. for winding, insulation, assembly) and designated
"dirty" areas (e.g. for fabrication, welding, dismantling old/failed transformers)
a. check cleaning routines for machines
b. are there house-keeping indices
c. house-keeping around work area, quality and organisation of tools
 building maintained properly - no roof leaks or hazards to personnel,
equipment or work in progress
 worker experience and attitude should be appropriate for task
 clean and "fix as you go" mentality
 work areas clean, tidy and organised
 proper lighting
 examples of the "right" and "wrong" ways of doing things posted throughout
the factory
 good communication between factory workers, inspectors, and designers
7.2 Production Planning and Material Warehouse:

The following conditions and work practices should be considered:
 method for project planning

 system and procedure for handling inventory control
 check workflow, work in progress, number of units in work, staging areas for
part-finished items, push or pull flow
 goods inwards and materials storage areas structured and organised
 proper handling of material and components in designated areas to minimise
risk of damage
7.3 Main Tank and Steel Fabrication:

Some transformer factories outsource their tank fabrication work to specialised
contractors. The complete procedures from engineering to outsourced production,
quality systems and quality audits shall be evaluated. Purchasers are referred to section
6.7, above.
 isolation of the steel fabrication workshop from the remainder of the factory
 consistent and quality welds: no main tank welds behind stiffeners that
prevent visible inspection; check the Quality Plan and design drawings for
welding methods
 inside of tank and hollow beam tank stiffeners free of any foreign material,
pipes free of any foreign material; check cleaning instructions and quality
control requirements has been implemented
 best practice for the inside of main tanks and core/coil clamping structures, to
be painted white to enhance visual acuity during internal inspections
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 tank shields and shunts either need to be insulated and grounded at one point
or continuously welded on the tank wall: check for contamination risks
 gasket grooves smooth and within specified tolerances
 surface preparation should comply with ISO 8501 series or equivalent
 paint finishes should comply with ISO 12944 or equivalent
7.4 Core Cutting/Stacking:

The following conditions and work practices should be followed:
 cutting and slitting machines shall receive regular cleaning and maintenance:
cutting blades shall be routinely replaced; check that maintenance routines
and quality/maintenance control requirements are implemented
 burrs shall be within specified tolerances: no slithers, rust, or other physical
damage observed
 any routine measurements, monitoring of incoming core steel?
a. coating consistent with non-corrosive look, control cards
b. core laminates routinely measured to confirm dimensions
 level core build table, laminations for the core build are undamaged and up-
ending the core shall not allow movement, core deformation or core
lamination damage
 core fully supported during stacking process
 core plate insulation shall remain undamaged
 finished core build shall be stored covered with a protective covering
 earthing joint mechanically strong and insulated to prevent accidental contact
with core
 core clamping structure properly earthed with metal to metal connections
 cooling duct assembly shall be an integrated part of the stacking process and
shall allow adequate oil flow
 core build routinely measured to confirm dimensions
 mitred joint building gaps small as possible and within least factory and
Standards tolerances
 core stack within tolerances
 good practice is to confirm core inter-laminar resistance during manufacturing
process
 use of steel hammers, mallets other metal devices directly on the core is
prohibited
 no contaminants on or around work area
 workers must use protective shoes and gloves
7.5 Winding Room:

 winding machines routinely cleaned - no contaminants inside mandrels

 windings manufactured on horizontal machines are to be placed on floor on
clean material prior to being upended
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 cable and winding conductor joints manufacture controlled to confirm that the
joints are mechanically and electrically capable
 access controls to winding area: if necessary, environmental controls for coil
winding area
 conductor reels free of rough edges and contaminants
 no conductor insulation damage or contamination: eliminate processes that
could cause inadvertent insulation damage
 spacers, insulation blocks, oil direction washers and other winding parts
correctly installed
 all permanent winding conductor ties/tapes non-shrinking type
 winding cylinders pre-dried and sized prior to winding process
 winding machine mandrel properly sized with adequate winding cylinder
support conductors under correct tension during winding manufacture
 no conductor joints within windings unless an integral part of the design
 conductor properly supported from reels to winding machine with smooth,
clean roller supports: conductors allowed to touch the floor?
 inner and outer winding crossovers and transpositions made correctly -
improper or over bending could create electrical clearance or oil flow
problems
 apply additional insulation to all crossover bends
 all spacers and insulation blocks shall be made from high density insulation
board and have rounded and smooth edges: no sharp edges shall be
permitted adjacent to conductors
 all temporary blocks shall have smooth and rounded edges
 brazing performed in manner that minimises contamination and conductor
insulation damage
 shield rings properly stored and handled to ensure no damage or deformation
 shield rings correctly installed and positioned
 completed windings to have protective covering
 oil guides installed in manner to not adversely affect oil flow through windings
 no tools or glue containers temporarily placed on windings
 windings to be protected from contamination risks from overhead structures
including cranes
7.6 Winding Sizing:

The following conditions and work practices should be observed:
 access to sizing area should be controlled: if necessary, the sizing area

environment should also be controlled
 no conductor insulation damage
 radial and axial spacer and blocks need to be properly aligned
 separators and blocks need to be held in place solely by winding clamping
pressure or glued in place: blocks must not be glued to conductor insulation.
 factory shall verify the controlled and measureable winding drying, pressing,
nesting and sizing processes with the aim of stabilising windings for positive
axial pressure during complete service life of the transformer.
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 winding lifting equipment will have cushioned supports and no chains or ropes
shall be in direct contact of windings
 conductors shall be wound tightly so that movement cannot occur in service
and harm the transformer.
 oil ducts shall remain properly open when sizing pressure is applied
 excessive winding radial build up must be avoided and not prevent correct
positioning of radial and axial separators
 radial build up build of cross-over and transposition bends shall minimal and
not exceed the maximum permitted winding inside and outside diameters
 winding height shall be within specified tolerance
 windings axial adjustments
 conductor ends must be covered to prevent damage to windings or injury to
personnel
 completed windings shall be provided with a protective covering to prevent
contamination
7.7 Active Part Assembly:

The following conditions and work practices should be observed:
 no contamination in or around work area

 instructions to be available on how to avoid contamination in case of cutting,
crimping, brazing and top yoke stacking
 assembly platforms to be fitted with front barriers to prevent objects falling
from the platforms into core and coil assemblies
 complete alignment of winding radial spacer columns and blocking
 protective covering applied to minimise ingress of contamination especially
during brazing or crimping operations
 support structures for connections and leads must be mechanically sound and
have rounded edges and no abnormalities
 use vacuum cleaners equipped with proper hose attachments to clean small
openings and on no account clean these parts using compressed air hoses
 workers should not carry items that could accidentally fall into transformer,
such as jewellery, pencils, tools, etc.
 upper core yoke needs to be properly stacked into position maintaining
building gaps and properly supported with no waviness
 core lamination tips at the yoke ends must be kept separate and not bent over
thus allowing contact with adjacent core plates
 core shall have no visible physical damage or rust: any laid up or built core
having visible edge damage should be rejected.
 no foreign material/contamination should be visible on the core and coil
assembly, including within those difficult to see areas such as the clamping
structure or winding oil ducts
 no evidence of excessive or misuse of glue
 winding support blocks and pressure rings need to be properly aligned and
permanently affixed in position
 bolted connections (electrical or mechanical) need a locking mechanism
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 each electrical bolted connections shall have a two bolt fixing at least
whenever possible when possible to ensure security of the fixing and
minimise twisting (“scissoring”)
 leads and connections should not be excessively insulated and the insulation
thickness must be controlled and fully documented
 core clamping structures need to be properly earthed with metal to metal
connections, and insulated if necessary
 temporary use of metallic wires or ties is not acceptable
 insulation barriers need to be properly fixed in position
 pre-test check measurements on the active part during or after assembly are
essential e.g. ratio, vector group, insulation resistances, winding resistance,
losses, RSO, etc.
7.8 Final Dry Out:

Correct processing of the completed core and coil assemblies prior to their tanking is of
utmost importance. Any error in adjusting time, temperature, pressure, moisture
extraction etc. can weaken the operational capability of power transformers. The
following parts of the drying process (typically vapour phase) must be evaluated:
 method of final drying

 criteria for monitoring, controlling and termination of process
 criteria for handling dried parts
 quality procedure and documentation of process variables
 controlled processing of core and coil assembly dry-out prior to final clamping
Verify the processed used after drying to ensure the windings are stabilised with the
positive axial pressure needed to ensure the full service life of the transformer.
7.9 Final Assembly:

During the final assembly process, the core and coil assembly is clamped, retightened
and tanked. Other components are then fitted to the tank, including coolers, the
conservator, bushings, control cabinets, etc. Vacuum and oil filling occurs after final
assembly in preparation for factory acceptance testing (FAT).
 final winding clamping pressure applied after the final dry out process and just
prior to the tanking of the active part, time tolerances for those processes to
be verified
 the clamping process criteria, such as pressure and dimensional tolerances
and jacking method, shall be verified and recorded
 internal bolted connections shall be properly torqued, locked, and marked to
enable confirmation
 the tanking process within drawing dimensions to confirm accurate
positioning, mounting of cover, and welding or bolting of cover to the tank
 vacuum time/measurement, speed of oil filling, standing time, oil
filtering/circulation, particle count during the oil fill process shall be verified
 conduits and cable trays shall be properly secured and supported
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 conduits and cable trays need to be free of internal sharp and jagged edges
that could damage wire insulation during installation: conduits free of foreign
material, such as shot blast
 cooling fans properly secured to radiators with protective pad material
minimising radiator paint wear over time that could lead to radiator leaks
 outer tank coating touched up prior to transport
 control cabinets designed and manufactured per specifications
8 TESTING
The factory’s capability to test transformers can be assessed in various ways,
considering the suitability of test equipment, the competence of the test engineers,
compliance with standards, and the documented test procedures.
8.1 Test Accuracy
8.1.1 Calibration of test equipment

 Reports
 Check on calibration reports, validity date
8.1.2 Accuracy Analysis of Measurements

For the test equipment and test methods the accuracy level is normally expressed in
uncertainty terms. The likelihood that the accuracy is within a specific tolerance (See
e.g. Publication EA-4/02, (European co-operation for Accreditation) is calculated for each
measurement (especially for Losses and Temperatures) in order to reach and provide
the real level of transformers performance. Provide a report on established uncertainties
of measurements.
8.2 Test equipment

The factory may be asked to provide the following information:
 Is the test laboratory on-site or elsewhere? Is the test laboratory separate

from other parts of the factory and shielded from them? Is it possible to test
transformers without disrupting production, and vice versa (this applies
especially to noise measurements and partial discharge testing)?
 Is the factory capable of performing all the tests and measurements that the
purchaser requires, e.g. performance tests at different frequencies, dielectric
tests, temperature rise test, noise measurements using different methods,
testing of reactors, etc?
 Where are short-circuit tests performed (i.e. which external laboratory)? Is
there a reference list available?
 Is the factory capable of performing oil analyses themselves, or are certain
tests outsourced? What sampling techniques are used?
 Can the factory perform chemical, mechanical and thermal tests on insulating
materials? These tests are needed for control of certain processes, e.g.
vapour phase drying.
 What are the factory’s capabilities for testing transformers at site? Are tests
performed by the factory themselves, or by a contractor? Typical site tests
30
include capacitance measurements, FRA, insulation resistance

measurements, etc. In some cases the purchaser may require more stringent
testing, including applied voltage, induced voltage, no-load loss, and even
impulse.
8.3 Test engineers

The competence level of test engineers depends very much on their experience level
with transformer testing. Some theoretical background in electrical engineering as well
as some basic knowledge of transformer design is also necessary.
As was mentioned in sections 5.6 and 5.7 above, design engineers should be kept fully
informed of test results, and any differences between calculated and measured values,
and of any test failures. Pre-measurements can be particularly useful in detecting
possible problems at an early stage.
Does the management style support the professional development of the test engineers?
8.4 Standards
Testing according to different standards may vary. The test engineers must be aware of
the procedures that are used in different standards.
Some purchasers specify specific tests or test procedures that are not described in the
international standards. The factory must be able to understand and execute the test
procedures according to purchaser’s demand.
8.5 Documentation
 Is there a standard format for the test programme with all the tests included in
the correct order?
 Does the test programme include all the acceptance criteria?
 The quality of the test reports can be demonstrated with previous ones,
showing the format, the presentation of measured data.
 Does the electrical designer sign the report before final approval?
 Is sufficient explanation given in case of abnormalities during testing?
 Is the generation of the test reports (partially) automated?
8.6 Failure investigation

 ability to investigate failures:
Is knowledge and equipment, necessary for dealing with complex failure
investigations, available? The nature of these problems can be very different:
a. dielectric (PD, flashover)
b. exceeding noise limits and or tank wall vibration limits
c. overheating of windings, core, tank or other structural parts
d. DGA analysis to track down failure
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 procedures:
Is there a procedure to follow when a test failure occurs or when there are
major deviations between measured values and calculated values? This
procedure should describe the way to handle and the people that are to be
informed.
 involvement of design engineers:
In what way are the design engineers part of the testing process? Do they
witness testing on a regular basis, or only occasionally?
 communication with purchasers:
What is the involvement of the purchaser and/or it’s consultant in the
investigation process?
 documentation of failure investigation:
Test failures, with nature of the problem, investigation of the fault, and final
solution of the problem, must be well documented in reports.
8.7 Others items

 the planning of the testing activities and scheduling should be organised
properly: purchaser should be informed about the content of the test plan as
well as the test schedule
 the factory’s ability to meet the planned schedules should be investigated
 an opening and closing meeting prior to, and after testing, is highly
recommended to exclude any mismatch, misunderstanding or open ends in
the test procedure
 there should be adequate facilities to accommodate purchasers during the
witness testing process: a comfortable “purchasers room” with work space,
and all necessary things for staying a relatively long period of time is highly
recommended
9 WARRANTY AND SERVICES
9.1 Warranty
In commercial and consumer transactions, a warranty is an obligation or guarantee that
an article or service sold is as factually stated or legally implied by the seller, and that
often provides for a specific remedy such as repair or replacement in the event the
article or service fails to meet the warranty. A breach of warranty occurs when the
promise is broken, i.e. a product is defective or not as should be expected by a
reasonable purchaser.
In business and legal transactions, a warranty is an assurance by one party to the other
party that certain facts or conditions are true or will happen; the other party is permitted
to rely on that assurance and seek some type of remedy if it is not true or followed.
An important part of assessing a new factory’s capabilities is considering the warranty
that is being offered. Often national legalisation makes demands on minimum
requirements for mandatory warranties. Such mandatory warranties can in many cases
be too weak, and reliable factories can often give better warranties than the mandatory
ones. In addition purchasers of transformers should have their own opinion of their
needs and demands to reduce the risk involved in acquisition of expensive equipment
such as Power Transformers.
32
The demands on warranty must of course be a part of the contract terms, but it could (or
should) also be a part of the requirements when assessing factories in a prequalification
process.
A warranty should have a length that reflects circumstances like criticality of the unit,
importance in the power system and anticipated lifetime of the equipment. Transformers
have a life expectancy of many years and must of course operate within its limits without
any operational problems. There are examples of utilities who demand a warranty
period of up to five years after the unit is ready for operation at the site of operation. The
actual length of the warranty a factory can offer could be an indication of the factory’s
confidence in the product.
When failures and operational problems occur within the warranty period, the factory
must take all the necessary measures to help minimise operational difficulties and
outages whenever possible. During the warranty period the factory must have a high
awareness and must be prepared to immediately respond to the site in order to
investigate the incident and make the necessary corrective actions in a very short
duration.
These items should be considered when evaluating warranties:
 what terms of warranty can the factory offer, i.e. the coverage comprised by
the warranty
 factory’s guaranteed response time in case of an incident
 can the factory provide a special warranty against design defects that arise
after the term of the warranty
 access and delivery times for spare parts, such as tap-changers, auxiliary
equipment, production of new windings, etc.
 access to transformer experts
 experience from other purchasers
 the legal situation and legislation in the country of the factory
The following additional clauses can also be considered when specifying the warranty
requirements:
 the factory is committed to make the necessary repairs in case of defects,

failures, or in such cases when the cause of the defect is uncertain
 can the repair work be immediately performed by the purchaser at the cost to
the factory and without foregoing notice to the factory, if operational reasons
hinder the factory from performing the work?
 the purchaser shall be entitled to have repairs performed at the cost to the
factory, if similar defects are present on other transformers
The purchaser can demand the contract work to be reversed, if defects are discovered
that are the result of insufficient design, construction, materials, or works.
9.2 Services
9.2.1 Sales organisation

It is important for purchasers to meet with the sales organisations during the
prequalification process in order to obtain sufficient information pertaining to factory’s
capabilities, including but not limited to the following:
33
 the range of products, ratings, design and technology, manufacturing facilities,

testing, etc.
 any limitations in technology or capability
 reactions to questions regarding factory’s capabilities - is the information
complete and easily understood?
 access to the factory’s technical experts
 legal aspects - fulfilment of public, global or special national requirements
 fulfilment of normative requirements, standards and requirements for local
installations - are such known for the factory?
 safety standards in the country of installation - are they known and will the
factory be able to fulfil these?
 sales staff - their competence and technical know how
9.2.2 After sales arrangement

The factory’s capability regarding after sales services is also important and must be
assessed carefully. A reliable factory should be able to offer condition assessment,
repairs and maintenance services in all the parts of the world they are doing business.
The factory must also be able to perform such services in cases where the transformer is
in service at a place far away from the production site. Examples of such services are
listed below:
Condition assessment, repairs and maintenance services:
 condition assessment
a. dissolved gas analysis (DGA), other oil tests, and cellulose condition
(DP and/or Furans)
 in-house oil laboratory or third party?
 experience regarding interpretation and recommendations of corrective
actions.
b. assessment on site regarding functionality, mechanical wear, corrosion –
by means of functional testing, visual inspections or measurements
c. on-site testing capabilities:
 voltage ratio, winding resistance, core and core-clamping grounding
system, etc.
 frequency response analysis (FRA)
 winding power factor and capacitance
 cellulose moisture content
 induced with partial discharge measurement
 acoustic emission
d. residual life analysis
 transformer repair capabilities and offerings
a. minor or larger, such as windings, coil and core structure, tap-changer,
tank, bushings, etc.
b. repair locations
 on-site
 local workshop or manufacturer’s facility
 maintenance service offerings
a. tap-changers
b. tank and accessories
c. auxiliary equipment
34
 oil maintenance:
a. reclaiming
b. reconditioning
c. re-inhibiting
d. staff experience and competence
e. oil maintenance equipment - suitability, capacity, and environmental
impact from the process
Other considerations to be addressed:

 factory’s response time to service issues, such as time for experts to visit the
site to perform failure investigation, anticipated lead-time for spare parts,
tools and experts to perform the necessary repairs
 service department organisation and availability
 maintenance offerings
 training and technology transfer internally and externally
 spare part inventory and availability
 manuals detailing transport, erection, and final commissioning requirements,
and maintenance/operation recommendations
10 PROJECT MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE

As depicted within Figure 1 of this guide, the delivery of high quality power transformers
involves many steps which require a much tightened coordination and a systematic
approach to determine optimally the decisions for transformer procurement. Such
coordination is called power transformer project management, which is an important
part to ensure the success of transformer procurement and mitigate risks for the
purchaser and the factory.
It is therefore critical at the stage of pre-qualification of a manufacturer or factory
assessment to know how the awarded contract will be managed to secure a high quality
product. Hence, project management skills shall be assessed by analysing the project
management organisation of the factory. At a minimum the project management
structure should contain the following items which are clearly defined:
 communication guide
 project schedule
 contract review (how grey areas are managed?)
 design review
 risk management
 transport
 site installation and commissioning
11 HUMAN RESOURCES, HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT
11.1 Human resources
11.1.1 Aims
As part of the inspection of a transformer factory, the purchaser may wish to gain an
insight into their human resources policies and practices. This may provide reassurance
35
that the factory is being managed in a responsible manner and that its employees, and
any contractors are being adequately cared for.
11.1.2 Legal and Cultural Aspects

Inspectors need to be aware that many aspects of human resource management are
subject to legal controls. In general, these differ in scope and requirements in different
jurisdictions. A degree of sensitivity and understanding may be required on the part of
the inspector. Inspectors are also advised to take into account differences in culture,
levels of economic development, general levels of education and other related aspects.
Certain aspects of human resource management are subject to internationally agreed
minimum standards in the form of International Labour Organisation (ILO) conventions.
Inspectors should be conversant with the requisite standards. In the case of serious
concerns, inspectors are strongly advised to seek independent local advice.
11.1.3 Industrial Relations

Inspectors should seek to reassure themselves, so far as it is possible to do so, that the
management of the factory are complying with all the legal and regulatory requirements
of the jurisdiction where the factory is located. This can be very challenging and
inspectors may wish to limit themselves to seeking assurances from the management
that the factory is complying with all legal and regulatory requirements. Such
assurances should preferably be obtained in writing.
The inspector may wish to check the following points:
 is there an independent trade union or staff association in the factory? If so,

what influence does it have?
 are there signs of antagonism between the management and the employees
or contractors? For example leaflets critical of the management being
distributed, posters critical of the management on display, signs of
antagonism between members of the management team and employees and
contractors.
 has there been any strikes at the factory? Are any strikes planned or
possible?
 is there evidence of disputes between management and employees or
contractors, work disruptions, faulty work?
11.1.4 Recruitment
The inspector may wish to check that the management are following good/best practices
with regard to recruitment. To do so the inspector may wish to check the following
points:
 vacancies advertised openly (internally and externally).

 does the factory have an equal opportunities or non-discrimination policy? If
so what is its scope? (Please refer to ILO convention 111 for further
guidance).
 is there any obvious evidence of discrimination or favouritism?
 is any material on public display which might create an atmosphere that would
promote discrimination or favouritism? e.g. pornographic calendars, racist or
sectarian posters.
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 do technicians and engineers have appropriate qualifications? Are there any

specific minimum requirements.
11.1.5 Training
Each transformer factory must ensure that it has available sufficient employees with the
correct balance of skills. The number of employees required, and the correct balance of
skills, depends on a range of factors including the output of the factory, the level of
automation and the proportion of production which is sub-contracted. The amount of
training required also depends on a range of factors, including the number of employees,
the level of skills and education of the new employees and the turn-over of employees.
Certain employees require knowledge and skills which are unique to large transformer
manufacturing, e.g. design engineers, test engineers, coil winders, quality control
engineers and inspectors.
 Is the transformer factory using agency or contract workers? If so, what

proportion of the workforce do they represent and what is their role? Does the
factory seem excessively reliant on agency or contract workers?
 Is the transformer factory subcontracting production which would normally be
done in house? If so, to whom and what quality control procedures apply?
 Does the transformer factory have an adequate appraisal programme to
identify training needs? Is there a system to internal candidates for
promotion?
 Does the transformer factory have an adequate training programme for
specialist staff?
11.1.6 Vulnerable Workers

Use of forced labour for transformer production is not acceptable. Use of prisoners may
be acceptable in certain circumstances, e.g. as part of a rehabilitation programme
organised with the lawful authorities. Where this is the case a degree of transparency
with the purchasers is required. For further guidance please refer to ILO conventions 29
and 105.
Use of child labour for transformer production is not acceptable. Young workers may
require special protection, e.g. from long working hours or from work which is inherently
dangerous and too arduous. The minimum age for working and for doing dangerous
work varies in different countries. Inspectors are advised that the absolute minimum age
for working full-time is fourteen, in accordance with ILO convention 138.
11.2 Health, Safety and Working Environment
11.2.1 Working Environment

 Are there areas for eating and drinking separate from critical production
areas, i.e. insulation components, coil winding, assembly? Are there signs of
food or drink being consumed outside these areas? Is there any food waste
in the bins?
 Are there adequate and sanitary washing facilities for all employees and
contractors?
37
11.2.2 Working Hours

 Do employees seem to be excessively tired or stressed? Is this affecting

either their welfare or their ability to perform their work correctly?
 What is the length of the working day? What is the length of the working
week? What maximum limits apply to these? (Please refer to ILO
conventions 1 and 14 for further guidance).
 When is the weekend or weekly rest period? Are rest periods regular,
adequate and observed?
 What public and customary holidays does the factory observe?
 How much paid holiday are employees entitled to? (Please refer to ILO
convention 132 for further guidance).
 What measures have the management taken to avoid disruption to production
during popular holiday periods? Is there an annual factory shut down?
11.2.3 Security
Transformer factories are inherently dangerous places for members of the general
public, especially children. The management should ensure that access to the factory is
fully controlled. Access should be limited to employees, contractors and visitors.
 Are health and safety inductions provided for all employees, contractors and
visitors? Was the inspector given such an induction?
 So that they can be accounted for in an emergency, is the entry and exit of all
employees, contractors and visitors recorded? Was the inspector’s entry and
exit recorded?
 Is there sufficient security to prevent the theft of valuable equipment,
components or materials? What precautions are taken? Do they seem to be
effective?
11.2.4 Health and Safety Management

The management of occupational health and safety is the subject of OHSAS 18000, an
international standard broadly similar in concept to ISO 9000 for quality management
and ISO 14000 for environmental management. The general principle of OHSAS 18000
is the same as both ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 – plan, do, check, act. Planning begins
with a statement of policy. As with quality and environmental management systems, top
management must take responsibility for the implementation of the health and safety
management system. One or more members of the top management team must be
appointed to oversee the implementation of the health and safety management system
and present regular reports on its operation to the rest of the top management.
The inspector may wish to check the following points concerning health and safety
management:
 Is the factory OHSAS 18000 certified?

 What is the factory’s health and safety policy? Is it on prominent display?
 Is the health and safety policy adequate in scope? Does it seem to be used
as the basis for health and safety management?
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 Which member of the top management team is responsible for health and
safety? Is part of the role delegated to a subordinate manager? If so, to
whom and how much communication is there between the different
managers?
 Do employees and contractors know who the health and safety manager is?
Do employees have adequate access to the health and safety manager to
raise concerns they might have? If they do so, will they risk disciplinary
action?
 How do employees participate in the health and safety management system?
Who are their representatives and how they appointed? Are they sufficiently
independent from management?
 Do employees and contractors know who their health and safety
representatives are?
 Is the health and safety management system adequately documented?
 Are management making good use of the hierarchy of controls, i.e.:
a. elimination
b. substitution
c. engineering controls
d. administrative controls, including signs and warnings
e. personal protective equipment
 Are there adequate warning signs in the factory, e.g. informing of hazards in
particular areas, informing what personal protective equipment is required?
 Are all employees and contractors equipped with adequate personal
protective equipment? Is this provided free of charge? Are employees and
contractors using it correctly? Was the inspector provided with personal
protective equipment during his or her visit?
 Are there adequate numbers of trained first aiders? How are first aiders
identified?
 Are there adequate provisions for preventing and controlling fires? Are there
adequate means for raising the alarm in the event of fire?
 Are there adequate fire exits? Have any of them been obstructed for any
reason? Are there adequate muster points? Are these suitably located, i.e.
remote from oil storage areas or oil-filled equipment?
 Are there adequate numbers of fire marshals to help with evacuation? How
are fire marshals identified?
 Are the fire alarms tested regularly? Are fire drills carried out regularly? Is
the factory inspected regularly by the local fire service?
 Are the accidents reported to the local authorities?
 Are incidents adequately investigated? Do the management seem to learn
from incidents?
11.2.5 Dangerous Chemicals

Use of asbestos gaskets is widespread in certain countries. Transformer oil may contain
certain dangerous chemicals, including furans, PCAs and PCBs. The factory should
ensure that the oil used for manufacture and test is free from furans and PCBs and does
not contain excessive amounts of PCAs. For further guidance please refer to IEC
60296.
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12 TRANSPORT
12.1 General
This part of the guide is written with the intention of giving general information and
guidance for inspectors, to reduce the possibility of damage or delays in transport.
Transformers covered by this guide are not, in general, designed to be transported whilst
fully assembled and are also not, in general, designed to be transported regularly. If
there are no special requirements then the purchaser should expect the bushings and
turrets, the coolers, conservator and associated pipe work and the control cabinets, but
not the associated wiring, to be removed for transport.
Power transformers covered by this guide are in general oil-immersed. It is possible to
transport such transformers either drained of oil or filled with dry gas, or else partly oil
filled, usually to cover the top of the core. In most cases transport drained of oil and
filled with dry gas is preferable, as it reduces the transport mass and allows the oil to be
transported separately using a method approved by the appropriate authorities. Where
dry gas is used, this is usually at a slight positive pressure and the transformer is usually
equipped with a gas cylinder for topping-up and a gauge to indicate whether any gas has
been lost. These must be positioned at an accessible location on the main tank, where
they are not likely to be damaged by normal handling during transport.
Cigré working group A2.42 on transformer transportation will provide more details in due
course.
12.2 Delivery Terms

Particular purchasers have requirements for delivery terms which do not, in general, vary
from one order to the next. These can therefore be discussed, in general terms, with the
factory at the time of the inspection. The exact delivery terms form part of the
commercial agreement between the purchaser and the factory. The purchaser must
decide where they wish responsibility to be transferred from the factory to themselves.
Greatest clarity over responsibility will be obtained where there is no transfer of
responsibility during transport. This is not always practical, as either the purchaser or
the factory may find it very challenging to arrange local transport at the remote end of the
voyage.
There are four main options available:
12.2.1 Purchaser to Collect (INCOTERMS Group E)

This method is suitable where the purchaser wishes to arrange for all transport
separately from the factory. For transformers covered by this guide, the purchaser may
require the factory to load the transformer onto the transport.
12.2.2 Main Transport Arranged by Purchaser (INCOTERMS Group F)

This method is suitable where the purchaser wishes to arrange for main transport
separately from the factory. Local transport to an agreed location is arranged by the
factory.
40
12.2.3 Main Transport Arranged by Factory (INCOTERMS Group C)

This method is suitable where the purchaser wishes to arrange for local transport
separately from the factory. Main transport to an agreed location is arranged by the
factory.
12.2.4 Factory to Deliver (INCOTERMS Group D)

This method is suitable where the purchaser requires the factory to arrange for all
transport. It is particularly suitable where the purchaser also requires the factory to
arrange for installation and commissioning. This is also possible with other delivery
terms, although making the necessary arrangements may be more complicated. For
transformers covered by this guide, the purchaser may require the factory to arrange for
the transformers to be unloaded from the transport.
For further guidance on different options available, please refer to INCOTERMS
(International Commercial Terms).
12.3 Methods
Transformers and transformer components covered by this guide may be transported by
one or more of the following methods:
12.3.1 Air
This is a most unusual method for transformers of the size covered by this guide. It may
be a feasible option in certain special cases, e.g. where a transformer is required
urgently or when components are missing. Special limitations on mass and dimensions
apply, which will require discussion between the purchaser, the factory and the
transporter. Local transport by an alternative method will be required at each end of the
voyage.
12.3.2 Barge/ Coastal Ship

This is a popular method in countries which are well served by inland waterways, e.g.
Central Europe. It is often used to move transformers from the factory to a sea port for
onward transport by an ocean going ship. Limitations on dimensions and mass are not
usually very restrictive. Transport by costal ship raises the possibility of damage to the
transformer during adverse weather. Local transport by an alternative method is likely to
be required at each end of the voyage, unless the transformer factory has direct access
to a suitable inland or costal port.
12.3.3 Ocean Going Ship

This is the most popular method for moving transformers long distances. In many cases
there is no feasible alternative. Transformers covered by this guide are, in general,
transported as hold cargo on specialised ships which are equipped with their own cranes
for loading and unloading. The practice of transporting large transformers as deck cargo
on container ships has now largely ceased, although it sometimes practiced for medium
transformers which are first packaged into open containers. Components are usually
packed first into wooden crates and then into containers. Note that certain countries
may require the crates to be specially treated to prevent the introduction of pests and
diseases.
41
Limitations on dimensions and mass are not usually very restrictive. It raises the
possibility of damage to the transformers during adverse weather. Corrosion may also
be a problem, especially for transformers transported as deck cargo. Choice of routes is
limited and certain routes may not available year-round owing to adverse weather,
especially cyclones. Piracy has in recent years caused disruption to certain routes,
especially those through the Suez Canal. Local transport by an alternative method will
be required at each end of the voyage.
12.3.4 Rail
This is a popular method in countries with an adequate rail infrastructure, e.g.
Continental Europe, North America. Limitations on mass and especially on dimensions
may be restrictive. The largest transformers must be transported using a special
Schnabel wagon, which may require special tank design considerations. Severe shocks
during handling are quite common. Local transport by an alternative method will be
required, unless the site has its own rail siding.
12.3.5 Road
This is a popular method for local transport. It may also be used over longer distances in
countries where transport by other methods is impractical. Limitations on dimensions
and especially on mass may be restrictive. The largest transformers must be
transported using a special girder-frame trailer, which may require special design
considerations.
Certain factories may not be familiar with certain transport methods. Where these
impose special design requirements, these should be discussed between the purchaser
and the factory, preferably before the order is placed and again at the design review
stage.
Where local transport close to the purchaser’s site is likely to impose restrictive limits on
dimensions and mass, the purchaser should inform the factory of these requirements.
This is particularly important for transformers which will be installed in inaccessible
locations, e.g. underground sub-stations in hydro-electric schemes.
12.4 Voyage Assessment

To be able for the purchaser to assess the risk during transport, all possible
circumstances likely to be encountered during the supply chain from manufacturing site
to final destination should be reviewed. The following considerations for the purchaser
to its sites shall always be taken into account.
 anticipated transportation equipment – ocean vessel, barge, rail, truck etc.

 number of lifting operations / type of lifting gear
 number of trans-shipments / carriers’ hubs
 weather and environmental circumstances during voyage
 infrastructure along the routing – ports, terminals and road condition
 necessary permits, government and local regulations
 expected maximum transit time including intermediate storage and storage
after delivery
 allocation of responsibility for the transportation related to the terms of sale
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12.4.1 Assessment of the Factory’s Preparation capability

 design rules of goods to be shipped, transport plan
 packaging rules and instructions, markings and identification numbers
 unit preparations
 closure / sealing of unit openings
 removal of fragile / protruding non-integral components – packed separately
using packaging standards
 moisture protection
 cushioning of non-removable protrusions i.e. air pressure valves, hoses,
piping, conduit, etc.
 shock indicators/impact recorders (registering g-forces, the time of force and
duration): two impact recorders are preferable, with one installed on the core
structure; the factory and the purchaser should agree on a procedure to be
followed in the event of an alarm
 testing and inspections required when moving from one mode of transport to
another: any concerns should be reported to the factory and purchaser
immediately.
12.4.2 Preparation and Execution of transport

 is there a transport coordinator at the factory?
 are there insurance policies for all sub-contractors (freighters, lifters) and
other obligations?
 is a “Transport Manual” established for each transport by the transport
coordinator? It might contain:
a. transportation documents and checklists
b. considerations for all lifts
c. controls on cargo transfer point and securing requirements
d. contracts with sub-contractors
 the Transport Manual should be attached to the goods before shipping from
factory.
 is all documentation, such as photos taken before the transport, stored in the
Transport Manual?
 is a system established for post-transport feedback on transport parameters
(e.g. shocks, temperature, etc) and on damages, if any, both to increase
experience as well for expeditious claim handling? It is critical to take pictures
of damages and include as part of any claim.
12.4.3 Personnel Training / Education Considerations

Cargo risk control requires specific knowledge of transformer transportation methods
from the factory to their final destination and of the inherent risks associated with each
transportation method. Are personnel involved in the transport chain trained / educated
with respect to all elements of the transportation chain?
12.4.4 Standards of Care for Transportation / Freight Forwarding Vendors

It is important to note that utmost care is taken by freight forwarders while executing this
work. They shall be responsible for following various guidelines for the loading,
43
securing, transportation and discharge during the different types of transportation

methods:
 Cargo securing – sea, rail and road

 Marine tow and barge
 Marine vessel
12.4.5 Checks for All Shipments, Lifting, Ocean vessels

 transportation contractors, specialised in the transportation of power
transformers, must be used; they must be well established and reputable,
financially stable, and be able to respond to liabilities
 in case of sub-contracting (if mutually agreed upon) the sub-contractor should
be subject to the identical standards as the contractor, but the contractor
should retain liability
 all transportation contractors shall verify existence, adequacy and condition of
their handling and transport equipment at all points throughout the course of
transit
 unit diagram(s) and / or information to all vendors with specific dimensions,
centre of gravities, spreader bar arrangements, lifting configurations, and
recommended lashing / securing points shall all be provided within the
transport manual
 all cranes and other lifting equipment shall be certified to handle safe working
load capacity
 vessels should preferably have a tonnage of more than 10 times the weight of
the transformer: if a smaller vessel is considered, insurer must be informed of
the vessels IMO number
 the transport coordinator shall contact the captain of the vessel to fully explain
the possible risks of damages and thereby to avoid high speed through rough
seas
12.5 Inspection on Receipt

Damage during transport can take various forms, some of which can be repaired at site
and some of which will require the transformer to be returned to a factory, although not
necessarily to the original manufacturing facility. Severe damage due to mishandling is
usually apparent during an external visual inspection. A reputable transport contractor
shall be expected to advise the factory and the purchaser if any serious problems have
arisen, e.g. the transformer being dropped. Severe internal damage can result from
sudden impacts or from adverse weather during sea voyages. This damage usually
takes the form of the core and windings shifting in the tank or the partial collapse of the
core. It can often be detected by measuring the core and frame insulation resistance.
An internal inspection may be required to verify the condition of the transformer.
The factory and the purchaser should agree on a procedure for inspecting the
transformer upon its receipt before the transformer is shipped, preferably at the design
review stage. If the transformer is trans-shipped at any point, the same procedure
should also be followed.
The inspection may include the following:
 external visual inspection for signs of mishandling

 check gas pressure gauge
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 check all impact recorder(s)

 measure core/frame insulation resistance: most designs have accessible core
and frame earthing terminals: on many designs, these will be on the cover;
means of safe access to the cover for the inspection shall therefore be
required
 frequency response analysis, which will usually require special test bushings
to be fitted for transport; it is highly likely that these will be on the cover:
means of safe access to the cover for the inspection shall therefore be
required
An internal inspection may be necessary if there is an indication of a problem from one
of the other checks. This should be carried in a safe and responsible manner, ensuring
that there is no risk to those undertaking the inspection and minimising the risk of
damage to the internal parts of the transformer. Special precautions shall be followed to
prevent moisture ingress during the internal inspection, and it is preferred that a
continuous supply of clean dry air must be maintained during the inspection. The quality
of the air should be monitored continuously during the inspection. An adequate
procedure and equipment should be in place to evacuate those undertaking the
inspection should any problem arise.
13 INSTALLATION, COMMISSIONING AND STORAGE
13.1 Installation and commissioning
13.1.1 General
Certain purchasers may prefer to make their own arrangements for installation and
commissioning, separately from the factory. Where this is the case, the factory should
provide written guidance concerning their requirements. It is preferable for a
representative of the transformer factory to witness installation and commissioning, to
ensure that these requirements are met.
As part of their quality management system, the transformer factory should have in place
documented procedures for storage, installation and commissioning, including a
specimen or typical work plan. The inspector may wish to review this documentation,
including the specimen or typical work plan (“method statement and risk assessment”),
to ensure that this will meet the purchaser’s needs. If the purchaser has any special
requirements concerning installation and commissioning it might be helpful to discuss
these with the transformer factory as part of the capability assessment, and again at the
tender stage.
Various checks and tests need to be carried out before and during commissioning to
ensure the safe operation of the transformer. Both the purchaser and the transformer
factory should inform one another of the checks they require. Each should review the
other’s requirements to ensure that all necessary checks and tests are made.
13.1.2 Oil
The purchaser and the factory should confirm the suitability of the oil to be used at site
and its compatibility with the oil used for manufacturing and factory tests. The oil is
normally tested for contamination prior to oil-filling of the transformer at site.
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13.1.3 Auxiliary Electrical Wiring

In some jurisdictions, auxiliary electrical wiring must either be done by a suitably
qualified craft worker or else inspected by a suitably qualified craft worker when it is
complete. In such circumstances it may be preferable for the transformer factory to work
with a suitable local sub-contractor, who can ensure compliance.
13.1.4 Health and Safety

The transformer factory and the site may be in different jurisdictions, and therefore
subject to different health and safety legislation. Employees or contractors sent from the
factory to assist with installation and commissioning may be subject to legal controls
from their home jurisdiction. Where a transformer factory has little experience in the
jurisdiction where the site is located the purchaser may need to inform them of local legal
controls, and of suitable partners who can arrange for training etc. In such
circumstances it may be preferable for the transformer factory to work with a suitable
local sub-contractor, who can ensure compliance.
Installation and commissioning may involve work in close proximity to energised parts.
Work near energised parts is inherently dangerous and could require additional training
and oversight. The purchaser shall make the factory aware of this possibility and
provide any special guidelines.
13.2 Storage
Power transformers may need to be stored for short periods of time to accommodate
constraints in manufacturing, transport or installation. This storage may take place at
either the factory’s works, the installation site or, more unusually, a suitable storage
facility at a third party location. In some cases transformers are purchased for use as
spares and may need to be stored for indefinite periods.
Power transformers are typically oil-immersed. There are essentially three options for
storing such transformers – drained of oil, and filled with dry gas; partly oil filled, usually
to cover the top of the core; and substantially or completely assembled ready for service.
The first option is suitable for short-term storage to accommodate constraints in
manufacturing, transport or installation. Note that no oil containment is necessary as the
transformer is not oil filled. For long term storage, the core and windings must be
immersed in oil and some means of accommodating changes in oil volume with
temperature must be provided (e.g. pressurised gas cushion or conservator system with
breather). The transformer must also be stored in a suitable oil containment area.
In the case of long term storage purchaser must also consider how they wish to store the
accessories, especially items such as bushings and coolers which may deteriorate if not
stored correctly. Purchaser should note that oil-impregnated paper (OIP) bushings
should not, in general, be stored in the horizontal position for long periods. Instead such
bushings should be stored close to the vertical. Resin impregnated bushings should be
stored with the oil end immersed in oil. Cooler pipe work, radiators, etc. should be
securely blanked off and preferably pressurised with dry gas to prevent contamination
during transport and storage. Radiator fins are made from thin steel sheet and are prone
to accidental damage. Purchaser should also note that pilfering loose items for use as
spares with other transformers is a widespread practice. Many purchasers therefore
prefer to store spare transformers substantially or completely assembled. Note that this
means they must be dismantled on deployment and so may not be the best choice in all
cases.
46
Where transformers are stored immersed in oil, it is prudent to make checks on the oil
quality at regular intervals to check for moisture ingress. Moisture and breakdown
voltage are usually considered to be required, although purchasers may wish to consider
also checking resistivity or dielectric dissipation factor.
14 FINANCIAL, COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS

The previous chapters of this guide have described in detail many recommendations on
various aspects of power transformer: design, engineering, manufacturing, transport,
and storage of power transformers. In addition to those recommended technical and
quality skills of the factory that need to be evaluated, it is very important to have a sound
knowledge about the factory’s organisation at a corporate level. Who do we want to do
business with? How reliable is the factory with regards to its financial heath, experience
level and many other commercial aspects?
This section highlights some key points which should be assessed to mitigate the
commercial risks. Since these key points involve a certain expertise in accounting, legal
aspects and risk management, the evaluation should be conducted by experts such as
lawyers, account managers and risk managers.
It is recommended the following minimum topics should be adopted as the basic set of
pre-determined acceptance criteria to be met in any factory capability assessment:
 acceptance by vendor of the purchaser’s terms and conditions

 compliance to the purchaser’s technical specifications
 limitation of liabilities
 project management skills
 company financial heath
 local representative (marketing, engineering, services)
 communication skills
 services and warranty management
 proven product range (voltage and power capability)
 location of the manufacturing and test facilities for the main product and
subcontracted items and materials
 delivery lead time
 annual capacity (MVA / year)
 environmental policies
 compliance with ISO 9000, 14000, 18000
15 FACTORY PERFORMANCE (lead time delivery, on time delivery…)

When evaluating the overall capabilities and performance of a particular transformer
factory, it is often desired by the purchaser to gain a better understanding of past
performance history of the factory but also how history is influencing the continuous
improvements.
While there are several areas that can potentially be evaluated by a purchaser, a good
understanding of a factory’s performance can often be obtained by reviewing metrics
and statistics from a factory that track on-time delivery of transformers, measure the
number of factory test failures prior to shipment, and the number of field failures of
transformers once they are placed into service. However, it is not only about numbers
47
alone but also about trends, i.e. the frequency of events over time and the corrective
measures introduced by the factory to effect improvements.
It is important to understand that due to the manufacturing complexity of such large
equipment such as transformers, combined with the frequent custom designs for each
application, demanding operating conditions and variable environmental factors at a
given transformer installation, most factories have experienced some field problems and,
more-commonly, factory test problems over the years. However, obtaining a relative
comparison between different factories of similar rated transformer applications can help
provide a better understanding of the overall level of relative risk in trusting the supply of
a particular transformer to a given factory.
When comparing these factory performance parameters of various factories, it is
essential to obtain data from the factories that can be directly compared, based on
similar agreed criteria and definitions that are used to gather and represent the data
requested. Such common criteria and definitions must clearly be provided to the
factories prior to receiving the requested data for evaluation, such that the data received
can be compared most effectively. Very often such criteria differ between factories.
Therefore the factory may also be able to come up with his definition. Exact comparison
of such numbers between manufactures may be difficult and the assessment shall then
more be concentrated on trends and corrective procedures and actions to prevent further
similar problems. Such procedures and the quality among them may differ among the
factories.
Often the type of data requested regarding field failures, factory test failures, and on-time
delivery performance is not published information by the factory, and is typically required
by the factory to be treated confidentially and not shared with other competing factories
or other parties outside of the particular purchaser and factory, as such data can be
easily misrepresented. In some cases a confidentiality agreement may need to be
created between the factory and the evaluating party in order to receive such
information.
Guidelines for evaluating on-time delivery performance and factory test performance are
provided below.
15.1 On-time delivery performance

Often a transformer delivery is scheduled to be delivered on a just-in time basis, either to
replace an existing transformer during an upcoming scheduled outage, to replace a
failed transformer in a short duration, or to be delivered as part of a new substation or
power station construction project, in which the transformer is one of the critical
components to meet the overall construction schedule and energisation date.
For these reasons, it is recommended to verify that a potential manufacturer of a critical
transformer application is able to meet delivery date commitments the majority of the
time, based on past performance history.
15.2 Factory test failure performance

In order to evaluate the number of test failures, test failure trends over years and test
failure analysis and corrective measures, it is important to be sure the reported data is
based on the same agreed universal definitions. At present no common definitions for
quantifying factory test failures exist in the industry, therefore the purchaser shall have a
discussion with the factory to understand what test failures have occurred within the
recent past and manufacturers must discuss different ways to measure test failures.
48
Measuring test failures must be a major key performance indicator at the factory. Such
metrics are strategic indicators used by factories to continuously improve their product
and by purchasers. Some factories count all problems or failures that occur in test
whether at pre-test or at final acceptance test. It often means that all types of test values
that exceed guaranteed values are included. It can also be non-conformances during
other tests or that the unit needs to be drained of oil for other reasons. In that way the
test failure rate is a pure quality measure.
Some other factories categorise test failures into minor and major test failure categories
to determine the effect on the transformer delivery times. Minor test failures for example
are easy to fix and negotiate without any delay whereas major test failures will require
repair with consequential delivery delays of days, weeks or months. Test failures
evaluated in this way are more a measure of on time delivery capability than on quality.
Other factories only give numbers from acceptance tests with purchasers witnessing the
tests and keep the pre-test numbers only for internal use.
Clearly therefore, there are differences that need to be resolved in order to obtain a
common basis on which to evaluate the successful design and manufacture of a
transformer at the point of factory test, including the traditions and procedures of the
factory. One way is to engage in an in-depth dialogue with a prospective factory to
better understand the failure trends, its procedures and the factory is using the data from
the test failures.
15.3 Other factory performance measures

It may be desired by the evaluating party to even investigate similar on-time delivery
performance measures with some of the transformer factory’s key suppliers of
specialised, critical components such as bushings, tap changers and cooling equipment.
In addition, reliability track-records such as field failure rates for the major components
themselves could also be evaluated.
This would require an additional level of effort and support by both the evaluating party
and the factory, but it may be deemed worthwhile for the evaluation process on some
critical transformer applications.
Another item that might be considered for evaluation would be a list of major non-
conformances during the manufacturing of the transformer prior to test. Sometimes
significant non-conformances such as manufacturing errors and material defects can
have significant impacts on the overall delivery schedule, depending on the time required
to correct such non-conformances. If the purchaser is interested in such information,
they should request a copy of the factory’s Quality Assurance Manual or similar system
employed by the factory in order to gain a clear understanding of what constitutes a non-
conformance to the factory, and any established reporting process they may have in
place for such non-conformances. This data may not be readily available or easily
shared by some factories, but it could be useful information if the factory has such data
and is willing to share it with the purchaser.
15.4 Customer References

It is also customary to ask a factory for references from past transformer deliveries.
Such references are very important when assessments of a factory’s capability and past
performance are performed, because this might be the only way to get objective
information regarding this capability. Other purchasers experience will always be
important, especially if the factory is new and unknown. Regarding references, the
49
factory should give sufficient information for a purchaser to be able to discuss the
factory’s capability with the reference. Such information could be:
 name of the purchaser

 the purchaser’s contact person with contact details (telephone number, e-mail
address)
 technical data for the transformer, such as rated power and voltages
 year of manufacture
 number of units supplied
References typically help to provide a good understanding of the factory’s capabilities,
and the following topics can be discussed relating to their experiences with the factory:
 general experience and opinion and the capability to fulfil contracts

 quality assurance system
 technical competence of the staff, both in design, production, and service
 production facility capabilities
 experience before contract
 sufficient information provided during design experiences during factory visits,
inspections, and factory acceptance tests
 on-time delivery
 transport, assembly. and final commissioning
 response and reaction time to problems and failures
16 SERVICE PERFORMANCE
Several surveys have been published during the last thirty years or more aimed at
determining the incidence of transformer failures and identifying the generic causes.
The CIGRÉ survey on transformer failures published in 1983 is notably the most
comprehensive and together with other later national or regional focused surveys, the
general consensus has been to separately derive the primary causes of failure from the
actual types of faults e.g.:
 Primary fault causes

Defects in design, manufacturing, materials, poor specifications and
inadequate testing, commissioning, maintenance, condition monitoring and
protection; abnormal network and environmental effects, operations and
events.
 Transformer fault categories

These are usually classified into four main categories; electrical, mechanical,
thermal and operational and apply to sub-categories, comprising for example,
as illustrated in table 1:
Windings, core, bushings, tap changers, tank, insulating fluids, corrosion,
materials, fittings and abnormal operation such; excessive harmonics, system
over-voltage, overloads, ambient temperatures, weather.
It is apparent that in order to obtain some worthwhile assessment of the service
performance of a transformer manufacturer’s product, some record of the performance
of that product or his similar products is required. Such a record would need to be
50
formulated in a regular and universally applicable manner and the duty to compile and
maintain the record would appear to involve both the manufacturer and the previous
purchasers of the product.
Nowadays it is very difficult for factories to trace long term service data since the
operators do not routinely provide service related feedback after the warranty period has
ended.
Therefore it is the operators that have the primary data by which to determine the Mean
Time between Failure (MTBF), which must still be considered today.
The data that can normally be obtained during the warranty period should be used by
factories to derive a service performance summary that identifies failure frequency and
causes of failure in terms of their product population and service history. Data derived
from beyond the warranty period if obtainable can be considered and may indicate the
way corrective actions have been introduced by the factory to improve service
performance or even product design and manufacture.
Part Sub-structure
Windings HV / LV / Tapping / Tertiary
Location Inner, middle, outer
Axial position
Radial position
Insulation Major (winding to winding)
(winding to ground)
Minor (turn to turn)
(disc to disc)
Stress control Electrostatic shields
Inter-disc connection
Capacitance shields
Magnetic circuit Core Leg (wound, unwound)
Yoke (upper, lower)
Magnetic shunts Tank
Windings
Supporting structure Clamps
Mechanical structure Windings Clamping
Leads Cleat bar
Bushings HV Ceramic / core / oil
LV Ceramic / oil
OLTC Type In-tank / separate compartment
Single/double compartment
Selector Drive motor / couplings
Mechanical
Control system
Tank Flanges Welded / bolted
Shields Magnetic conducting
Turrets HV / LV
Table 1 – Potential failure locations in a transformer
Reference: Prof. D J Allan, Consultant: “Transformer Failures”

©. EA Technology Ltd; “Transformers for Power Systems”, March 2009.
51
Appendix 1: Quality management system

The ISO 9001 Standard provides common basic requirements and guidance to develop
implement, use and maintain a Quality Management System leading to better
performance of processes and to an acceptable level of quality of products. This
means full conformity with specified requirements resulting in customer satisfaction.
The following section explains the basic stipulations of the ISO 9001 Standard.
A1.1 Quality Management System, Document Requirements (ISO9001-2000,

chapter 4)
The Quality Management System is a set of principles, rules, documents and actions
which aims at improved quality of the product and customer satisfaction.
In order to manage quality, the factory should:
 define processes involved in the transformer manufacturing

 perform, check and monitor the processes in terms of quality
 establish and control quality documents:
a. Quality Policy and Quality objectives
b. Quality Manual
c. documents required by the ISO 9001 Standard
d. documents needed by the factory to influence processes (guidelines,
procedures ….)
e. records proving conformity and proper function of the QMS
 establish a quality management organisation (quality manager, auditors,…)
 the top management level should be personally involved in QM issues
(Management Responsibility)
A1.2 Management Responsibility (ISO9001-2000, chapter 5)

The Quality Management System should be managed under responsibility of the
Company Top Management, who should be committed to:
 promote the importance of determining and meeting purchaser

requirements throughout the organisation
 establish and promote the company quality policy
 ensure that the quality objectives are established
 conduct management reviews and decide on necessary corrective and
preventive actions
 ensure the availability of resources necessary for quality management
A Quality Manager is appointed as a member of the company management team with
clear authority and responsibility for all quality matters is to be appointed. The Quality
Manager is basically responsible for:
 all processes needed for the QMS and their function

 reporting to the top management – performance of QMS, continual
improvement
 promotion of awareness of purchaser requirements
52
A1.3 Resource Management (ISO9001-2000, chapter 6)

The factory should determine and provide all resources (Human, Infrastructure, Work
Environment etc.) needed for:
 Quality Management System development and continual improvement,

 enhancing the customer satisfaction by meeting purchaser requirements
A1.4 Product Realisation (ISO9001-2000, chapter 7)
A1.4.1 Planning of product realisation

The factory has to plan the product realisation, by determining the following, as
appropriate:
 quality objectives and requirements for the product

 necessary processes, documents and resources needed for the product
realisation
 ways and means of verification, validation, monitoring, inspection and
testing, criteria for product acceptance
 maintaining records needed to provide evidence that the transformer meets
the above mentioned requirements
A1.4.2 Purchaser related processes

The factory should determine and consider:
 all requirements stated by the purchaser

 all requirements not specified but necessary for the intended use
 all statutory and regulatory requirements related to the transformer (legal,
normative and other aspects)
 any additional requirements determined by the factory
It is recommended to use the latest CIGRÉ guides for technical specification and design
review.
A1.4.3 Review of requirements related to product

All requirements must be reviewed prior to the factory commitment to supply the
product (i.e. submission of offers, acceptance of contracts…).
It must be made clear that:
 all product requirements are defined

 all contract or purchase order requirements have been resolved
 the factory has the ability to meet the defined requirements
A1.4.4 Purchaser communication

The factory should implement effective ways of communication with purchasers in
relation to:
53
 product information
 enquiries, contracts and order handling
 purchaser feedback
A1.5 Design and Development

The factory has to plan and control the design and development of the product. It has
to determine design and development stages, define necessary reviews, verifications
and validations appropriate to every stage, determine responsibilities and authorities in
the design process. It is very important to manage the interfaces (e.g. mechanical,
electrical, thermal design). The design plan has to be updated as appropriate, as the
design and development progresses.
 Design Inputs
All necessary information arising from purchaser requirements, applicable
standards and regulations, previous similar designs and designer
experience, have to be taken into account and reviewed for adequacy.
 Design Outputs
Design outputs have to be provided in a form that allows for verification
against the input and shall be approved accordingly. They have to provide
appropriate information for purchasing, manufacturing and servicing, set up
product acceptance criteria, and specify the product characteristics that are
essential for its proper use.
 Design Reviews
Design reviews should be performed at suitable design stages. This is one
of the most important parts of the factory capability assessment which
strongly influences the quality of the purchased transformer. (For details see
the appropriate chapter of this guide). There is a CIGRÉ guide for design
review, which is recommended for use during factory assessment.
 Design Verification
The purpose is to verify, that the completed or partial design meets the input
requirements. Records of design verification are to be maintained.
 Design Validation
Design validation should prove that the manufactured product fulfils all
intentions and design parameters required. Records of design validation
(i.e. test reports) are to be maintained. A good proof of design validation is
the reference to similar products manufactured before.
 Design Changes
Design changes shall be identified and records maintained. Design changes
shall be reviewed, verified and validated in the same way as the original
design.
54
A1.6 Purchasing
The factory should ensure that the requirements for the purchased product are properly
specified and that the purchased product (material, service) conforms to them. This
applies also to subcontractors.
The factory should evaluate and select factories based on their ability to supply
products in accordance with its requirements. Criteria for such evaluation should be
established; records including arising actions should be maintained.
 purchasing information
a. specification of the product to be purchased
b. requirements for approval of the purchased product, manufacturing
procedures, processes and equipment
c. requirements for qualification of personnel
d. Quality Management System requirements
 verification of the purchased product
A1.7 Production and service provision
A1.7.1 Production Control

The factory should ensure:
 availability of all necessary information on the required product

 availability of work instructions, as necessary
 availability and use of suitable equipment (machines, tools…)
For details see the appropriate chapters of this guide.
 availability and use of monitoring, measuring and testing devices
For details see the appropriate chapters of this guide
 suitably qualified trained production personnel
 release, delivery (transport) and post-delivery (installation, commissioning
and service) activities
A1.7.2 Production Process Validation

Results of manufacturing processes, which cannot be verified by measuring or testing
directly on the transformer, should be validated.
A1.7.3 Product Identification, Traceability

Where appropriate, the factory should identify the product during its realisation -
(labelling). The label should not only identify the product, but also its status in respect
to monitoring, measurement and test requirements.
55
A1.7.4 Purchaser property

The factory should identify, verify, protect and safeguard property provided for use or
for incorporation into the product. In case of damage, loss etc. the purchaser must be
notified and a record must be made. (Property may include intellectual property).
A1.7.5 Preservation of product

The factory has to preserve the conformity of his product during manufacture and
delivery to the intended destination. The preservation should include identification,
handling, packaging, storage and protection.
A1.7.6 Monitoring and Measuring Devices

The factory should determine the monitoring and measurement to be undertaken and
the monitoring and measuring devices needed to provide evidence of product
conformance to determined requirements.
Where necessary to ensure valid results, measuring and testing equipment must be:
 calibrated or verified at specific intervals or prior to use against

measurement standards traceable to national or international standards
 adjusted or readjusted as necessary
 the calibration and its validity (expiration) should be identified on the
equipment
 safeguarded from adjustments that would invalidate the measurement
results
 protected from damage and deterioration during handling, maintenance and
storage
A1.8 Measurement, analysis and improvement (ISO9001-2000, chapter 8)

Transformer manufacturing is a plan-do-check-act process.
The factory should plan and implement monitoring, measurement, analysis and
improvement processes needed to:
 demonstrate conformity of product with the specification and design

requirements
 ensure conformity and effectiveness of the quality management process
 continually improve the effectiveness of the quality management system
Such measurement process should determine applicable methods including statistical
techniques and the extent of their use.
A1.8.1 Customer Satisfaction

As one of the measurements of the performance of the quality management system,
the factory should monitor information related to purchaser perception as to whether
the factory has met the purchasers’ requirements. The factory should develop methods
for obtaining and use of such information.
56
A1.8.2 Internal audits

The factory should conduct internal audits at planned intervals to determine whether
the quality management system
 conforms to the planned arrangements for the product, to the requirements

of the ISO 9001-2000 standard and to the quality management requirements
established by the factory
 is effectively implemented and maintained
The factory should establish an audit program that takes into account the importance of
the processes to be audited as well as results of previous audits. Internal auditors
should be selected. The auditing program should be independent and auditors should
not audit their own processes. Non-conformities detected during internal audits should
be eliminated together with their causes. Follow up actions should be taken in order to
verify the elimination.
Note: Guidance for internal auditing can be found in ISO 10011-1, 2 and 3.
A1.8.3. Monitoring and measurement of processes

The factory should apply methods that measure of the quality management process.
The methods should demonstrate the ability of the processes to achieve planned
results. When planned results are not achieved, corrective actions should be taken to
improve the processes and ensure conformity.
A1.8.4. Monitoring and measurement of product

The factory should monitor and measure the characteristics of the product to verify that
requirements have been met. Such measurements should be taken at appropriate
stages of the manufacturing process and evidence of compliance with requirements
and with acceptance criteria should be recorded.
Records should identify the persons authorising release of the product. Final product
release should not be permitted until all criteria are met and the planned checks have
been completed unless otherwise approved by the purchaser.
A1.8.5. Control of non-conforming product

The factory should ensure that the product which does not conform to product
requirements is identified (red tag) and controlled to prevent its unintended use or
delivery. The controls and related responsibilities should be defined in a special
documented procedure.
A1.8.6 Analysis of data

The factory should determine, collect and analyse appropriate data to demonstrate the
suitability and effectiveness of the quality management systems and to continually
improve the effectiveness of the system. This data should include data obtained by
monitoring and measurement of processes and products.
The analysis of data should provide information on
 customer satisfaction
 conformance to product requirements
57
 characteristics and trends or processes and products

 suppliers
A1.8.7 Improvement
The factory should continually improve the effectiveness of its quality management
system by improving quality policies, quality objectives, audit results, analysis of data,
corrective and preventive actions and management reviews.
A1.8.8 Corrective action

The factory should take action to eliminate non-conformances in order to prevent
recurrence. Corrective action should be taken to eliminate the consequences of non-
conformances.
A1.8.9 Preventive action

The factory should take preventive action to eliminate the cause of non-conformances
in order to prevent recurrence and avoid further non-conformances.
More information on ISO9001-2000 in Appendix 2
Examples of questions that need to be asked during the Quality

Management System review are presented in the Questionnaire –
Appendix 2
58
Appendix 2: Example of Questionnaire
A2-36 Example of Capability Assessment Questionnaire Evaluation criteria

Chapter Information required Excellent Good Poor Unacceptable Comments
3 MANAGING QUALITY
Does the manufacturer have a valid ISO 9001 certificate?
Does the manufacturer have a valid ISO 14000 certificate?
Does the manufacturer have a valid OHSAS 18000 certificate?
4 TECHNOLOGY BASE
Transformer Type produced by the Factories

What type of transformer design is manufactured, core and/or shell?
Origin of Technology Base
Is the owner of the technology a global, regional, or local supplier?
Where or from whom is the origin of the technology?
Is the technology owned or licensed?

Familiarity and Compliance with applicable Industry Standards
4 DOCUMENTATION OF THE DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING

TECHNOLOGY BASE
Investigations and R&D Reports
Does the factory have 5 to 10 years of R&D Reports that can be used
for the assessment?
How does the knowledge and competence get maintained and
distributed?
59

4 Basic Design Theory
Is the basis for the transformer design calculations clearly described
and documented?
Have origins of rules and criteria's been documented?
Do technical standards provide adequate geometric details between

adjacent components - windings, core, insulation systems, etc.?
How are materials and components specified for purchasing?
Does the factory have a drawing numbering system?
Are the manufacturing methods, processes, tools and equipment

clearly described and visualised?
Is there documentation that confirms the validation of computer
design programs?
4 Product Design and Manufacturing Rules and Instructions

Product Design Rules
Dielectric Rules
Does the factory have documented evidence describing how the
knowledge of electrical breakdown is transferred into design rules?
Does the factory have a documented insulation system?
Magnetic Core Performance Rules

Can the factory clearly calculate no-load losses, inrush and exciting
currents, harmonics, temperatures?
Does the factory historically analyse performance data versus
calculated values and are the results available?
60

4 Acoustic Sound Rules
Does the factory have tools to calculate core vibration modes and
resonances at different frequencies?
Are sound levels calculated for both no-load and loading conditions?
Load Losses and Load Temperature

What thermal design calculation computer programs does the factory
use?
Have the thermal calculations been validated by fibre optic
measurements?
Are hot spot temperatures calculated for windings, core, internal
clamping structures and the tank at worst case operating conditions?
Short Circuit Strength and Mechanical Integrity Rules

Does the factory demonstrate short circuit withstand capability by
design calculations in accordance with IEC 60076-5?
What criteria are used for axial and radial strengths of the windings?
Has the factory performed short circuit tests?
If yes, what has been the experience?
What criteria are used to calculate transport and seismic capabilities?
Design Methods and Tools
How does the factory optimise the transformer designs?
Does the factory calculate dielectric stresses down to single turns?
Does the factory use 3-D design programs and 3-D CAD systems?
61

Manufacturing Technology in Production Standards
How are production and process methods documented?
What accuracy and uncertainty does the factory have in:

Loss measurements?
Sound level measurements?
Temperature measurements?
Impedance measurements?
Partial discharge measurements?
Does the factory have an equipment calibration process and
appropriate certification for its instruments?
4 Other means of Evaluating the technical capabilities of a factory

How many engineers and technicians does the factory have?
Does the number seem adequate?
Is there a formalized training and development program for the
engineers?
Has any of the factory staff written industry papers?
5 DESIGN PROCEDURES AND IT TOOLS

Design Experience of Market
Does the factory have experience with different specifications based
on: IEC (inc. CENELEC), IEEE-ANSI, Others ?
62

Design Experience of Product Range
Does the factory have experience with any of the following types of
transformer :
Grid step down transformers?
Generator step up transformers?
Transmission autotransformers?
Phase-shifting transformers?
Arc furnace transformers?
Rectifier transformers?
HVDC transformers?
Shunt reactors?
High voltage?
High current?
High leakage flux?
5 Specification Understanding and communication

Is the factory capable of understanding the user’s specification in the
original language?
How is communication between the user and the factory’s engineers
organised?
How direct are the lines of communication between engineers?
How many steps are there?
What is a typical response time for a question?
63

Design Process Quotation and Order
Is there an adequate post award review process (minutes, actions
followed-up)?
Internal (with commercial-, design- and manufacturing departments)?
External (with customers and their representatives)?
Are there defined hand-over points between electrical design and
mechanical design?
Is there an adequate design review process (minutes, actions
followed-up)?
Internal (with internal commercial and manufacturing departments)?
External (with external customers and their representatives)?
Are there adequate design and design revision procedures?
Are there defined hand-over points between design and purchasing of

material?
5 Research and Development Activities

What is annual investment in R&D (as % of turn-over)?
Is there an internal R&D team (permanent, dedicated, no. of
engineers)?
Is there external R&D collaboration (with whom, no. of engineers/
projects)?
Have there been any technical publications by R&D and engineering
staff?
What is the factory's participation in standards bodies (e.g. IEC, IEEE-
ANSI, National Standards etc)?
What is the factory's participation in professional societies (e.g.
CIGRE, IEEE, etc)?
64

5 Design Manual, Design Rules
Is there an adequate design manual with the following characteristics?
Is the design manual updated regularly?
Are there sufficient cross-references to source material?
Do the design team have good knowledge of the content of the design
manual?
What are the procedures for spreading new information?
How are test results fed-back to the design team?
5 Software and its Maintenance

Design Software
Is there adequate design software with the following capabilities?
Design software updated regularly?
Design software documented?
Is design software intuitive and user-friendly?
What are the design modelling capabilities with regard to:
Electric fields?
Magnetic fields (including short-circuit withstand)?
Noise and vibration?
Transient voltages?
Power system analysis?
Fluid mechanics/thermodynamics (temperature distribution)?
Is there adequate mechanical design software with regard to:
2-D or 3-D modelling?
Library of models etc?
65

5 Experience Level of Engineers
What is the age and experience profile of the design team?

What are the minimum and typical levels of education of the design
team?
Expert Technical Support

Are any technical specialists available to support the user?
Where are the technical specialists based (at the factory, at another
factory owned by the same manufacturer)?
6 SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT

Does the manufacturer have Material/Components Specifications?
Is there a continuous auditing process by the Manufacturer of the sub-

suppliers?
What Quality requirements on the sub-suppliers are measured?
What is the resolution process when non-conformances are detected?
Which are the Manufacturer's 5 to 10 biggest Sub-suppliers?
What is the Performance of the sub-suppliers (Report available)?
Does the Manufacturer have an established relationship with

important sub-suppliers?
Are production plans between the Manufacturer and sub-suppliers
coordinated to ensure that components are received at scheduled
points in the manufacturing process to ensure the overall delivery time
of the transformer is kept?
66

6 Bushings and Load Tap Changers
Does the Manufacturer have an established relationship with the
equipment suppliers?
Is there a clear specification of the requirements in the order
documents?
Are the normal bushing and tap-changer suppliers of the
manufacturer acceptable for the purchaser or the end-user?
Does the manufacturer perform a periodic quality audit of the
suppliers?
Are the bushings and tap-changers inspected for specification and
quality conformance upon receipt at the manufacturer's facility?
6 Copper conductors in Windings

Is the quality and specification conformance of the copper conductor
verified prior to use by the manufacturer?
Are received copper conductor dimensions verified to be within the
specified tolerances?
Are controls in place to prevent burrs on the copper conductors?
Are efforts taken to ensure the copper conductors are packed,
transported, and stored in a safe manner to prevent damage?
Oil
Is the quality of the insulating oil used in assembling the transformers
verified to be in accordance with relevant standards?
Is the quality of the factory insulating oil checked regularly?
Does the manufacturer have the capability of performing laboratory
analysis of the oil?
67

Core Steel
Which sources of core steel are used by the Manufacturer?
Does the Manufacturer check the core steel suppliers' loss
certificates?
Does the Manufacturer compare the calculated and measured values
of the no-load loss?
Insulation board and insulation components

Are the insulation board and insulation components carefully stored in
a manner to avoid contamination by dust and moisture?
Does the manufacturer have an established material specification for
insulation board?
Does the manufacturer produce the insulation components directly, or
outsource the production of these components?
6 Others Components and Materials

Does the manufacturer have an established relationship with
components suppliers?
Is main tank and/or conservator tank outsourced?
Which of the following components are outsourced by the

manufacturer?
Main tank?
Conservator and associated pipe work?
Insulation parts?
Other metalwork fabrication?
Auxiliary control cubicles?
Secondary wiring?
Is the quality of the main tank and conservator tank verified by Quality
Audits and inspections?
68

Are efforts taken to ensure the tanks are adequately cleaned prior to
assembling the transformer, to minimize the risk of contaminants
remaining in the transformer?
7 MANUFACTURING METHODS
Manufacturing Procedures
a) Are manufacturing tolerances documented?
b) Are tools and equipment properly documented?
c) Are the skills sets of the work force properly documented?
d) Are the experience and attitude of the workforce documented?
Are safety working conditions and safety equipment provided and
correctly utilised?
Are "clean areas" clearly designated and separated from "dirty
areas"?
Are there house-keeping indexes working?
What is the general condition of the fabric of the building in which
manufacture takes place?
Are there any roof leaks?
Are there any signs of wild life within the factory e.g. birds, vermin
etc.?
Does workforce experience match the tasks undertaken?
Does workforce have a positive attitude to their work?
Does workforce have a clean and tidy and a "fix as you go" approach?
Are working areas clean and well organised?
Is there good communication between factory workers, inspectors and
management including designers?
69

7 Production planning and Material Warehouse:
Is there a clear method for project planning?
Is there an inventory control system and procedure?
Is there a check workflow, push or pull flow?
Are materials storage areas structured and organised?
Are materials properly handled in designated areas?
7 Main Tank and Steel Fabrication:

Are in-house tank and metal fabrication processes isolated from core,
winding and assembly areas?
For outsourced steelwork, are there systems in place covering
procedures of engineering, quality system and quality audits?
Is weld quality good and consistent with no main tank welds behind
tank stiffeners?
Is inside of the tank and any hollow beam stiffeners free from foreign
material?
Is the tank internal surface and the core and coil clamping structure
painted white?
If not:
What colour is the tank internal surface?
The core clamping structure?
Are tank shield and shunts insulated or continuous welded?
Are gasket grooves smooth and within the specified tolerance?

What processes are applied to small bore pipe work regarding
cleaning and preservation of the internal surfaces?
Is surface preparation according to ISO 8501 or similar standard?
70

Is paint finish procedure according to ISO 12944 or similar standard?
Are tank coatings according to the specification?
Are tank coatings according to the specification?

How is the paint thickness checked?
7 Core cutting/stacking methods

Are the cutting blades routinely checked and maintained? And is this
process documented?
Are burrs within specified tolerance, no slithers, rust or other physical
damage on the cut steel?
Is the incoming core steel routine inspected, measured and
monitored?
a.) Is coating consistent with non-corrosive look, and indicated on
control cards?
b.) Are core laminates routinely measured to confirm dimensions?
Are the core stacking tables stable and level?
What precautions are taken to prevent core deformation during up-
ending of the completed core?
Is the core fully supported during stacking process?
Is the core fully supported during stacking process?

Do completed cores have protective covering to prevent
contamination?
Is the earthing joint mechanically strong and insulated to prevent
accidental contact with core?
Is the core clamping structure properly grounded with metal to metal
connections?
Is the core clamping structure bonded in a suitable manner to prevent
circulating currents?
Are core cooling ducts installed as an integrated part of the stacking
process?
71

Are the mitre joint building gaps small and as uniform as possible and
within factory design tolerances?
Is the stacked core within the designed tolerances?
Is core inter-laminar resistance confirmed during manufacturing
process?
Is an intermediate non-metallic block utilised for tapping the
laminations, no-use of steel hammer?
Are there any contaminants around the core assembly work area?
Do workers have protective shoes and gloves?
If yes do they wear them?
7 Winding Room:
What type of winding machines does the manufacturer have?
How many horizontal winding machines?
How many vertical winding machines?
Are winding machines routine cleaned and with no contaminants
inside the mandrels?
Are windings manufactured on horizontal machines placed on floor
prior to being upended?
Is the winding end to lead conductor jointing process controlled to
confirm that the joints are mechanically and electrical capable?
Has winding room access control and/or environment control?
Are conductor reels free of rough edges and contaminants?

Is there any sign of conductor insulation damage or contamination?
Inspect for processes that could cause insulation damage.
Are spacers and blocks consistently installed?
Are all permanent winding conductors ties/tapes non shrinking type?
Are winding cylinders pre-dried and sized prior to winding process?
72

Are winding machine mandrels properly sized and adequate for the
winding support and within tolerances?
Are windings manufactured with the conductor being wound held
under tension?
Are added splices within the windings, unless they are part of the
design?
Are conductors properly supported from reels to the winding machine

with smooth, clean rollers supports with conductors prevented from
contacting the floor?
Are inner and outer crossovers and transposition bends performed
correctly and in a manner to ensure all critical clearances and design
oil flows are achieved?
Any restrictions in oil flows observed?
Have crossovers bends extra insulation wrap and pad material?
Are all blocks and spacers of high density material and have been
finished with rounded and smooth edges?
Have all temporary blocks rounded and smooth edges?
Are brazing techniques performed in a manner to minimise
contamination and insulation damage?
Are static rings properly stored and handled to ensure no damage or
deformation?
Are static rings properly installed and positioned?
Are completed windings fitted with a temporary protective covering?

Are oil flow guide-washers installed in a manner to not adversely
affect oil flow through the windings and in accordance with design?
Are tools and containers temporarily placed on windings?
Is there a contamination risk from roof fabric and overhead cranes?
73

7 Winding Sizing:
Is there access and/or environment control in the winding sizing area?
Is there any evidence of damage to conductor insulation?
Are radial spacers, sticks and blocks properly aligned?
Are spacers and blocks permanently affixed into position by means of
other than winding clamping pressure?
Are blocks glued to conductor insulation?
Does manufacturer verify, control and measure winding drying,
pressing and sizing processes with the aim of stabilising windings for
positive axial pressure during transformer service?
Do lifts have cushioned supports and fitted with means of preventing
chains or ropes in coming into direct contact with windings?
Are conductors wound tightly to eliminate or minimise winding
movement during service?
Are oil ducts still of the correct dimensions when sizing pressure is
applied?
Is conductor radial build not extended beyond outer edge of radial
spacer or inner edge of mitre joint to allow axial stick placement?
Do any crossover radial built and transpositions bends extended
beyond the edge of overall winding radial build?
Is winding height within tolerance?
Are conductor ends covered to prevent damage to windings or to
personnel?
Are complete windings fitted with temporary protective covering to
prevent contamination?
7 Active Part Assembly:

Is there any contamination around the work area?
74

Are there any instructions with regard to avoidance of contamination
during cutting, crimping, brazing and top yoke stacking operations?
Are assembly platforms fitted with a front lip to reduce the risk of
contaminants falling into the Core & Coil assembly?
Are the winding radial spacer columns and block correctly aligned?
Are protective screens used to minimise contamination ingress

especially when brazing and crimping?
Are lead support structures mechanically sound with rounded edges
and no visible abnormalities?
Are vacuum cleaners with proper hose attachments used to clean out
any small openings, e.g. winding cooling ducts?
Is there any signs of the use of air hoses to clean windings? This is
considered to be bad practice!
Are any precautions been taken and/or instructions in place to prevent
workers items falling accidentally into the transformer?
e.g. pencils, jewellery, tools, etc.
Is upper yoke stacked into position maintaining building gaps and
properly supported without any distortion?
Are core tips on ends of yokes bent over allowing contact with
adjacent tips?
If yes, how many?
Do the cores show any signs of physical damage or corrosion, e.g.
rust?
Are any precautions taken to prevent contamination of winding cooling
ducts during the assembly process?
Are any foreign materials and contaminants on the core and coil
assembly, including within areas difficult to see such as the clamping
structure or winding oil ducts?
Is there any evidence of too much or misuse of glue?
75

Are winding support blocks and pressure rings aligned and
permanently fixed into position?
Are any bolted connections (both electrical and mechanical) fitted with
suitable locking mechanisms?
Are electrical bolted connections fitted with at least two bolts (where
possible) to prevent "scissoring"?
Are leads suitably insulated and insulation thickness fully
documented?
Are core clamping structures properly grounded with metal to metal
connections in a manner to prevent circulating currents?
Are any temporary metallic wires or ties used?
Are any insulation barriers properly fixed in position?

Are pre-measurements made on active part during assembly (ratio,
losses, RSO, etc.)?
7 Final Dry Out:

What methods of drying are employed during the final drying process
of the transformer?
What criteria are used to monitor, control and terminate the process?
Are there any special instructions in place with regard to the handling
of dried components?
How are drying process variables indicated on quality procedures and
documentation?
How is the process of dry-out of the core and coil assembly controlled
prior to final clamping?
What methods are used after drying, direct impregnation, maintaining

dryness until final oil filling with the aim of stabilising the windings to
ensure positive axial pressure during the transformer service
76

7 Final Assembly:
How is the final winding clamping pressure applied after the final dry-
out process prior to the tanking of the active part?
What are the time tolerances?
What are the clamping force criteria?
Is the clamping pressure, dimensional tolerances and the jacking
method recorded?
Are the internal bolted connections properly torqued, locked and
marked to facilitate confirmation of correct clamping pressure?
Is the core and coils positioned accurately inside the tank, according
to drawing dimensions?
Are vacuum time, speed of oil filling, standing time, oil filtering/
circulation time and particle count measured and recorded?
Are conduits and wires properly secured and supported, and designed
to minimise ingress of moisture?
Are conduits and wires free of internal sharp and jagged edges and
free of foreign materials?
Are cooling fans properly secured to radiators with protective pad
material minimising radiator paint wear over time that could lead to
radiator leaks?
Is tank paint work touched up prior to shipment?

Are control enclosures designed and manufactured as per
specifications?
8 TESTING
Test Accuracy
Are all pieces of test equipment properly calibrated, certified and
currently valid?
Is the test equipment calibration status clearly marked on each
77

instrument of piece of test equipment?
Is there a documented accuracy level for each piece of test

equipment?
Test Equipment
Is the factory capable of performing all routine tests at the
manufacturing facility?
Is the test facility shielded and physically isolated from the rest of the
factory?
Is the factory capable in performing all required tests?
Where are short circuit tests typically performed?
Is there a short circuit test reference list available?

Can the factory perform dissolved gas analysis on-site or is it
performed by 3rd party?
Can the factory perform thermal, mechanical, and chemical tests on
insulating materials?
Can the factory perform routine tests in the field (capacitance, power
factor, TTR, frequency response analysis, etc?
Does the factory have the capability to perform no-load, applied

potential, induced, or impulse tests in the field?
8 Test Engineers
Is there a formalised training and development program for the test

engineers?
78

Standards
Are the test engineers fully conversant with the latest industry test
standards (IEC, IEEE, etc) and customer specific test requirements?
Do they understand them?
Documentation
Does the factory provide a detailed test plan showing test circuit, test
procedure including voltages to be applied and acceptance criteria?
Is there a standard format for the test plan and sequence of tests?
Does the test plan typically include all acceptance criteria?

Does the transformer design engineer review and sign the test reports
before final approval?
Are abnormalities that arise during testing sufficiently explained to the
purchaser?
Is the generation of test reports partially or totally automated?
8 Failure investigation
Is there in-house technical expertise, personnel, and equipment
available for dealing with test failure investigations?
Are there procedures in place to support test failure investigations?
Do the transformer design engineers typically participate in
investigations?
Are customers promptly notified of a test failure and asked to
participate in investigations?
Are test failure investigations fully documented?
79

General
Are customers typically notified in a timely manner about the test plan
and the test schedule?
Are there opening and closing meetings with the customers included
in the test procedures?
Are there adequate facilities to accommodate customers during the
test witness process?
9 WARRANTY AND SERVICES

Warranty
What terms of warranty can the manufacturer offer, i.e. the coverage
comprised by the warranty?
What is the manufacturer’s guaranteed response time in case of an
incident, how is the access to the manufacturers' experts?
Can the manufacturer provide a special warranty against design
defects that arise after the term of the warranty? e.g. latent defects?
Access and delivery times for spare parts, such as tap-changers,
auxiliary equipment, production of new windings, etc...
What is the legal situation and legislation in the country of the
manufacturer?
9 Services
Sales organisation
What is the range of products, ratings, design and technology,
manufacturing facilities, testing, etc. (limitations in technology or
capability)
Are fulfilment of normative requirements, standards and requirements
for local installations known for the manufacturer?
What is the competence and technical know-how of the sales staff?
80

After sales arrangement
Can the manufacturer offer support in terms of condition assessment,
DGA sampling and analysis, on site testing etc.
Can the manufacturer carry out transformer repairs?
Is the manufacturer prepared to do so?
Can the manufacturer offer any added value maintenance service
products?
10 PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Will there be a single or multiple point of contact?
Will there be direct or indirect communication?
What project languages are understood and can be used?
What is the typical project management structure used by the
manufacturer?
What is a typical project schedule and how is it updated?
What is the method of contract review?
What methods of risk management are used?
What is a typical inspection and test plan?
11 HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Human Resources
Aims
Does the manufacturer manage human resources responsibly?
Legal and Cultural Aspects

Is human resource management subject to the International Labour
Organisation (ILO)?
81

Industrial Relations
Is there an independent trade union in the factory, how much
influence does it have?
Are there signs of antagonism between the management and the
employees?
Have there been any strikes at the factory?
Are any strikes planned or possible?
Recruitment
Are vacancies openly advertised?
Does the manufacturer have an equal opportunities or non-
discrimination policy?
Is there any obvious evidence of discrimination or favouritism?
Is there any material or public display which might create an
atmosphere that would promote discrimination?
Do technicians and engineers have appropriate qualifications and
minimum requirements?
11 Agency Workers
Is the factory using agency or contract workers?
In case of agency workers, what proportion of the workforce do they
represent?
Does the factory seem excessively reliant on agency or contract
workers?
Vulnerable Workers
Is any special forced labour used for transformer production?
Is any child labour used for transformer production?
Training and Development

Is there adequate opportunities for the workforce to be provided with
suitable training and development?
82

Health, Safety and Working Environment
Working Environment
Are there separate areas for eating and drinking away from critical
production areas?
Is there any evidence of food or drink being consumed outside these
areas? e.g. at the work place?
Are there adequate and sanitary washing facilities for all employees
and contractors?
11 Working Hours and Holidays

Do employees seem to be excessively tired or stressed?
What is the length of the working day, week, and maximum limits that
apply to these?
When is the weekend or weekly rest period?
What public and customary holidays does the factory observe?
How much paid holiday are employees entitled to?

What measures have the management taken to avoid disruption to
production during holidays?
Is there an annual factory shut down?
Security
Are health and safety inductions provided for all employees,
contractors and visitors?
Was the inspector given such an induction?
Is the entry and exit of all employees, contractors and visitors
recorded and/ or controlled?
Was the inspector's entry and exit recorded/ controlled?
83

Is there sufficient security to prevent the theft of valuable equipment,
components or materials?
What precautions are taken?
Do they seem to be effective?
11 Health and Safety Management

Is the factory OSHAS 18000 certified?
What is the factory health and safety policy?
Is it prominently displayed?
Is the health and safety policy adequate in scope?
Does it seem to be used as basis for health and safety management?
Which member of the top management team is responsible for health
and safety?
Is part of role delegated to a sub-ordinate manager?
How much communication is there between the different managers?
Do employees and contractors know who the health and safety
manager is?
How do employees participate in the health and safety management
system?
Do employees and contractors know who their health and safety
representatives are?
Is the health and safety management system adequately
documented?
Is management making good use of the hierarchy of controls, i.e.:
elimination, substitution, engineering and administrative controls?
11 Personal protective equipment

Are there adequate warning signs in the factory about hazardous
areas and protective equipment requirements?
Are all employees and contractors equipped with adequate personal
protective equipment?
Are they using it correctly?
Was the inspector provided with personal protective equipment during
his or her visit?
84

Is there an adequate number of trained first aiders?
How are first aiders identified?
Are there adequate provisions for preventing and controlling fires?
Are there adequate fire exits?
Have any of them been obstructed for any reason?
Are there adequate numbers of fire marshals to help with evacuation?
How are fire marshals identified?
Are the fire alarms tested regularly?
Is the factory inspected regularly by the local fire service?
Are all accidents reported to the local authorities?
Are incidents adequately investigated?
Do the management seem to learn from incidents?
11 Dangerous Chemicals
Does the manufacturer use any asbestos in the gasket material?
Does the factory ensure that oil is free from furans and PCB's?
12 TRANSPORT
General
Do purchasers know which parts are removed for shipment (bushings,
turrets, coolers, conservator, pipes, etc.)?
Delivery Terms
Do the exact delivery terms agree (Incoterms 2000 group E, F, C or
D)?
How well does the factory know their transport companies?
Methods
Air
What limitations on mass and dimensions apply?
85

Barge (Coastal Ship)
How is the transformer protected against adverse weather?
12 Ocean-Going Ship
Are wooden crates specially treated to prevent the introduction of pest
and diseases?
How is the transformer protected against adverse weather?
Rail
Does the manufacturer have a Schnabel wagon design?
Road
Voyage Assessment
Are the following considerations taken into account?
Transportation equipment - ocean vessel, barge, rail, truck?
Number of lifting operations and type of lifting gear?
Number of trans-shipments and carrier's hubs?
Weather and environmental circumstances?
Infrastructure along the routing as ports, terminal and road
conditions?
Permits and government regulations?
Expected maximum transit time including intermediate storage and
storage after delivery?
Responsibility for the transportation?
86

Assessment of the Factory's Preparation capability
Are there design rules for goods to be shipped?
Is there a transport plan?
Are there packaging rules and instructions including identification
numbers?
Is the transformer prepared taking in consideration:
Closure/sealing of unit openings?
Removal of fragile and protruding non integral components?
Moisture protection?
Cushioning of non-removable protrusions, i.e.: valves, hoses,
pipe work, conduits, etc?
Shock indicators / impact recorders. How is the factory using
them?, What is their duration?, Is there a shock sensor on the
core structure?
12 Preparation and Execution of transport

Is there a transport coordinator located at the factory?
Are there insurance policies for all sub-contractors and their
obligations?
Is a "Transport Manual" established for each transport? If so does it
contain:
Transportation documents and checklists?
Considerations for all lifts?
Controls on cargo transfer points including photos from each

diagonally opposite corner?
Is there a strong suggestion to ensure transport contractors include
these requirements?
Contracts with sub-contractors?
87

Is the "Transport Manual" attached to the goods before shipment
from the factory?
Are documentation, such as photos taken before the transport, stored
in the "Transport Manual"?
Is a system established for post-transport feedback on transport
parameters, damages and claim handling?
12 Personnel Training / Education Considerations

Are personnel involved in the transport chain trained / educated with
respect to all elements of the transportation chain?
Standards of Care for Transportation / Freight Forwarding

Vendors
Does the freight forwarder follow various guidelines for loading,
securing, transportation and discharge?
Check for All Shipments, Lifts, Ocean Vessels

Are transportation contractors specialised in handling power
transformers?
Are transportation contractors financially stable to be able to respond
to liabilities?
Do sub-contractors retain liability?
Do contractors verify existence, adequacy and condition of their
handling and transport equipment at all points of the transit?
Are all cranes and gears used in lifting certified to required safe
working load capacities?
Do vessels have a tonnage of more than 10 times the weight of the
transformer? If not, is the relevant insurer informed?
Does transport coordinator contact the captain of the vessel to fully
explain possible risks for damage of transformers?
In case of Rail and Truck, Is a qualified operator selected and
utilised?
88

Inspection and Receipt
Is an internal inspection performed to verify the condition of the
transformer at purchaser's delivery location?
Do purchaser and manufacturer agree to a procedure for inspecting
the transformer?
Does the inspection include:
External visual inspection?
Check gas pressure gauge?
Check all impact recorders?
Measure core/frame insulation resistance?
Frequency response analysis, with special test bushings?
When an internal inspection may be necessary:
Is the quality of air injected during the internal inspection monitored
continuously?
What maximum shocks does the design permit?
13 INSTALLATION, COMMISSIONING AND STORAGE

Installation and commissioning
General
Does the factory provide written guidance and requirements relating
to installation and commissioning?
Can the factory perform the installation and final commissioning?
Does a factory service engineer/supervisor typically witness
installation and commissioning?
13 Oil
Does the factory confirm the suitability and compatibility of the final
oil?
89

Auxiliary Electrical Equipment
Can the factory perform the required electrical wiring and meet all
local compliance requirements?
Health and Safety

Does the factory have experience in the jurisdiction where the site is
located?
Will the factory contract a local sub-contractor?
Does a factory representative visit the sites prior to the installation
work to identify specific hazards?
Storage
Does the factory have a written procedure for storage?
Can the transformers be stored at the factory or 3rd party location?
If so, for what duration?
What state do transformers need to be stored: drained of oil and gas
filled, partly oil filled to top of the core, etc?
How do accessories need to be stored, especially bushings and
coolers which may quickly deteriorate if not stored correctly?
Are there periodic checks required during the storage period?
14 FINANCIAL, COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS

Who do we want to do business with?
Does the manufacturer accept the purchaser's terms and conditions?
Does the manufacturer comply with the purchaser's technical
specifications?
Does the manufacturer agree in the Limitation of Liabilities?
Does the manufacturer have suitable project management skills?
90

Does the manufacturer have sound financial health?
Does the manufacturer have local representatives (marketing,
engineering, services)?
What is the language of communication?
Does the manufacturer have services and warranty management?
What is the range of the manufacturer's product portfolio?
Where is the location of the manufacturing factory?
Where is the location of the test facility?
What is the current delivery lead time?
What is the manufacturer's annual capacity (MVA/year)?
What are the manufacturer's environmental policies?
15 FACTORY PERFORMANCE
On-time delivery
What is the ex-works on-time delivery rate?
What is the trend ex-works in on-time delivery rate?
Works test
What is the works test failure rate?
How is the works test failure rate defined?
Major/serious failures (transformer removed from tank for repair)?
What is the effect of the failure rate on the on-time delivery rate?
What is the trend in failure rate?
Other Performance Measures

What is the on-time delivery performance by suppliers of critical
components/materials?
What is the rate of non-conformances during manufacturing?
What are the reporting processes for non-conformances?
91

15 References
Can the factory supply a full reference/experience list?
Can the factory supply testimonials?
16 SERVICE PERFORMANCE
What is the failure rate during warranty period?
All failures
Major/serious failures (transformer returned to works)?
What is the trend in the failure rate?
What is the failure rate outside warranty period (where known)?
All failures
Major/serious failures (transformer returned to works)?
Can the factory provide the classification of major/serious failures?
By root cause?
By component(s) involved?
92

A1 QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Quality Management System, Documentation Requirements

(ISO9001, chapter 4)
Are all transformer manufacturing processes identified and defined?
Are the processes regularly checked in terms of quality?
Are the following Control Quality Documents established?
- Quality Policy and Objectives
- Quality Manual
- Documents required by ISO-9001
Management Responsibility (ISO9001, chapter 5)

Does the Quality Manager promote the importance of customer
requirements awareness?
Is the importance of meeting customer requirements promoted
throughout the organisation?
Is the Quality Policy issued and promoted throughout the
organisation?
Are the Quality Objectives established? Do employees know them?
Are Management Reviews conducted to decide on QMS
improvements, corrective and preventive actions?
Are necessary resources for quality management available?
Resource Management (ISO9001, chapter 6)
Are there all resources available (human, infrastructure, working

conditions) for achieving continual improvement?
Are there all resources available for achieving Purchaser Satisfaction

by meeting all his requirements?
93

A1 Product Realisation (ISO9001, chapter 7)
Planning of product realisation
Are quality objectives / requirements taken as basic for the product?
Are there all necessary processes, documents and resources
available for the product realisation?
Has the organisation set criteria for product acceptance by means of
verification, validation, monitoring, inspection and testing?
Are there records made and maintained to provide evidence that the
Transformer meets the above criteria?
Customer related processes

Are all requirements stated by the customer discussed and taken into
account when contracting a Transformer?
Are all requirements not specified but necessary for the intended use
known and achievable (legal, normative, other aspects)?
The use of the latest CIGRÉ Guide to Specifications” is highly

recommended for Review of Customer Requirements. Is it known and
used?
A1 Review of requirements related to product

Are all requirements defined and clear?
Are all Contract or Order requirements discussed?
Purchaser communication
Are there effective ways established to keep the purchaser informed
during order handling and to have his feedback?
94

Customer communication
A1 Design and Development
Are the Design Inputs taken into account when discussing Customer
requirements?
Are the Design Outputs provided in a form that allows for verification
against the Input?
Are the Design Reviews taken at suitable design stages (see latest
CIGRÉ guide for Design Review")?
Are Design Verifications organised to prove whether the Design meets
the Input requirements?
Does Design Validation (Test Reports) prove that the finished
Transformer (or its part) fulfils the designed parameters required?
Are the Design Changes identified and records maintained?
Purchasing
Purchasing Information
Is there always a clear specification of the product to be purchased?
Is there always a requirement for approval of the purchased product?
Are there Quality Management System requirements defined and
checked when contracting a supplier?
Is there a Supplier Assessment done during the purchasing process?
A1 Verification of the purchased product

Is there a system for checking purchased products on receipt?
Production and service provision

Production Control
Is there all necessary information on the required product
(Transformer) made available?
95

Are all necessary work instructions and procedures available, known
and used?
Production Process Validation

Are there any processes that cannot be directly verified validated?
If so, which ones?
Product Identification, Traceability

Is the product identifiable throughout the whole production process?
Customer property
Does the manufacturer verify and protect any customers’ property to
be used in the Transformer?
Preservation of product
How does the manufacturer manage identification, storing, handling,
packaging and protecting the product before delivery?
A1 Monitoring and Measuring Devices

Does the manufacturer have a traceable measuring and testing
instrument calibration program?
Do the instruments have calibration validity labels stating calibration
validity dates?
Measurement, analysis and improvement (ISO9001, chapter 8)

Can the manufacturer demonstrate conformity of the product with
specifications and design requirements?
Can the manufacturer demonstrate conformity and effectiveness of his
quality management system?
96

A1 Customer Satisfaction
Is there a questionnaire or another tool to check the Customer
Satisfaction?
Internal audits
Is there a plan of internal audits available?
How many audits are there in a year?
Do they cover all processes?
Monitoring and measurement of processes

Does the manufacturer apply corrective actions to ensure conformity
of the processes?
Monitoring and measurement of product

In what stages does the manufacture measure the characteristics of
the product?
Do records indicate the person(s) authorising the release of the
product?
Control of nonconforming product

Does the manufacturer use non-conforming product identification tags
or any other means to prevent from further use of a non-conforming
product?
Analysis of data
Does the manufacturer have data on:
Customer satisfaction?
Conformance to product requirements?
Quality Characteristics and trends or processes and products?
Suppliers Quality?
97

Improvement
Does the manufacturer continually improve the effectiveness of the
quality management system?
Corrective action
Does the manufacturer apply corrective actions to eliminate the cause
of non-conformities?
Preventive action
Does the manufacturer apply preventive actions to in order to prevent
recurrence?
98

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530

GUIDE FOR CONDUCTING FACTORY

WORKING GROUP A2.36

Convenor: T. Breckenridge (UK)

“Ownership of a CIGRÉ publication, whether in paper form or on electronic support only

1 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................1

3 MANAGING QUALITY ..........................................................................................................4

4 TECHNOLOGY BASE ..........................................................................................................5

5 DESIGN PROCEDURES AND IT TOOLS ..........................................................................15

6 SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT ......................................................................................20

7 MANUFACTURING METHODS .........................................................................................24

7.6 Winding Sizing: .......................................................................................................... 27

9 WARRANTY AND SERVICES............................................................................................32

10 PROJECT MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE .........................................................................35

11 HUMAN RESOURCES, HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT ...................................35

13 INSTALLATION, COMMISSIONING AND STORAGE ......................................................45

14 FINANCIAL, COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS ......................................................47

15 FACTORY PERFORMANCE (LEAD TIME DELIVERY, ON TIME DELIVERY…) ............47

APPENDIX 1: QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ...................................................................52

APPENDIX 2: EXAMPLE OF QUESTIONNAIRE .......................................................................59

1 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES

assessment. Alternatively, it could form part of a proposed transformer purchase

Identify Prepare and Issue Assess Tender

Is Tenderer No Post Contract

On Going Factory On Site installation

Figure 1 - Example of a transformer procurement process

IEC 60050 all relevant parts, “International electro-technical vocabulary”

ILO convention 1 Hours of work (industry), 28 November 1919

ISO 8501-1 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and

OHSAS 18001 Occupational health and safety management systems –

processes which appear at any organisation independent of what product is

 Quality Management System

4.1 Background Description of the Business

significant differences in the technologies used by the various power transformer

Large Power Transformers

Small Power Transformers

Cellular layout, Batch HV Switchgear

ETO ATO STD

Figure 2 - T&D Product Complexity Charter

4.2 Transformer Type produced by the Factories

4.3 Origins of Technology Base of Factory

 belonging to a global manufacturer with factories in different countries, sharing

4.4 Familiarity and Compliance with applicable Industry Standards

4.5 Documentation of the Design and Manufacturing Technology Base

4.5.1 Investigations and R&D Reports

4.5.2 Basic Design Theory

 Technical Standards where a given element, component consisting of

4.6 Product Design and Manufacturing Rules and Instructions

 product design rules

4.6.1 Product Design Rules

b) Magnetic Core Performance Rules

c) Acoustic Sound Rules

d) Load Losses and Load Temperatures

e) Short Circuit Strength and Mechanical Integrity

 by special short circuit tests

4.6.2 Design Methods and Tools

4.6.3 Manufacturing Technology in Production Standards

flow and related manufacturing processes should be documented in Production

4.6.4 Testing Technology

 measured core losses

4.7 Other means of evaluating the technical capabilities of a factory

5 DESIGN PROCEDURES AND IT TOOLS

5.1 Design experience of market