673 Guia CIGRE TransporteTrafos - IMPORTANTE LECTURA

673
Guide on transformer transportation
Working Group
A2.42
December 2016
GUIDE ON TRANSFORMER
TRANSPORTATION
WG A2.42
Members
A. Mjelve, Convenor NO
J. Hermans, Secretary BE
W.J. (Bill) Bergman CA
T. Boroomand UK
S. Chen FR
P. Cole AU
J. Huygh BE
K. Melai NL
F.T. Pereira Da Silva BR
K. Ryen NO
A. Schönauer DE
J. Schnieders DE
A. Vintila RO
A. Van der Werff FR
M. Wilfling AT
Copyright © 2016
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Disclaimer notice ISBN : 978-2-85873-376-7

“CIGRE gives no warranty or assurance about the contents of this publication, nor does it accept any responsibility, as to the
GUIDE ON TRANSFORMER TRANSPORTATION
GUIDE ON TRANSFORMER
TRANSPORTATION
Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .........................................................................................................4
1 Introduction............................................................................................................................ 5
2 Objectives of the Guide ..................................................................................................... 6
3 Glossery of Terms ................................................................................................................ 7
4 Transport Incidents – Case Studies .................................................................................10
4.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................10
4.2 Australian Incidents ............................................................................................................10
4.3 Norwegian Incidents..........................................................................................................15
4.4 Swedish Incidents ...............................................................................................................17
4.5 North American Incidents..................................................................................................18
4.6 United Kingdom Incidents .................................................................................................24
5 General Design Requirements and Considerations .....................................................26
5.1 Design Requirements for Transport and Good Industrial Practices .........................26
5.2 Design for Vibrations ........................................................................................................26
5.3 Design Requirements from Standards............................................................................28
5.4 Design Practices for Optimizing the Transformer for Transport ...............................30
6 Specification .......................................................................................................................31
7 Design Review ....................................................................................................................32
7.1 Design Review Protocol ....................................................................................................32
7.2 Specifications and Standards..........................................................................................32
7.3 Method of Design Verification ........................................................................................32
7.4 Scope of Transportation and Installation ......................................................................33
7.5 Design Review Checklists ..................................................................................................33
8 Transportation Modes and their Specifics ....................................................................37
8.1 Road .....................................................................................................................................37
8.2 Rail........................................................................................................................................42
8.3 Marine and Inland Waterways ......................................................................................60
8.4 Air .........................................................................................................................................70
9 Shock Recorders .................................................................................................................74
9.1 General information..........................................................................................................74
9.2 Use of Shock Recorders ....................................................................................................78
10 Shock Recorder Application and Data Interpretation ................................................84
10.1 Introduction to Limiting Curves.........................................................................................84
10.2 Limiting Curves ...................................................................................................................87
10.3 Interpretation of Measured Shocks ................................................................................88
10.4 Updating of Design Limits ................................................................................................90
10.5 Design Review Guidelines ................................................................................................91
11 Indication of Centre of Gravity ......................................................................................92
11.1 Requirements for the Graphical Symbol to indicate the CoG ..................................92
11.2 Recommendation for respecting the CoG indication ..................................................93
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11.3 Indication of the Centre Line............................................................................................93

11.4 Indication of the CoG of a Package of Transformer Components ..........................93
11.5 Example of Graphical Symbols to Indicate the Different CoG’s .............................94
12 TRANSPORTATION PROCESS .........................................................................................97
12.1 International regulations on transportation – Incoterms® rules ................................97
12.2 Tender Process ................................................................................................................ 108
12.3 Transportation Assessment ............................................................................................ 109
12.4 Transport Planning .......................................................................................................... 112
12.5 Responsibilities ................................................................................................................ 117
12.6 Measures to secure safe transport .............................................................................. 117
12.7 Handling at load breaks ............................................................................................... 118
12.8 Handling at site ............................................................................................................... 119
13 Transport Drawing and Instructions ............................................................................. 122
14 Load Securing .................................................................................................................. 123
14.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................... 123
14.2 Load Securement Methods – Indirect and Direct Securement................................ 123
14.3 Examples - Accidents and Load Securement ............................................................. 124
14.4 Quick Reference: 11 Significant Directives for Load Securing .............................. 126
14.5 Legal Requirements ........................................................................................................ 127
14.6 Chain Lashing................................................................................................................... 127
14.7 Supporting Equipment - Friction Mats ......................................................................... 128
15 Transport With and Without Oil.................................................................................. 129
15.1 Transportation and Storage without Oil .................................................................... 129
15.2 Transportation and Storage with Oil .......................................................................... 130
16 Testing ............................................................................................................................... 131
16.1 Transformer Testing ........................................................................................................ 131
16.2 Transformer Weighing................................................................................................... 131
16.3 Monitoring Management of Transformer Transportation ....................................... 134
16.4 Transformer Evaluation during and after Transport ................................................ 134
17 Conclusions and Recommendations .............................................................................. 137
ANNEXES ........................................................................................................................ 139
Annex 1 – Derivation of Shock Limiting Curves.............................................................................. 139
Annex 2 - Maximum Static Acceleration (Horizontal Line) ........................................................... 142
Annex 3 - Defining Indicative Energy Curve for a Square Shock, based on Maximal Allowed
Energy Content. ............................................................................................................... 143
Annex 4 - Convert Maximal Velocity Change to Maximal Energy Content ............................ 144
Annex 5 – Transformer Tests and Operations Flowchart after Transportation ....................... 145
Annex 6 - Catalogue of operations and tests after transformer transportation..................... 146
Annex 7 - Measuring Results .............................................................................................................. 147
Annex 8 - Data Analysis of Real World Incident (Detailed Example of Shock Recorder Data
Analysis)............................................................................................................................ 152
Annex 9 - Examples - Transport Drawings (-plans) ...................................................................... 158
Annex 10 - Not recommended Examples to Indicate a CoG ..................................................... 161
Annex 11 - Not recommended Examples to indicate a Centre Line .......................................... 163
Annex 12 - Transformer Standards and Guides –(Informative) ................................................. 164
REFERENCES, PHOTOS, FIGURES AND TABLES ............................................................... 165
References ........................................................................................................................................... 165
Table of Photos..................................................................................................................................... 167
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Table of Figures ................................................................................................................................... 168

Table of Tables .................................................................................................................................... 170
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This Technical Brochure (TB) reviews all the significant aspects related to transport of power transformers. In general
TB consists of three parts: transport incidents, design guidelines and related issues and transport process.
This TB presents a large number of transport incidents - case studies collated from the countries around the world.
Each case study is explained with a summary of the events, the consequences of the incident, and a discussion of
the “Lessons learned”.
In the design section, the TB addresses the precautions applicable to mechanical design of transformers for
withstanding the anticipated transport forces and shocks applicable to different transport modes - road, rail, marine,
inland waterways, and air. The chapter for general design include requirement, provide background for industry
best practices and design guideline recommendations.
International Standards design requirements are reviewed and general remarks and proposals for improvements are
included. New proposals for indicating the transformer tank centre of gravity and centre line are included, which may
be considered for standardisation.
Recommendations for preparing transformer transport: -specification; -design review; -important discussions on
transformers design; and safeguarding are included in dedicated chapters of the guide.
The recording and evaluation of shocks and vibration occurring during transport are important for the transformer
manufacturer and the customer. All features of shock recorders (SR) are explained including general information for
SR function, physics, and operation. Guidelines for positioning of SR and the set-up values for the journey are given,
in general these are important factors which are used for analysis of the reordered data. In addition, discussion of
“real world” example is included. TB also includes recommendations for weighing transformers prior to transport.
Large power transformers transport weight in transport configuration in many cases can be at the lawful authorities’
permissible limit fixed for the transport infrastructure.
The transport process section of the guide offers a complementary overview and explanation of different Incoterms®
rules and their applicability to transformer transportation. A thorough review of the transport planning process is
given: the detailed steps to be considered and the responsibility for each step are also included.
A section in the TB describes transformer load securing methods, handling at load breaks and at site, measures to
achieve safe transformer transport, and storage with or without oil.
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1 Introduction
During the CIGRE SC A2 meeting in Paris in 2008, a WG on transformer transportation damage was proposed. The
discussions in the SC revealed this topic was too narrow and should be extended to include a guide on the broader
aspects on transformer transportation. Several examples of severe transformer damage were mentioned, including
recent events involving scrapping of transformers after derailment during rail transportation, crane and bridge
collapses. SC members especially from South Africa and Australia had experienced many mishaps and strongly
supported this new WG proposal.
Guidance on how to perform impact measurement during transportation and the interpretation of the measurements
is not mentioned in the IEC 60076 series. Guidance for mechanical designs and on what to do in the event of a
transportation event seemed necessary. Guidance on the magnitude of g-forces at which the transformer should be
internally inspected at site, moved to the factory for a more thorough inspection, and which failure modes may be
expected should be addressed by the WG.
This Working Group liaised with the WG A2.36 Guide for Transformer Procurement Process where the CIGRE
brochure on Design Review was revised. Requirements on transportation issues are included in the mechanical
design review process.
As relevant examples, it may be mentioned that increased new EU rules for the height of railway station platforms
have made problems for transformer transportation. Lack of maintenance of utility owned wharfs designed for special
transformer transportation vessels have also caused concern. Other transportation infrastructure changes continue
to make the transportation of transformers increasingly difficult.
Bulk substations supplying the metropolitan areas are historically located outside the city centres, but are often
“fenced in” by urbanisation with increasing transportation problems. Road and police authorities are increasingly
reluctant to close highways and temporarily strengthen bridges. New tunnels may not be made to previously agreed
cross sections or capacities due to budget limitations. Level crossings of railroads and motorways are changed to
underpasses causing change of transportation routes and conditions. These changes compel constant transportation
planning and review as part of the asset management of the transformer fleet. Some guidance is needed for this
process of continuous review of transportation routing.
Transformers have been transported ever since they have been manufactured. The degree of sophistication and
complexity of this transportation has increased with time.
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2 Objectives of the Guide

The objectives of the guide include providing:
1) A framework for the design review of the transportation related features of the transformer for the
expected transportation modes and resulting forces.
2) General design requirements and elements as guidelines for transformer mechanical designers and
purchasers.
3) Information and data that can assist a transformer manufacturer in developing the transfer function
between accelerations applied to the base of a transformer (or other location of attaching the transformer
to the transporter) and the active parts of the transformer, particularly the top of the core and clamps.
4) Guidance on the information to be incorporated into a transportation and handling drawing.
5) Guidance to transformer designers on the features required for movement of the transformer during all
of the various stages of transportation from the factory to the substation foundation including:
a) Ship
b) Barge
c) Railway
d) Highway road transport
e) Off road transport
f) Jack and slide (jack & roll) on and off loading
g) Mobile crane handling
h) Gantry crane handling
6) Guidance on features for securing the transformer to the transportation carrier:
a) Shock (impact) recorder theory and how to interpret readings from shock recorders
b) When to perform specialised receiving tests on the transformer
c) When to perform an internal inspection on the transformer and what indications of damage to
look for during internal inspection.
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3 Glossery of Terms
AAR: Association of American Railways
Ballast: The means of maintaining the balance, stability, and height above the water level of a barge
while the load mass is being redistributed due to loading, unloading or movement of the
load. Ballasting is usually accomplished by adjusting the water levels in various tanks or
chambers within the vessel itself or the extra mass added to one side of a rail car shipment
to bring the centre of gravity to the centre of the rail car.
Bill of Lading: Documents describing the items, quantities, and destination of goods to be carried by the
transportation company. The Bill of Lading accompanies the goods during transportation
and usually acts as a receipt when the goods are delivered.
Cribbing: Temporary support materials, such as timbers or steel beams that are used to support a
load at a particular elevation during lifting, lowering, sliding or rolling operations. Cribbing
may also be used for support of the equipment during temporary storage, also called
blocking.
CoG: Centre of Gravity – The mass centre of a given component or assembly.
DB: Deutsche Bahn
Depressed-centre A heavy-duty rail car that has an open centre deck between the trucks
Rail car: that is lower than the height of the decks above the trucks/wheels.
Dimensional load: A large piece of equipment loaded for shipment on a rail car or truck with over dimension
and/or over-weight classification.
Dunnage: Loose packing material used to protect a ship’s cargo from damage during transport. Loose
material laid beneath or wedged between objects carried by ship or rail to prevent injury from
chafing or moisture, or to provide ventilation.
Forwarder: A firm specializing in arranging transportation and storage on behalf of other companies
Frequency A test performed on a transformer or reactor to help determine if any internal damage has
Response Analysis been caused during transportation. This test is also used as an analysis tool to determine
Test (FRA): if damage has occurred from system short circuits. Test results before and after transport
are compared.
g (static): A continuous acceleration in a certain direction
IMO: International Maritime Organisation
Impact recorder: A device which records accelerations, g’ forces usually in the longitudinal (X-axis), lateral
(Y-axis) and vertical (Z-axis) directions. Impact recorders (or shock recorder) may have
pre-set or user-settable threshold magnitude of impact registered, may measure magnitude
of impact only, may measure magnitude and duration of the impact (energy).
Incoterms®: (International Commercial Terms) are a series of international sales terms, published by the
International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) and widely used in international commercial
transactions.
Interchange: A designated point where railcars are exchanged between railroad companies,
normally a designated inspection point. This is only a Rail shipment term included
in AAR definitions.
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“Jack and slide”: A procedure using hydraulic jacks, slides and cribbing materials to raise or lower a load onto
a set of beams or rails. The load is then pulled via the pulling eyes facilities or pulled/pushed
by hydraulic rams to slide or roll the load along the beams in order to locate the load in its
final position. Also known as “jack and roll” or “jack and glide”.
Lifting lugs: Special connection points on equipment tanks that are designed to support the weight of the
equipment (or other load) while being lifted from these points using a crane.
Load Break: Load break (or Trans loading) is the process of transferring a shipment normally from one
mode of transportation to another.
Multiwheel units: Trailers or self-propelled units for in-plant transportation in seaports, industry, logistics and
distribution centres.
Metacentre: The point of intersection of the vertical through the centre of buoyancy of a floating body (as
of a vessel) with the vertical through the new centre of buoyancy when the body is displaced.
Metacentric height: The distance between the centre of gravity and the metacentre of a floating body, as of a
vessel.
Originating carrier: The carrier on which the shipment originates.
Railway Industrial An association of those involved in providing rail clearance data for over-dimension and
Clearance over-weight rail cargo loads.
Association (RICA):
Receiving carrier: The carrier that accepts the shipment from another (delivering) carrier, usually at a
designated point of interchange.
Rigging: Equipment and materials such as lifting beams, slings, steel cables, shackles, etc. that are
used for lifting and lowering. The process of lifting and moving vertically or horizontally any
load using mechanical load-shifting equipment to move, place or secure a load.
RO/RO (Ro-Ro): Roll-on/roll-off ships are vessels designed to carry wheeled cargo, such as trucks, trailers,
and railroad cars that are driven on and off the ship on their own wheels or using a platform
vehicle, such as a self-propelled modular transporters.
Securement: The devices used to secure a load to the ship, carrier, or rail carriage.
Securing: To make firm or tight; to fasten; to capture or confine (Synonyms: fasten, anchor, secure.
These verbs mean to cause to remain firmly in position or place.). Sometimes referred to
as “lashing and bracing” or “tie-down.”
Schnabel rail car: A special rail car designed to support a load from connection points on each end, making
the load a structural part of the rail car. These rail cars are used to move very large and
heavy loads, and may require a dedicated train service.
Transport drawing: A drawing which profiles the height, width, length, weights, and centre of gravity of the
transported equipment. This drawing is used by transporters and permitting agencies to
determine type of equipment required for transport and the route. (Sometimes referred to
as “Transportation drawing”, Transport plan” or “Shipping drawing”).
Transport marks: Notation stencilled onto the equipment main tank and accessory crates that identifies the
destination of the equipment and parts, and provides identifying numbers in order to ensure
that the equipment is delivered to the proper destination. Also referred to shipping marks.
Shock load: A dynamic load - in this guide on the transformer.
Shock recorder: See Impact recorder
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Trans loading: See Load Break
UIC: Union Internationale des Chemins de Fer (International Union of Railways).
Note: In this brochure, the term “shipping” is reserved for transportation by ship.
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4 Transport Incidents – Case Studies
4.1 Introduction
A transport incident is a sudden, unintentional or intentional, externally initiated event resulting in damage to a
transformer. Such an accident is triggered by external shock (impact), technical failure or human error.
Transformer incident is said to have occurred, when non-permissible force of shock(s) takes place at levels exceeding
the limits of the design. Such force of impact can take the form of collisions, inclination, acceleration or vibrations.
Force of impact is both vectorial and temporal (length of exposure) by nature.
In the case of acceleration or deceleration, both magnitude and duration must be considered. In case of vibrations,
both the frequency and the incidence must be considered. Often, even though the acceleration levels accompanying
low magnitude vibration do not exceed the design levels, they can cause significant damage if they excite natural
frequencies of transformer components.
In the case of inclination, e.g., the rolling of the ship in heavy seas, the frequency and angle of inclination are decisive
factors with regard to potential damage. Again, the acceleration levels often remain below the design values.
Visual inspection of the interior and exterior is recommended in case of intensive vibrations or extreme inclination.
The effects of force of impact can be documented in the form of data from a shock (impact) recorder and/or the
existence of internal and/or external damage.
A number of different modes of transportation are available. Likewise, various different carriers may be involved.
It is always expedient to examine the shock (impact) recording, perform a visual inspection of the exterior for damage
and record the findings at the time of handover to the next carrier (interchange).
If any recorded data shows non-permissible levels and/or if the transformer exhibits external damage, then further
action must be discussed and agreed with the responsible parties (customer / manufacturer / insurer / carrier).
If the transformer has more than one shock recorder, they must be synchronized such that all data are recorded
simultaneously. Ensure that the shock recordings occurred during the transportation duration, although the
transformer may have been stationary at the time of shock damage.
In addition, the transformer should have been in-transit at the time of the recordings. The transformer might not be
moving although it is “in transit”. The transformer could be stationary at the time of damage.
The working group has collected several transport incidents as case studies. Some of the information about these
incidents originates from the public domain (internet, private parties sending information and Study Committee /
Working Group members). Not all information has been verified by the involved parties and hence must be
interpreted in this context.
The incidents are chosen to give background for the understanding and interpretation of the content of the different
chapters in the Guide. It is not the intention to criticize any particular manufacturer, forwarder or purchaser, but to
learn from the incidents. Hence, all reference to manufacturers, forwarders or purchasers names are excluded from
the text. However, some pictures may show manufacturers or forwarders names. The need to mask these names
seems unnecessary as the lessons learned are universal.
4.2 Australian Incidents

The Working Group (WG) member from Australia has collected transportations mishaps and incidents experienced.
The incidents describe interesting aspects of transportation on the background of reregulation of the industry. The
responses are slightly edited, and where mentioned, the WG has inserted some additional information.
Australia Incident # 1
In the 1990’s and earlier, the State owned generation and Transmission Company had several rail wagons for
transporting large items. There were special rail wagons for transformers and another for generators (complete with
Page 10
sideways jacking of the beams to enable the transporter to travel through the rail tunnels). Some generating stations
still have heavy lift rail siding where the loads can be transferred; still on the beams onto road transport.
In the 2000’s, one generating station (who do not have any written documents or standards) had a strong preference
for rail transport for a 500kV transformer (245t) and started investigating using the rail. The rail track people said a
firm NO. They did not know how to do it, the rail was too busy and the platforms had all been modified. They were
not interested. They asked the Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) and they said that we could not transport such a
load on the road in New South Wales and suggested we talk to the railways.
This situation was resolved with a high level conference in the Premier’s department, where the RTA were ordered
to develop routes for heavy items such as generator transformers and generators. The new transformers came into
a local harbour and up the highway, causing major disruption on the way. The cost of these disruptions to the
community is obviously very high. The risk of a traffic incident from impatient drivers is also a major concern.
Note that in this case planning was done by the contractor with the responsibility for transport clearly and wholly with
the contractor.
Lessons learned:
Route planning also involves regular contact with the road and rail authorities to make sure a good relation exists.
For some routes, the road authorities should safeguard a minimum profile and axle-/maximum load.
Our contracts are written so that we take responsibility for the transformer once it has been successfully erected at
the specified site. However, we do specify particular requirements which help us assess if we should have a concern
due to what may have happened during the transportation of the transformer to site.
Included in one of our technical schedules, we ask the manufacturer to specify the maximum 3 dimensional g force
rating of the main tank design. We specify that the 3 dimensional g-forces must be recorded for the main tank starting
prior to loading the transformer for transport at the manufacturer's factory and up until the main tank is successfully
positioned on the customer's plinth on site. The device used for this purpose shall be of an approved type. We
specify that a copy of the 'g' force recording must be supplied to us as soon as practical after the transformer has
been positioned on the plinth.
If g-force peaks which exceed the manufacturer's specified maximum withstand capability are noted in any direction,
we consult with the manufacturer but ultimately the specification allows us to demand an internal inspection. During
the internal inspection, clearance dimensions of the active part with respect to the side wall and end wall are recorded
and then compared with design dimensions from the factory. Other electrical testing may follow depending on what
is seen and ultimately a decision is made to either accept the transformer or reject it.
There have been a number of incidents caused by incomplete route survey being performed by the transport
company. The survey must be completed from the factory right up to the transformer concrete plinth in the substation,
not just for the highway. Some examples are;
1) SVC transformer had to be stored for more than 1 month while the route was confirmed.
2) 375MVA transformer was delayed on route due to the transport company having no knowledge of a
bridge on route which was already being rebuilt. The site access road into the substation was also later
found to be an issue and an extra bull dozer was required to pull he load up a hill on a dirt road.
3) 375MVA transformer control cubicle was damaged due to side swiping a rock face during access to the
substation.
4) 150MVA SVC transformer vertical plate lid stiffener hit the underside of a bridge during highway transport
due to main roads resurfacing the road and not amending the height clearance signage.
5) 75MVA transformer was driven under a bridge and the 11kV tertiary bushings were impacted and broken
off.
Other issues have involved loads that were not secured correctly, or poorly maintained equipment.
6) Many years ago, one transformer dropped into the river while being unloaded from a transport ship.
7) 100MVA transformer rolled over during transit due to a chain breakage and subsequent load shift on the
flatbed trailer.
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8) Transformer rolled over while negotiating a round-about on a flatbed trailer.

9) Chain snapped whilst a new 250MVA transformer was being skated into place. Transformer was almost
written off.
10) 15MVA Transformer being sent for refurbishment (1998-99) fell off the truck.
11) Transport of 200MVA Transformer to site almost resulted in the transformer and truck slipping down an
embankment.
More general issues are;
12) Parallel beam transport can be more expensive and flatbed transport is sometimes used instead. The
flatbed trailer may then lead to height constraints which directly impact the route selection.
13) 375MVA Transformers were delivered to the wrong site.
Lessons learned:
Transport planning should not be left to the forwarder alone and the plan should be reviewed by future owner. A
factual check of the planned route's profile during planning is necessary.
A 330kV, 100 MVAr shunt reactor was being delivered from a port in Sydney. The transport company was chosen
by the overseas supplier with limited knowledge of the company's experience, which had been with the delivery of
bulldozers etc. and probably some smaller transformers.
This company had not previously transported
transformers for the utility, and was not experienced with
this type of load.
The semi-trailer tipped over on the approach to a major

bridge near the Sydney CBD, blocking the morning peak
hour traffic. The reactor core was damaged and the
reactor subsequently scrapped.
Indications are that as the semi-trailer entered the bend,

there may have been a problem with a bogie at the front
of the trailer. This dropped the front and caused it to dig
into the road for about 50m until the trailer finally flipped
onto its side. It seems possible that the trailer could have PHOTO 1 - TILTED REACTOR AT THE ANZAC BRIDGE IN SYDNEY
been under rated for the load. The reactor remained
attached to the trailer.
It is understood that two cranes were needed to lift the reactor to distribute the weight on the bridge to avoid damage.
Lessons learned:
Experienced forwarders should be selected with proven records and references.
A 144MVA newly rewound transformer had a shock recorder installed to the transformer. However when the
transformer arrived at site, the shock recorder was switched off. It appears that it was not switched on when the
transformer left the factory. FRA and other tests were conducted to verify that no movement of the core and coils
had occurred.
Lessons learned:
Procedures should safeguard the impact recorders are switched on before departure, or the impact recorders, if
possible, may be set with a future start during installation of the impact recorders.
One utility is in the process of planning to transport seven single phase 90 MVA 330kV single phase transformers
via road transport (approximately 1 500km) to an underground power station.
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Some of the issues confronted so far are:
1) The transformers will be transported with the 200kV RIP oil – oil bushing installed (this has been approved
by the bushing manufacturer)
2) Transformers will be transported on parallel beams because of height constraints (in the power station
access tunnel)
3) The transformers will be unloaded in the power station using the station crane
4) Within the power station, from the loading bay to the transformer cells is a system of rail tracks. The new
transformers have been designed with bogey wheels so that these tracks can be used to move the
transformer from the transport into position.
5) The final section of the power station access road is owned and maintained by Snowy Hydro. Civil works
have been required to repair the road in preparation for the transformer transportation.
6) Because of the steepness of the access road and tunnel, two tractor units will be used to control the load.
7) Some of the local roads and bridge load ratings have been de-rated by local authorities to reduce
maintenance requirements.
Lessons learned:
Some of the control measures used to ensure the transformer is not damaged in transit include:
a) Full route survey, do not trust previous experience.

b) Shock-recorders installed on the transformer at the factory, with pictures of installation and showing the
recorders are turned ON.
c) SFRA tests done at the factory and repeated after installation.
Another utility reported several problems in recent years due to lack of maintenance. A number of sites required a
fixed crane to unload the transformer from the truck – and in one case onto a purpose built trolley which run along a
rail system. The subs had the cranes installed. However, after 40 years of not being used – and in recent years not
being maintained (cost saving initiative), major refurbishment of the cranes was required to allow the transformer to
be replaced. Of course the purpose built trolley also needed to be rebuilt.
Another case involved a hydraulic ramp which was required to get the truck into the substation. The ramp had not
been maintained. Fortunately none of these transformers failed and required urgent replacement!
An incident occurred when it was necessary for a 120MVA transformer to travel down a steep hill near the substation
where it had to be installed. The grade of the road was checked by surveyors, and the transporters confirmed that
the transformer could be transported safely, even if the road was wet. However, as the trailer proceeded slowly down
the road it began to slip on the wet road. A major incident was averted when the tailgate of the trailer was quickly
lowered. This scraped onto the road and acted as a brake. Investigation revealed that the wheels of the trailer were
travelling along a painted road marking, which was much more slippery than the roadway. This had not been
considered in planning the job.
A number of recent incidents involved getting trucks into difficult sites. An experienced supervisor met with the
transport company prior to the transformer move to plan the job and determine the correct equipment for the job.
Problems occurred when the transport company then provided different equipment (e.g. trailers).
Page 13
An example is shown in the photo to the side. The wrong trailer

was provided. The weight of the transformer was such that it
could not be carried entirely on the low section of the trailer, as
more weight was required at rear of the trailer. Initially the
transporter placed a steel beam under one end of the
transformer, but the beam was too high; so blocks of wood were
then placed under the other end. This situation shown in the
photo was considered unsafe. The experienced utility staff
intervened and provided some of their own resources so that
the transformer could be located safely on the trailer and
transported the short distance to the scrap yard.
PHOTO 2 – UNSAFE EXAMPLE OF ATTEMPT TO TRANSPORT
Other known incidents:
1) A car driver changing lanes caused the transport vehicle to stop suddenly – resulting in a broken chain and
the transformer moving on the truck resulting in damage to the transformer.
2) A transporter was struggling to get a very large transformer up a very steep hill. When the transformer was
delivered they found that someone had forgotten to drain the oil prior to despatch. If the excess weight had
resulted in an incident, a major environmental disaster could have occurred.
Lessons learned:
Transport preparedness includes substation area and local roads.
Some time ago after delivery to site of a 255 MVA generator step-up transformer, the core and windings were found
to be seriously damaged. The tank was the only part of the transformer that was re-used. The transformer was of 5
limb construction and the top of the core was supported only at the ends. The transformer had been shipped from
Europe and similar designs had been shipped to other countries without incident.
It was clear that the transformer tank had not moved during the sea journey, however, rough seas were encountered
between New Zealand and Australia and it is believed that the angle of rolling of the ship was greater than normal,
possibly exacerbated by a reduced amount of cargo over this section of the route. Impact recorders were not used
at that time.
A replacement was provided with additional transport supports provided along the core.
Lessons learned:
It was clear that the transformer tank had not moved during the sea journey, however, rough seas were encountered
between New Zealand and Australia and it is believed that the angle of rolling of the ship was greater than normal,
possibly exacerbated by a reduced amount of cargo over this section of the route. Impact recorders such are
currently fitted to all large transformers were not used at that time.
A rail boom gate came down on top of a transport vehicle while travelling over the rail crossing. The departure of
vehicle had been delayed and instead of arriving at the crossing with a clear two hours to cross before the first train,
it was at the time of the first train. The only item damaged was the boom gate. Following this all rail crossing have
been manned for the crossing of such vehicles to avoid any chance of a collision.
Lessons learned:
Following this all rail crossings have been manned for the crossing of such vehicles to avoid any chance of a collision.
Transport plan must also include clear instruction what must be done if the transport is delayed. See UK incidents
for more information about risk at railway crossings.
Page 14
Transport vehicle sank into the ground running off the roadway inside the station, due to the wrong size turning circles
and road widths at the station.
Lessons learned:
Review of civil engineering drawings performed by experienced transport planners or substation engineers before
drawings are issued for inquiry. The same applies for “As Built” drawings (drawings corrected for construction
changes).
There are several cases where the transport brackets were not properly located or sized for the local transport
vehicle. In the first case the brackets did not project out a sufficient distance from the transformer tank to properly
engage the transport beams. The bracket had to be modified after the transformer was completed. The transport
company had been sent transformer transport drawings but did not pick this up.
In the second case the transport support brackets were placed too close together for the proposed transport beams
(for 200t). The solution was to use beams for 350 t but these were longer and much more expensive to use. In this
case there was no problem with transport and since it was the transport contractor’s oversight there was no extra
cost to the utility.
Lessons learned:
A general transformer dimensional drawing with location of transport brackets, lashing- and pulling lugs, jacking pads
location and turntable size should be part of the inquiry.
370 MVA 3 phase low impedance 500 kV transformers could not be transported by road from the preferred port.
However such units (200 t transport mass) could be transported from an alternate port at some extra cost. This
alternative arrangement would also have to be use in the case of a failure. The extra cost of using single phase
transformers could not be justified.
Prior to delivery of these transformers, a number of beams had to be designed and manufactured to allow one of
the transformers to be stored on the wharf, as it was necessary to spread the load over the piled area. Storage of a
transformer at the wharf avoided the high demurrage cost of having the heavy lift vessel wait at the wharf until delivery
of the first transformer was completed.
Lessons learned:
Contingency storage should be evaluated as part of the transport plan.
4.3 Norwegian Incidents

Norway Incident # 1
A 20 MVA transformer in a substation in the southern part of Norway was handed over to the scrapping contractor,
who emptied the transformer for oil, removed the bushings, and secured the transformer in the cell with lashings to
the fixed pulling lugs in the walls, due to the rail inclining towards the public street outside of the cell.
The lashings unfortunately broke/opened and the transformer rolled out of the cell, over the flatbed trailer and crushed
a parked car.
Lessons learned:
A Safe Job Analysis should have included this possibility necessitating cordon off the public parking area outside of
the transformer bay.
Page 15
PHOTO 3 - TRANSFORMER CRUSHING CAR IN NORWAY (PHOTO COURTESY HAFSLUND NETT)
Norway Incident # 2
A 250 MVA 300/132 kV three phase transformer was brought to
the a bulk substation in the city of Bergen on a girder transporter.
Unfortunately, the transport master from the manufacturer
decided to turn the transformer transport around soon after
bringing it ashore from the specialised heavy transport vessel
Elektron II.
Hence, the transformer arrived the wrong way in to the

substation. An engineer from the utility discovered this and the
next day the transformer transport was driven out of the
substation to be turned in the Y-crossing where the access road
to the substation left the local road.
However, this crossing is in a hillside with the Y-crossing having

a double curvature, the girder hanger tilted 40 degrees, and
after approximately half an hour hit the road.
Two mobile cranes could be located at either side of the

transformer and nearly overextended their loading capacity
keeping the transformer from tilting totally. Bigger mobile
cranes erected the transformer and after inspection of the
transformer, it was moved to the substation, this time the right
way.
PHOTO 4 - TRANSFORMER TILTING 40 DEGREES IN NORWAY
The transformer had sustained approximately 1.5 g vertically according to the (now) obsolete mechanical impact
"recorder".
Lessons learned:
The root cause of this incident is the unnecessary turning of the girder hanger before entering the substation. A
temporary text label on e.g. the HV side of the tank with the text: "HV-side" would probably avoid such incidents.
Page 16
4.4 Swedish Incidents

Sweden Incident #1
This rail transport consisted of a diesel engine, one heavy
weight rail cars, auxiliary wagons and passenger cars.
In the actual incident the 182 tonnes heavy transformer

(transportation weight), was transported by a heavy load rail
car weighing 260 tonnes.
One Sunday in February 2008 the heavy transport derailed

and the rail car transporting the transformer tilted to the right
in the moving direction. Both tracks were blocked. This
location is part of a double track line where maximum
allowed speed is 180 km/h and around 10 minutes before
the incident, a high-speed train had passed in the opposite
direction.
It was discovered the salvage work would be extensive,

difficult and lengthy. On this location only narrow dirt access
roads exists, but on both sides of the tracks. A base radio
station nearby had its own access road. These small private
roads could not take the load of the massive mobile cranes
necessary to lift the rail car and the transformer.
Hence, in the period from the next Monday to Friday, 2 500

lorry loads totalling 32 000 tonness of crushed stone were
moved into the area, partly to reinforce the local and dirt PHOTO 2 - RAIL CAR DERAILING IN SWEDEN
roads and partly to build two “platforms” on both sides of the
tracks. One platform was for the mobile cranes and the other
platform were for stabilising the tracks and the surrounding
area.
The heavy girder hanger rail car was lifted the morning of
Saturday with the aid of two mobile cranes and lifting jacks.
Then the transformer was lifted out of the rail car. The rail
car was later moved on its own wheels to a nearby station
10 km further south for a thorough inspection.
During the Sunday, the tracks were repaired and the rail
traffic commenced Monday morning after almost eight days.
According to the following investigations, the transformer

load was not centred and some of the transformer rail car
wheels lost contact with the rail due to a smaller rail defect.
However, the root cause was the transformer was loaded the PHOTO 3 - LIFTING OF DERAILED CAR IN SWEDEN
wrong way in the rail car changing the location of the centre.
The moving parts on the rail car were also not oiled and
greased in the correct manner. This later hampered the free
movements of the eight bogies of each four axels on the
heavy loader and contributed somewhat to the derailment.
The transformer could not be moved from the location and was scrapped at site.
The cost for the salvage work and repair of the tracks was in the excess of 1.1 million EUR. Not included here is the
indirect cost of the keeping this double track main railway line closed for more than a week. Also not included is the
cost of a replacement bus service for most of the trains. The high-speed trains between Stockholm and Malmö, were
diverted to another single track railway line with delays of 20 to 45 minutes.
Page 17
Lessons learned:
After this incident, the train operator procedures are changed. When transformers are transportet on double track
railway lines, the other track not used for the transformer transport is always closed for other train traffic. Girder
hanger vehicles for both rail and for road should measure the hydraulic pressure in the lifting cylinders. The wrong
off-set of the transformer would then have been discovered, also if the off-set CoG at the short side is wrongly located.
Written procedures for rail girder hanger waggons preparations for transport should be reviewed as part of
prequalification of forwarder.
4.5 North American Incidents

North America Incident # 1
Transformer was moved from the factory location in one continent to the site on another continent. Transport involved
ocean ship, rail, and hydraulic multi-wheel road transporter. The generator unit transformer was rated 150 MVA.
The mechanical type shock recorder indicated a longitudinal impact of 4.6 g, and 6.3 g transversal and 5.2 g vertical
during the rail portion of the transport. Significant core damage occurred, and damage included longitudinal
movement of the top core yoke and crushed laminated wood blocking that supported the core during transport. The
core was misaligned and wavy within the clamping structure. The blocking at the top of the coils had loosened and
required replacement. Bolts bent in the threaded rod in the coil clamping structure. The step-lap core tips were
short-circuited. The two halves of the split core were misaligned.
The current transformers moved in the bushing turrets. The transformer was received with no gas in the gas cylinder
after the one-month transport. The transformer was stored for about a year prior to internal inspection.
The delayed inspection and acceptance receipt of the transformer without inspection did cause considerable dispute.
The repair cost at a repair facility was significant, use mobile cranes to un-tank and re-tank the transformer due to
limited crane capacity at the repair facility, and the hindrance at site due to construction activities.
Lessons learned:
a) The manufacturer was unfamiliar with the magnitude of rail transport impacts encountered in North America.
The core and coil restraining systems and the current transformer mounting system were unable to sustain
acceleration forces encountered during the rail portion of the journey. Vibration likely contributed to the
transportation damage to the transformer.
b) An early and detailed inspection is essential, especially when there are indications of possible transport
damage.

A 150 MVA, 345 kV transformer was transported to a remote windfarm site after intercontinental and multi-mode
transportation involving rail transportation. The transformer started to produce combustible gases during a one-
month energizing period at no load. Internal inspection revealed sparking at the tips of the step-lap core joints as
well as loose blocking. The transformer had to be transported to a repair shop, but due to bridge collapse all bridges
of this design on the original transport route were immediately de-rated, requiring a completely different route where
bridges had to be temporarily strengthened and other temporary water crossings had to be constructed, all at great
cost.
Lessons learned:
Blocking and core support must be capable of withstanding the forces imposed. The presumptions for a planned
route used may change abruptly causing severe cost to establish another route or blocking the transformer from
being moved at all.
Page 18

A 50 MVA, 138 kV transformer was delivered between countries
within North America. The last small portion of the
transportation was by truck. The trailer hit the rails as it passed
over a railway crossing.
Lessons learned:
a) Blocking and supports were not capable of
withstanding the forces imposed by North American rail
shock and vibration.
b) It is important to investigate every portion of the
proposed route including the railway crossings which
may be used near by the substation.
PHOTO 4 - DAMAGE TO TRANSFORMER BLOCKING

(PHOTO COURTESY W. BERGMAN)

A smaller power transformer was transported complete with its
radiators and oil-filled to just above the core. There was no
transport gas pressure when the transformer was received and
there were small oil leaks under the transformer radiators. The
radiators had been damaged during transportation and required
repair.
Transporting transformers with the removable radiators

installed exposes the transformer to possible transportation
damage, which can negate the costs of site assembly and oil
filling. A thorough receiving inspection may have detected the
damage somewhat earlier however, in this case all parties
agreed on the cause and timing of the damage.
PHOTO 5 - OIL LEAKAGE FROM TRANSPORT DAMAGE

(PHOTO COURTESY W. BERGMAN)

A 50 MVA, 138 kV transformer was being transported during
the winter by an experienced heavy haul company and driver.
The truck encountered black ice and went into a slide. The
transformer securement chains did not hold the transformer
onto the trailer and the transformer slid and rotated several
“turns” down the highway, coming to rest at the side of the road.
The transformer was secured to the trailer by means of four

cross chains at the bottom of the transformer only.
PHOTO 6 – THE TRANSFORMER LOADED BEFORE TRANSPORT.

ONLY LOW CHAINS SECURING TRANSFORMER ON DEPRESSED
CENTRE TRAILER
Page 19
The driver was extremely fortunate and was not injured. The transformer damage was too severe to repair.
PHOTO 7 - TRANSFORMER AND TRUCK AFTER BLACK ICE ACCIDENT IN NORTH AMERICA (PHOTO COURTESY ENMAX)
Lessons learned:
a) Stop when road conditions are poor or unsafe for transport, regardless of schedule. If transport cannot wait,
road friction must be secured by removing all snow and ice, brushing and sanding.
b) Reduce travel speed during poor weather conditions. This may necessitate use of an escort vehicle to warn
other traffic on the highway, or blocking highway sections temporarily for other traffic.

Several transformers in the range of 50 MVA, 138 kV were transported by truck using inter-state and inter-provincial
highways. Two of the transformers had GPS equipped shock recorders that revealed the transformers had travelled
down a long hill reaching speeds of between 115 km/h and 125 km/h. The highway had a bridge at the bottom of
the hill with an approach that caused a “bump” in the highway (vertical transition between the bridge and highway).
The different drivers from the same transportation company likely were trying to use a high speed of downhill travel
to assist with the long hill after the bridge.
There was vibration damage and other indeterminate cause of damage to various parts including bushings, radiators
and some other parts. Many gaskets were found to have small leaks.
Lessons learned:
Parts and components received in good condition is paramount to secure the transformer can be placed in service
without delays. Experienced forwarders and transporters with proven records and references should be selected for
transformer transportation.

A 125 MVA, 138 kV transformer produced by one manufacturer had some
additional testing performed by another manufacturer’s service shops. Neither
the service shop, nor the transportation company had transformer outline or
dimensional documentation from the original manufacturer.
The transportation company and the driver were not familiar with transporting
transformers. The driver and the service company had trouble in loading the
transformer and securing it to the trailer for safe travel. There were no markings
for centre of gravity although there were markings for the transformer
centreline.
Several lengths of distribution line wires were found on top of the transformer
when it arrived at site. Some minor damage occurred to items on the top of the
transformer.
PHOTO 8 - OFFSET COG TRANSFORMER

LOADED ON TRAILER (PHOTO COURTESY W.
BERGMAN)
Page 20
Lessons learned:
a) The identification of the centre of gravity in the transport condition is fundamentally important.
b) Measurement of the loaded height of the transformer is very important.
c) Experienced forwarders and transport companies with proven records and references should be selected.

A transformer was unloaded from a barge on an inland waterway (river) with a relatively strong current. The tug
pushed the barge into the shore at the unloading location. Ramps were placed to drive the hydraulic trailer from the
barge onto shore.
As the transformer was on the ramps, the barge shifted position, causing the ramps to move. The transformer and
trailer upset into the river.
Barge alignment moved relative to shore causing SPMT and transformer to roll off ramps.
PHOTO 9 - TRANSFORMER FALLING OFF BARGE (PHOTO COURTESY SOUTHERN COMPANY)
Lessons learned:
Barge unloading on fast moving river current requires special skills including the securement of the barge to the shore
or other fixed anchors so that it cannot move during the unloading process. A Safe Job Analysis including all possible
events must be made as part of transport planning.

A transformer was being transported along an unpaved road.
During movement around a curve in the road, the rear of the
trailer became bogged down in the soft road shoulder.
The self-steering booster on the trailer “steered” into the ditch.

The transformer did not fall off of the trailer. The trailer did not
tip. The transformer was recovered, without need for repair.
Lessons learned:
Adequate securing and caution on unimproved roads are
necessary to mitigate the risks or the transformer tipping under
potentially soft road conditions. Some conditions call for PHOTO 10 - TRAILER WENT INTO THE DITCH (PHOTO COURTESY
SOUTHERN CO.)
steerable rear of the trailer. Attentive signal persons must
watch the load at all times and especially when moving along
potentially soft road conditions.

Transformers rebuild program, involved transport of a series of transformers to a factory for rebuild after many years
of smelter service. A rebuilt transformer was being returned to the customer with a planned route, a pilot car and
appropriate permits in place for the transport. The route involved bypassing travel under a specific overpass and
travel only in the centre of the two lanes under another underpass.
Page 21
The driver ignored the bypass route over and around the underpass and hit the underside of the bridge breaking off
all of the LV bushings. A month later with a different driver, the pilot car provided insufficient warning for the driver
to straddle the lanes to allow passage under an arched bridge. The transformer hit the underside of the bridge
breaking off all of the LV bushings.
PHOTO 11 - TRANSFORMER BUSHING HIT BRIDGE

(PHOTO COURTESY VTCU)
Lessons learned:
Despite using a pilot car and an earlier similar incident, the transport company still broke bushings and caused
extensive internal damage to the rebuilt transformers. Driver inattention is difficult to control despite extensive route
detail. Some planning for human error would benefit most transportation situations.

A large transformer was moved from one continent to North America. The final transport of relative short length was
by hydraulic trailer. A hydraulic system failure in the trailer caused the left side of the hydraulic trailer to suddenly
lower relative to the right side. The transformer slid off the trailer causing irreparable damage.
Transformer transported on hydraulic trailer. No wood was used between transformer and steel beams on trailer.
The transformer slid off the steel beams that were between the trailer and the bottom of the transformer. Steel-on-
steel coefficient of friction is much lower than wood or rubber (or other materials) and steel.
PHOTO 12 - TRANSFORMER SLIDING OFF MULTI-WHEEL (PHOTO COURTESY SOUTHERN CO.)
Lessons learned:
The condition of transport equipment is very important. It may not have made a difference in this case; however, the
securement of the transformer to the transporter is very important. The transformer is to be adequately secured to
the transporter even if the transporter/trailer is leaning. Similarly, the use of wood, rubber or other non-slippery (not
steel-on-steel) surface significantly assists in reducing movement of the transformer on a steel deck of a transporter.
Page 22

A transformer was manufactured at a factory for export. Road, barge (river) and ship transport was required for the
166 MVA transformers. One transformer was successfully
transferred from the trailer to a barge using a gantry system.
The gantry was repositioned to transfer the second
transformer. When the second transformer was
approximately over the barge, the barge broke in half. One
transformer was mostly submerged and the second
transformer was only partially submerged.
The transformers were returned to the factory. No internal

damage was evident from settling into the soft mud of the river
bottom. All external wiring, conduits and control cabinet were
replaced. The transformers is now in service.
Lessons learned:
Experienced contractors with equipment in good condition for
the task are fundamentally important. The exact reason for PHOTO 13 - TRANSFORMER SUBMERGED AFTER BARGE BROKE
DURING LOADING (PHOTO COURTESY OF TRANSALTA)
the barge failure is unknown but includes defects in the barge
as well as inadequate load bearing under the gantry supports
that were positioned in the barge.

A very large transformer was transported from Europe to North America using ocean, barge, rail and road transport.
Jack and slide transfer was used from the rail car to a trailer. One side of the transformer was angled inward from
the jacking step to the base of the transformer (to gain additional clearance). The active part of the transformer was
sensitive to any movement or deflection in the tank in the vicinity of the jacking step. When the transformer was
being lowered, the body of a jack contacted the inclined area of the transformer, slightly bending the inclined portion
of the transformer tank. A core ground was measured while the transformer was supported on cribbing. The
transformer was returned to the factory for modification and was returned in a somewhat heavier condition.
Lessons learned:
The transformer was well marked as to where jacking was allowed and where lashing was to be applied. The
transport markings and drawing was one of the best in the industry at the time of this event. The internal design was
somewhat unusual in the area around the base of the transformer. The contractor did not realize that this transformer
was more sensitive in the area around the jacking pads. There was no information on the drawing indicating the
need for additional caution. Be absolutely clear to provide specific instructions if there is anything unusual in required
handling.

A series of transformers were transported from one continent where they were manufactured and to North America.
The first three single-phase transformers were received in a single rail convoy in good condition. Three additional
transformers were received, again in a single rail convoy. Two shock recorders had been installed at the factory.
High shock magnitudes were recorded during loading and trans-loading operations as well as during rail transport.
All shocks above 3 g were in the vertical direction, except for one event during the loading operation where the shock
was in both horizontal directions. In addition, many low magnitude shocks were recorded with a strong vibration
component in the vertical and longitudinal direction. There were 50 events over 0.6 g recorded by the upper recorder
and over 100 events recorded by the lower recorder, with frequencies below 10 Hz.
The shocks were deemed to be from rail imperfections. Significant observed internal damage included:
1) Wood spacers above wood pressure rings that had moved or fallen out of position.
2) Leads with damaged outer insulation.
3) Pressboard spacers that had moved.
The transformers were repaired on site.
Page 23
Lessons learned:
The difference in damage between various transformer deliveries has been deemed to be due to different rail routes
used by the railways. The earliest delivery was on good track while at least one of the later deliveries was on a rail
route with poor track conditions. The transformer design needs to consider the effects of multiple shocks and low
frequency vibration during rail transportation. Knowledge of transport conditions in all conditions and countries where
transport occurs is vital to a transformer mechanical design.
4.6 United Kingdom Incidents

UK Incident # 1
On 6 January 1968, a 120-ton English Electric Co. Ltd (EE) transformer was to be moved from the former EE Works
in Stafford to an EE storage depot on the disused airfield at Hixon. The airfield was near to the railway line.
To carry out this move a huge transporter vehicle, 45 m (148

feet) long and with a 32-wheeled trailer, was chartered. It had a
gross weight of 162 tons, was impelled by a tractor unit at each
end, and had a crew of five. The figure to the right shows a
similar transport for EE.
The journey was not an unusual procedure as six other abnormal

loads had passed over the automatic crossing in the preceding PHOTO 14 - TRAILER USED AT HIXON DISASTER (©
months. CROWN COPYRIGHT)
The transporter and its police escort started the journey at

approximately 09:30 on the morning of Saturday 6 January.
Although the transformer storage depot was only six miles from
starting location, the nature of the load meant that it needed to
travel out of the town and then along a somewhat laborious route
via the motorway, country roads and finally to storage depot.
Confer the map to the right, which gives an example of the
diversions necessary for heavy oversized transports. The route
was approved, but the map of the route made no mention of the
railway level crossing location, which was adjacent to the depot.
At around 12:20 the transporter turned off the main road to the
final road where it slowed to walking pace as it approached the
level crossing. It stopped for a moment while the police car went
over the crossing to check where the entrance to the airfield was;
on its return, one of the police officers told driver that "this is the
place" and proceeded back over the level crossing. The trailer
needed to be raised by the crew in order to negotiate the track,
but, in addition, it needed to be low enough to clear the overhead
lines. While this was taking place, the transporter slowed to
around 2 mph (3.2 km/h). At this speed, it would take
approximately one minute to traverse the crossing.
The leading tractor traversed the two railway tracks and the main
bulk of the transporter was astride them when 11:26 the express
train 1A41 Manchester Picadilly to Euston activated the crossing sequence by operating a treadle 910 m
(1,000 yards) away. The Public Inquiry investigations showed a train at 85 mph would reach the half barrier secured
level crossing 24 seconds after the red flashing lights and bells commences. The warning lights began to flash and
the bells began to ring, with the barrier descending onto the forward part of the transformer.
Page 24
At about the same time leading tractor driver who had not heard
the bells and could not see the lights, saw the train approaching
from his left and realising that it would not stop, shouted a warning
to his crew. He then accelerated and so did the driver of the tractor
at the rear, although this meant that he was deliberately bringing
himself into the direct path of the train.
As a result of these actions, the train hit only the rear seven or eight
feet of the transformer at approximately 75 mph (121 km/h),
sheared through the trailer and threw the transformer forward and
to the left of the line.
The train consisted of electric locomotive and 12 coaches. The

locomotive and the first five coaches of the train were demolished,
and the following three coaches were derailed. Both railway lines
were destroyed for a length of 110 m (120 yards) and the overhead
lines were brought down.
Eleven people (8 passengers and 3 railwaymen) were killed, with

45 being injured; six of them seriously.
Lessons learned:
All rail crossing may be manned for the crossing of such vehicles
to avoid any chance of a collision. Anyhow, the transport plan
should include clear instruction what must be done if the transport
is delayed, and the responsibility should be clear who is doing
what.
PHOTO 15 - HIXON SITE AFTER THE COLLISION
(© CROWN COPYRIGHT)
Source:
Report of the Public Inquiry into the accident at Hixon Level Crossing on January 6th 1968 (© Crown Copyright)
Page 25
5 General Design Requirements and Considerations
5.1 Design Requirements for Transport and Good Industrial Practices

A transformer should be designed to withstand transport related forces. During the design stage, the following points
should be taken into account for transformer transport:
1) Static 1 g could be a starting point as a design limit, except for railway transport where 2 g or higher could
be required.
2) Design limits are based on static calculations.
3) Design limits for various transport modes are different. If no distinction is made for the transport mode, the
design should be for the worst case transport mode expected.
4) Good fixation of the active parts to the tank is required to prevent any movement.
5) Permanent active part supporting structures are preferred. A temporary supporting structure could also be
a solution in certain applications. Proper care needs to be taken that these parts are preserved and remain
available together with installation instructions for the transformer.
6) Fixtures attached to the clamping system should prevent and block all possibilities of movement of all core
sheet packages and individual core sheets
7) The clamping pressure applied to the core sheets should be sufficient to prevent the beginning of movement
of the core sheets.
8) The design of the lifting, jacking, haulage, blocking and lashing points on the tank should meet the
requirements for all the transport modes of the transformer. For more details, please refer to chapter 13
Transport drawings and instructions and chapter 14 Load securing.
9) The transport of a transformer with accessories should have more attention. The accessories should be well
protected.
10) Attention should be paid to the transport of accessories separately from the transformer. Some of the
handling requirements for transformer transport may be applicable to transport of accessories.
Different manufacturers have different design limit for their static calculations and it is difficult to reach a common
value higher than 1 g. If more specific information is available, this design limit could be increased or reduced. For
example, better static design limits can be derived from dynamic shock loads based on experience and design
knowledge.
There is a difference between the dynamic shock loads encountered during transport and the static design limits
used for static calculations. Static calculations are much more feasible than dynamic calculations since the latter
requires realistic input of dynamic conditions (e.g. dynamic accelerations and damping) and they are generally not
known well enough. Experience and design knowledge allows the construction of the transformer, which is based
on static calculations, to resist these dynamic shock loads. When the ability of the transformer to resist the dynamic
shock loads is found to be insufficient, it is usually the design that is changed and not the design limits.
Where the design limits for static calculations uses accelerations values, the evaluation of the shock recorder data
generally uses velocity change (energy of the shock). No relation can be made between what is measured by the
shock recorder and the static design limits for the same reason that dynamic calculations are less feasible. Therefore,
shock recorder limits are generally set to find events that are not commonly encountered during transport rather than
to limits which predict the existence of damage after transport. See Chapter 9 and 10 on shock recorder use and
interpretation of its measurements.
The limiting values for static design calculations and measured dynamic shock loads (including velocity change
criteria) should be agreed upon during the mechanical design review. See also Chapter 7 Design review requirements
on transport issues.
5.2 Design for Vibrations

If the transformer is transported over a significant distance or is subjected to large in-service vibrations, special design
considerations are necessary. Small vibrations and slow rocking motions, during short time spans, could easily be
sustained by the transformer; however they can become dangerous if they act long enough.
Page 26
At present, detailed design for vibration is not possible because the expected vibration magnitudes, frequencies and
durations are not yet well enough understood. More research (measurements) is needed to know the different
vibration levels, which can be expected in different transport modes. Secondly, the link between a given vibration
level and possible damage must also be examined to be able to create design limits for vibrations.
Slow repeated movements such as rocking and tilting can be as devastating as the better known vibrations. Again,
more research is needed to understand the different kinds of slow movements that can be expected in different
transport modes and what could be their damage potential.
Even though specific design for vibrations and slow repeated movements is not possible, some general precautions
can be taken. The most common problem that is caused by long-lasting vibrations is dislocation of components that
are only held in place by a limited amount of friction. At present there is no reliable method to estimate damage
probability of a given level and duration of vibrations. Therefore, it is preferred to take a safe approach. This means
that all components of the active part of the transformer need to be properly secured. Some issues to consider are:
1) Core laminations of the top yoke can delaminate and creep upwards due to vibrations during long railway
voyages. These laminations should be mechanically held in place in some way
2) Small insulation pieces and spacers can slowly creep out their initial location if the friction force holding them
is insufficient and if necessary these pieces should therefore be secured by mechanical way. Forces acting
are quite small. Therefore simple means like strap bands, small wooden pegs, glue or fixing by geometry
are more than sufficient. However, care must be taken that the chosen solution is compatible with hot
transformer oil.
3) Insulating blocks and spacers that form a part of the winding are clamped by the pre-clamping force. This
force is typically more than large enough to keep these parts in place, even during long railway transports.
However, it is considered prudent to lock these parts as well in the horizontal direction.
4) Small gaps that are left in the support structure of the active part against the tank will increase the (shock)
loads that are acting on the active part. Such gaps must therefore be avoided at all cost. The support
structure must provide a certain amount of adaptability to sustain mechanical tolerances on the clamping
system without leaving small gaps between tank and active part. Deforming materials like rubber or liquid
materials that harden in place are common methods to provide this kind of functionality.
5) Dampening material can be added in the support structure of the active part to reduce the vibrations that are
acting onto the active part. However, care must be taken while designing a support structure with such a
dampening component. A correctly designed dampening component will decrease the vibrations and shocks
acting on the active part, where a wrongly designed one can even increase the loads on the active part.
Also, the dampening properties of the selected material should preferably not change significantly over the
lifetime of the transformer.
6) Laminated material should be used with vibrational loads acting perpendicular to the laminations. Vibrational
loads acting in parallel to the laminations bring a significant risk on delamination of the different layers in the
material.
7) Bolted connections need to be protected against loosening. Special care needs to be taken for electrically
insulated bolted connections. Experience shows these insulated connections loosen much easier than
normal non-insulated bolted connections.
8) Brittle components should not be used to carry mechanical transport shocks and vibrations. For example,
fiberglass tubes used typically as electrical insulation for bolts should not be used to carry mechanical shear
loads.
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PHOTO 16 – EXAMPLE OF DISPLACED CORE LAMINATIONS FIGURE 1 – ILLUSTRATION OF CORE SHEET CREEPING UPWARDS
DUE TO LONG LASTING VIBRATIONS
5.3 Design Requirements from Standards

Some existing standards, at the time of issue of this Technical Brochure, give values or guidelines to design
components for transport. It is; however, of extreme importance to assess whether these values are applicable to
transport of large power transformers before these are used in design stage!
Clause 5.3.1 to clause 5.3.4 will give a short description of the best-known standards giving values for all the transport
modes of electrical components. General conclusions about these standards are given in clause 5.3.5.
5.3.1 IEC 60076-1:2011, Power Transformers - Part 1: General

The latest version of IEC 60076-1:2011 [1] standard on power transformers, stipulates with respect to transport
accelerations that the transformer must be designed and manufactured to withstand at least a 1 g static load in all
directions in addition to normal gravity.
Oddly enough, this standard also specifies that the transformer must comply with class 4M4 as per IEC 60721-3-4
[2] for mechanical stationary conditions outside the tank. The basis of this mechanical class is a continuous
sinusoidal vibration with amplitude of 1 g and frequency between 9 Hz and 200 Hz and a shock with maximal g-value
of 10 g and duration of 11 ms. These values practically mean that vibrations and forces during stationary use in
normal conditions are expected to be much worse than during transport. This 4M4 specification cannot be regarded
as a realistic working condition for a normal large power transformer and is not followed by the industry.
For normal transformers, 4M1 can be regarded as a severe but realistic working condition. Therefore the value
stipulated in IEC 60076-1 [1] should at least be changed to 4M1.
It should be noted however, that the 4M4 specification is a realistic working condition for some special class
transformers like wind turbine generator transformers installed next to the generator in the nacelle and ship board
transformers close to the engine room.
Classifications for mechanically stationary conditions in weather protected areas can be found in the related standard
IEC 60721-3-3 [3]. The mechanical classes are very similar to the classes from IEC 60721-3-4 [2]. Class 3M1 can
be regarded as a severe but realistic working condition. Class 3M4 is the same very high mechanical load and is
only realistic for special class transformers.
5.3.2 IEC 60721-3-2

IEC 60721-3-2 [4] standard describes transport conditions for (electrical) equipment. This standard provides an
excellent example of how the mechanical loads applied on a transformer should be described; both the maximal g-
value and the duration of the different possible loads are specified! The following loads are covered:
1) Stationary sinusoidal vibration: Indicated with amplitude and frequency range

2) Stationary random vibration: Indication with acceleration spectral density and frequency range
3) Shock load: Indicated with shape of the shock in the time domain
4) Free fall: Indicated with maximal drop height
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5) Possible toppling over: Indicated as yes or no

6) Rolling and pitching: Indicated with maximal angle and minimal time period.
7) Stationary acceleration: Indicated with expected maximal acceleration
8) Pressure load: Indicated with expected maximal pressure
This standard is unfortunately only applicable for components, which are significantly smaller than a power
transformer. However, the values described in this guide can provide a detailed upper limit of what can be expected
and give an excellent example of the kind of information that should be given by a standard related to transport.
Some of the loads, for example, free fall and toppling are different depending on the mass of the transported object.
An obvious recommendation is to expand this guide with appropriate values for heavier electrical components like
power transformers.
5.3.3 CTU (Cargo Transport Unit) Packing Guidelines

CTU (Cargo Transport Unit) packing guidelines [5] describe the loads, which could be expected in case the
transformer would be transported using a CTU, typically a shipping container. For the smallest power transformers
this could be a realistic transport condition. For larger power transformers, the limits in these guidelines can only
provide a broad upper limit of the forces to expect during transport.
These guidelines only give g-values. Due to lack of further information, these values should be considered as static
design values, not as actual measured peak values.
The different values mentioned in these guidelines are:
1) Road Transport:
a) 0.8g-1.2g forwards
b) 0.5 g backwards
c) 0.5 g sideways
d) No value given in vertical direction!
2) Rail Transport (Not shunted):

a) 1.0 g forwards and backwards
b) 0.5 g sideways with a dynamic variation of ±0.3 g
c) Vertical static gravity of 1.0 g
3) Rail Transport (Shunted):

a) In addition to the loads given for not shunted rail transport, loads up to 4 g in forward and backward
direction can be expected
4) Sea Transport
a) 0.4 g ±0.5 g in forwards and backwards directions
b) 0.8 g ±0.8 g in sideways directions
c) Vertical static gravity of 1.0 g
5.3.4 IEEE Std C57.150-2012

IEEE Std C57.150-2012 [6], a recent guide from IEEE, gives sound advice with respect to transport of power
transformers. However, no specific limits are mentioned. All transport loads are explained with words only.
The only remarkable part in this standard is that longitudinal impacts with a peak above 5 g are considered as rough
handling. In reality, this guideline for rough handling should be adjusted depending on the design criteria used for
the transformer and should be based on the energy content of the impact.
5.3.5 General Remarks about Standards

Most of these different standards do not give sufficient information. Giving a maximal g-value is simply not enough
to allow detailed design for transport or to interpret measurement results of a shock recorder. It is therefore, strongly
recommended that future revisions of these standards define occurring mechanical conditions with the required
detail. The different standards should give limits for maximal energy content or maximal velocity change of an event.
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This can be given, for example, by defining both the maximal g-value and the shape of the shock in the time domain.
Only IEC 60721-3-2 [4] presently provides this kind of information for transport of electrical components.
A second improvement should be to add the distinction between different sizes of loads. The heaviest masses for
objects considered in most of these standards are only applicable to the smallest distribution transformers. Most
transporters will be much more careful with heavy transports, resulting in smaller mechanical loads. The different
mechanical loads, depending on transported weights above 300 tonnes, should therefore also be shown in this kind
of standards.
5.4 Design Practices for Optimizing the Transformer for Transport

During the journey of a transformer to its final destination, the transformer active part (core windings and lead
connections) and the tank will likely become subjected to loads related to different mode of transport. Transport
loads may be a combination of shocks as results of railway shunting operation and the vibration loads during railway
side-to-side movement. Sea voyages tend to introduce a combination of forces resulting from ship movement in
pitching, rolling, heaving, surging, yawing or swaying or a combination of any two or more. The forces set up during
motorway/highway transport are very much at the control of the driver as well as the selection of transport equipment.
The forces set up during the land transport are generally well controlled by using hydraulic controlled suspension of
the multi-axial trailer. The overall design of the transformers should be withstand transportation related forces that
are expected on the journey.
5.4.1 Examples of Design Practice

The transformer active part assembly is most vulnerable to damage when the cargo is subjected to heavy transport
forces. Therefore, the active part must be designed to withstand the anticipated transport forces. The following
points list some of the guidelines and design practices applied for transport.
1) Review the transport modes and evaluate the anticipated transport accelerations for the journey and
subsequent evaluate the design intent acceleration for the journey.
2) Apply the intended design accelerations such that the complete transformer including the active part and
internal fixing points are capable of withstanding the transport loads.
3) The transformer tank should include adequate number of haulage points of adequate design suitable for the
transformer weight ensuring the complete transformer tank withstands the intended design transport loads
when the tank is safely secured.
4) The mechanical and electrical construction of the transformer implies that for the normal operation of the
transformer the core laminations are normally clamped by mean of the core clamping structure. The core
frame structure should design with the transport load in mind.
5) Clamping the transformer core laminations limbs and yokes would support the core lamination thus
preventing laminations movement during heavy transport loads.
6) Including a solid support to strengthen the core legs from bottom to the top yoke would improve mechanical
strength of the limbs against sideways deformation and lamination movement.
7) Clamping the upper and lower yoke laminations increase the stability of the main joints linking the limbs to
the upper and lower yoke improving the lamination mechanical strength.
8) The core lamination main limbs are normally clamped which improve the stability of the core during transport.
The lamination pressure design intent is specific to manufacturer design methodology and experience.
9) Notwithstanding the manufacturer’s design intent of core to earth insulation principle, bracing the core to the
core clamping structure improves the mechanical stability of the lamination during the journey.
10) Considering rough transport conditions and included with the manufacturer’s design experience, end plates
might be built-in to improve the mechanical strength of the upper and lower yokes frame structure.
11) The windings should be axially tight to prevent sideways movements during journey.
12) The active part should be fixed to the tank permanently; the fixing point design intent should comply with
transport loads.
13) To provide additional mechanical support for uncertain rough transport, temporary transport bracing might
be an option for the manufacturers to consider in such circumstances.
14) Extra protection should be applied to all externally mounted devices, such as cabinets, valves, bushings, etc.
to reduce the potential damage during rigging or transportation.
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6 Specification
The following are proposed as minimum specification requirements for transportation of transformers. The
specification should address these items:
1) Responsibility for the transport (i.e. Incoterms®).

2) Any specific forwarder required (if applicable).
3) Final delivery site and specific place at site.
4) Site of assembly and operation; specific dimensions and conditions for receiving, storage, and assembly of
the transformer.
5) Any local restrictions related to transportation and rigging (if applicable). For instance landing axel loads,
area for transport, bridges, tunnels, loading gauges / -profiles, time restrictions, need for police-escort,
planned events or activities, etc.
6) Any local restriction of maximum allowed dimensions (i.e. height, length, width)
7) Any local restriction of maximum allowed weight of transformer.
8) Transport documentation required.
9) Testing and monitoring prior to, during and after transportation
10) Packaging conditions, especially for accessories and oil (adequate to protect and secure equipment and all
its components from breakage or damage during transit, handling and exposure to climatic conditions)
11) All openings and tube ends are to be transported with watertight seals. The transformer and accessories
should be suitable for outdoor storage.
12) Where components such as bushings and removable radiators are shipped separately, the packaging for
each component should be clearly marked with the purchase order and serial number of the transformer. All
special handling and storage instructions should be clearly marked on each package.
13) Devices to be provided for suitably securement of the transformer (i.e. lashing points etc.).
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7 Design Review
7.1 Design Review Protocol

The transformer design review should include all aspects of the transformer transportation. The transformer design
review should be conducted in accordance with CIGRE Technical Brochure 529 “Guidelines for Conducting Design
Reviews for Transformers. In addition, the following comprehensive items related to transformer transportation from
this subsequent guide should be used in the design review. A significant contributor to successful transformer
transportation is a review of the (special) design considerations that will allow the transformer to survive a successful
transport between the factory and the location where it will be placed in service.
This chapter in this Guide on Transformer Transportation includes issues to be discussed and analysed during the
Design Review. The items and issues in this Guide on Transformer Transportation are supplementary to CIGRE
Publication 529 “Guidelines for Conducting Design Reviews for Transformers. The design review described in this
chapter contains more detail related to the transportation of a transformer.
7.2 Specifications and Standards

7.2.1 Standards
Transformer specifications include requirements to design, manufacture and supply the transformer in accordance
with IEC 60076 series of standards and/or other national and international standards.
In addition, there are other mandatory or industry recognized practices that must be followed including standards and
regulations mandated by rail, marine or road authorities. These requirements will likely vary widely between various
countries and even sometimes between various jurisdictions and locations within a country.
7.2.2 Specifications
Discuss the use of non-transformer specifications in the design review process, for example, mechanical welding
processes for lifting and jacking related items on the transformer, lifting standards, standards for rigging,
transportation standards in various jurisdictions and locations through which the transformer will travel, etc.
7.2.3 National Requirements

Some countries or continents have regulatory requirements or industry mandated requirements for transporting large
loads including transformers. The specification and design review should consider the national, regional or local
requirements in these various jurisdictions.
7.3 Method of Design Verification

The transformer transport design will only be “tested” during the actual transport of the transformer so the design
must be verified by other means to avoid damage during transport. Generally, transport shock withstands designs
only consider static forces. However, the design reviews should also consider dynamic forces associated with
transportation shocks. Similarly, the issue of vibration must be discussed, especially since much of the damage
observed can be attributed to vibration.
The use of simulation programs should include a discussion of their basis of development and limitations in modelling
both the transformer and the transporter.
Transformer manufacturers develop experience related to the transportation of their specific transformers using
various modes of transport. This experience leads to internal design rules for the transportation related features on
their transformers, i.e. transportation resistant designs. Discuss how company experience is being used to develop
and apply design rules for transportation related design.
Transformer design programs produce dimensional and weight information for the completed transformer in the
transport state. Manufacturing and design tolerances can result in a transformer that may not be exactly as intended.
Discuss the transport dimensional profile and the mass of the transformer will be verified after manufactured. Refer
to chapter 16.2.
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7.4 Scope of Transportation and Installation

There needs to be agreement on the scope of “Transportation” during for the design review process (include all
aspects of the expected transportation). Even though the commercial responsibility for transformer transport may
change along the route, the entire transportation should be included in the design review. Include uncertainties of
final transport or staged transport.
Installation or movement of the transformer to its final foundation is technically part of the “final transportation” and
therefore within the scope of this Guide. Assembly of the transformer is not within the scope of this Guide but is
certainly to be discussed during a design review. The final movement of the transformer is usually in the “as-received”
condition; however, there may be situations where the final movement occurs after the transformer is assembled and
possibly filled with oil (such as pre-assembly in anticipation of a short duration interruption in the substation to
exchange transformers).
The transformer must be designed for transportation in all of the transport modes to occur along the route. An
adequate transport design will ensure:
1) Understanding the transformer mechanical design and its ability to withstand transportation along the entire
route to its final position.
2) Ability to secure the transformer to the carrier whether it be by ship, barge, rail or road transport. Securement
must comply with all jurisdictions over which the transformer is transported.
3) Meets dimensional and mass limitations in all portions of the route over which the transformer is transported.
4) Transformer active part will remain electrically, mechanically and environmentally safe during the transport
period, i.e. it will remain dry and without leakage.
Transportation of the transformer is an important part of the design review. A review of the transportation issues
related to delivering the transformer is an opportunity for the manufacturer and the purchaser to share their knowledge
about the specific location and route that might be used to deliver the transformer. Each party may be experienced
in part of the overall transportation process. The sharing of this knowledge will facilitate a more complete, effective
and efficient transportation process
Review manufacturers possible design withstands levels for each of the 3-axis shocks (impacts/accelerations) to
meet expected transportation forces. Review the differences between the “standard or offered design” compared to
what could be offered.
Review expected transportation shocks on transportation routes planned for delivery of transformer as well as for
possible future relocations (for example, the transformer may be delivered initially to a central warehouse or stores.
Later it may be moved to the designated substation. Alternately, a transformer that has failed or is required at another
site may have to be transported to another future site.
Quantify the static accelerations and velocity changes that the transformer is specified to withstand. Refer to chapter
10 and Annex1, 2, 3, 4.
When specified, the manufacturer must follow the specified value (as a minimum). When no value is specified,
manufacturers will follow their standard value(s) according to transport mode, destination, mass, etc. Some
manufacturers can offer a “standard” design or an “enhanced” shock resistant design and options for successful
transport. Include conditions for which the design is applicable.
The success of transformer transportation increases with the use of qualified and experienced transporters.
7.5 Design Review Checklists

The following list is suggested to ensure transportation aspects are integrated into the transformer design review.
7.5.1 Design for Transport

1) Identify any unusual aspects of transport, handling, installation, and assembly, restricted access
(dimensional or mass)
2) Identify the existence of manufacture’s design guidelines and how they relate to past experience.
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3) Identify the existence of manufacture’s design guideline, understand the process of how the design
guidelines are applied to the design and manufacture of the transformer.
4) Discuss the design values that are used.
5) Discuss shock level(s) that will initiate internal inspections or other action by those responsible for
transportation and warranty.
7.5.2 Specific Transportation related Items for Design Review

The following list can be used to guide discussions during the design review and to develop an understanding of the
transformer transport capabilities. (Refer also to paragraph 10.5 related to acceptable limits for transport loads,
clamping structures, etc.)
1) Facilities for bracing and blocking the active parts inside the tank (temporary or permanent)
2) Core blocking / support
3) Core and coil design (including support systems)
4) Support of cleats and leads
5) Support of tap changer
6) Support of bushing leads during transport
7) Support of core, shield or shunt ground leads during transport
8) Support and blocking of active parts to tank
9) Matching of internal supports to tank wall with external tie-down facilities
10) Strength of the tank to withstand shocks transferred from the transporter to the core and coils and vice versa
11) Facilities for securement the tank to the transport “vehicle(s)”
12) Facilities for preserving the insulation quality during transport (and possible storage). Include discussion of
other parts of the transformer (components) that have to be preserved during shipment (current transformer
pockets/turrets, electrical shields, insulation parts, bushings, etc.).
13) Shock recorders:
a. Type: electronic vs. mechanical (mechanical considered to be obsolete)
b. Characteristics (magnitude, range and frequency response)
c. Mounting location and means of mounting
d. Placement/position and alignment
e. Calibration
f. Communications
g. Reading and interpretation of receiving records, preservation of records, Refer to section 9.2 for
further details
14) Packaging characteristics
15) Protective wrapping and packaging for shipment and storage (transformer main tank as well as components).
16) Marking and identification on packages and crates
17) Temporary or permanent protection for valves and other delicate devices/components on transformers.
18) Discuss benchmark transport tests, criteria for acceptance of repeated factory tests at time of receiving (core
and clamp insulation resistance, transport gas dew point temperature, FRA)
19) Markings on the transformer
a) Centre of gravity for transport
b) Reference line on bottom of tank wall to assist with locating transformer on foundation
c) Serial number of transformer
d) Customer name
e) Delivery address
f) Dimensions
g) Gas or oil content in tank
h) Weight/mass
i) Emergency contact information
j) Restrictions on travel (ex. max speed of road transport, position in train)
k) Identification of lifting and securing locations
l) Identification of restricted areas against lifting, securing or blocking of the transformer
20) Transportation Plan
a) Discussion contents of the transportation plan. Discuss who will use the transportation plan.
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b) Discuss the selection process for those who will transport the transformer including freight forwarder,
water, rail and road transporters, rigging, crane and off-loaders.
c) Transportation Drawing, refer to Annex 9 - Examples - Transport Drawings (-plans)
d) Transportation Profile
21) Outline dimensions relative to centre of gravity (transport)
22) Carrier(s) and ability to load dimensionally in centre of transformer (some road carriers) or load on transport
centre of gravity (rail)
23) CoG effect on transportation profile (effective transportation profile for rail is centred about the centre of
gravity)
FIGURE 2 - CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND TRANSPORTATION PROFILE FOR RAIL AND ROAD TRANSPORT
24) Routing limitations and routing alternatives (ability to ship offset-load by road but very limited control on rail
shipment)
25) Transportation Routing
a) Discussion of routing and routing alternatives that might be used. Clarify known restrictions en route or
at site (dimensional, including weights, route(s))
b) Plans for changes in routing (due to unplanned port restrictions, derailments, bridge limitations, delays
en route as traffic accidents, seasonal or unplanned route closures or limitations) may occur
unexpectedly
26) Discuss the procedures for monitoring the transformer condition during transport (visual inspection, shock
recorder records, dry gas quality (dew point and temperature) and quantity (pressure/vacuum), core and core
clamp insulation resistance to earth/ground. These items are examples only and may not be specified
requirements.
27) Discuss number of bottles of transport makeup gas vs. volume of transformer, expected leakage rate, and
expected transport time. Discuss whether the make-up gas bottle valve will remain open or closed during
transport. If two bottles, is the valve for the second bottle only to be opened if low pressure is observed.
Monitoring possibilities for dew point, gas pressure via shock recorder GPS and SMS.
28) Photographs of transformer loaded on carrier including means of securing transformer to carrier,
identification number(s) of specific carrier, and location of shock recorder(s)
29) Discuss how the transport weight will be confirmed
30) Other specified requirements (e.g. transport escort, trans-loading inspection, trans-loading between carriers,
load breaks en route, instructions for special handling or care during shipment; ex. make-up air; checks on
internal pressure, etc.)
31) Time or seasonal issues
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a) Night or day time restrictions

b) Weekend or weekday restrictions
c) Holiday, tourist or special celebration events
d) Road loading restrictions, e.g. spring thaw with loading restrictions
32) Demarcation of where the manufacturer’s responsibility ends and the purchasers responsibility begins
33) Delivery information
a. Receiver contact information
b. Identify which end of transformer must be first into rail siding (if applicable)
34) Coordination on readiness of site
a. Access and area around foundation is suitable
b. Foundation readiness (installed, cured, flatness, level, large enough to allow jacking and blocking, etc.)
c. Foundation readiness (e.g. concrete cure)
d. Anti-vibration pads, shims, wheels, seismic hold-down, oil containment membrane, foundation curing
and surface finishing, and other items that could be essential for placing the transformer on its foundation
35) Site handling,
a. Unloading facilities available at site
b. Available methods of unloading (crane, jack and slide, jack and roll, gantry, etc.)
c. Special unloading requirements or instructions (clearance to energized bus, limited access, etc.)
d. Temporary storage conditions and requirements for transformer (temporary foundation, partial assembly,
oil or gas filling)
e. Insurance considerations that must be met
f. Security considerations that must be met
e. Warranty considerations that must be met
36) Component delivery
a. Delivery schedule relative to receiving the transformer
b. Available methods of unloading
c. Available area to temporarily store components while the transformer is being assembled
37) Oil delivery
a. Method and conditions of oil transport
b. Timing of oil arrival at site
c. Transport container cleaning, condition and quality
d. Oil storage container(s) supply, cleaning, condition and protection on site
e. Receiving tests and acceptance criteria for oil
A permanent record should be made of these design review discussions with the record subsequently reviewed at
the end of the design review to ensure agreement by all participants. This record should be made available to those
preparing the transformer for transport as well as those receiving the transformer at site. Inclusion of the design
review record in the instruction manual section on receiving the transformer can be beneficial.
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8 Transportation Modes and their Specifics
8.1 Road
8.1.1 General
Travel by road is usually used for some portion of the transformer transport, either from the factory to the nearest
port or rail siding and from the nearest port or rail siding to the substation. Road transport is in many cases inevitable
during transport even if road transport is not the main mode of transport. In the substation, transport of spares is
often done by road transport. Such spares may even be moved fully assembled.
The practical distance a transformer can be transported by road usually has some limitations. The extent of the
limitation depends greatly on the dimensions and weight of the transformer. These limitations also include choice of
truck type and speed.
Road transport is decided upon on a job-to-job basis [8]. Transport by rail or barge should usually be considered as
a possible alternative to road transport [8] over longer distances.
Road transport of transformer is disruptive to the road transportation system and has an economic impact [7]. For
example, in the UK it is believed that annual losses are ₤2.5 million due to congestion caused by abnormal loads.
This is even after raising the speed limit for some types of transport [19].
The number of types of road transport vehicles by which a transformer can be transported is large. They can roughly
be categorized into three groups:
1) Conventional trailers
This is very broad group. It can be further subdivided into flatbed and lowbed trailers and semi-trailers. High loads
can be moved at decreased speed and/or increased axle loads. The broadness of vehicle types in this group does
not allow a maximum capacity to be specified, but it is however limited compared to the other types of vehicles given
below. The manufacturer of the trailer will have specified the maximum speed for the trailer at given loads. Of course
legislative speed limits may be more restrictive. The speed of the loaded vehicle can reach high way speeds for
smaller transformers, where larger transformers may well be limited to speeds less than 40 km/h.
PHOTO 17 - TRANSFORMER MOVED BY HIGHWAY TRAILER (PHOTO COURTESY W. BERGMAN)
2) Girder trailers
These trailers support the transformer using girders on both side of the transformer. Dollies support the girder frame
on both ends. A special type of girder trailer is a Schnabel wagon where the girder frame is part of the transformer
itself. Girder trailers have a high capacity which can exceed 600 tonnes. However, they move at low speeds, which
cannot be expected to exceed 30 km/h.
PHOTO 18 - GIRDER HANGER TYPE TRAILER (PHOTO COURTESY VTCU)
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PHOTO 19 - TRANSFORMER BEING LOADED ONTO A GIRDER TRAILER (PHOTO COURTESY ALE)
3) Modular trailers
These consist of module having 2, 3, 4 or 6 axles each. Their modular nature allows them to be combined into a
single trailer. A self-propelled modular trailer (SPMT) is a special type of modular trailer. The capacity in terms of
both weight and dimension is almost unlimited. In other words, the limitations will be imposed by factors other than
the vehicle. Its speed is limited. Maximum speeds as low as 20 km/h should be expected. For SPMT, where the
driver walks alongside the vehicle, the maximum speed will be less than 5 km/h.
PHOTO 20 - TRANSFORMER MOVED BY A MODULAR TRAILER (PHOTO COURTESY MAGAZINE EXCEPTIONNEL)
The division between groups is not always very clear. Semi-trailers can have a dolly added to the front end making
it resemble a modular trailer. Modular trailers can have a slab deck and a gooseneck added making it resemble a
Page 38
semitrailer. Modular trailers can also have a side girder deck or a lift lever deck added making it resemble a girder
trailer.
Choosing the trailer or configuration requires calculation of axle loads, stability and lashing. Then there are external
factors such as road clearances, required turn radius, overall length, ground clearance, etc. Choosing the correct
trailer for the transport is therefore a specialist’s job.
The transport does not have to be done on one single vehicle or configuration. It is quite possible to change vehicle
or change the configuration to change to characteristics, such as weight distribution or total height of the transport to
negotiate local difficulties along the transport route.
Below are a few examples of standards that are available which address load securing on road vehicles. Many
countries will have their own standards available. These standards list transport forces, lashing calculations, securing
requirements and equipment maintenance procedures.
a) Load restraining on road vehicles [12]

b) Securing loads on road vehicles [13]
c) Cargo Securement (NSC Standard 10)
8.1.2 Influence on Transport Planning
PHOTO 21 – TRANSFORMER CROSSING VARIOUS OBSTACLES (PHOTO COURTESY JOOP VAN HOUDT)
Road transport for loads with exceptional dimensions or weight comes with some unique characteristics. It requires
permits and is subject to local regulation [7] [8] [9]. Permits require time to be obtained, which may take from weeks
to months. Permits may limit the time at which travel is allowed. Local regulation put requirements on axle loads.
The acquisition of permits may have to be obtained from several jurisdictions. Each jurisdiction may have different
regulations and requirements. This makes planning road transport distinctly more difficult to the point that the
transformer has to be transferred between different vehicles between jurisdictions [9].
Typical maximum axle loads are 10-12 tons. It also depends on the axle configuration, where groups of 2 or 3 axles
will have lower maximum axle load than 2 or 3 separate axles. Some roads will have more restricted maximum axle
loads of 6 tonnes or lower. The vehicle type may also be dictated by local regulations [8] [9].
Page 39
Escort of the transport by either police or a private escort is required most of the time to ensure safety for the transport
and other road users. The requirements for the escort differ across countries and states.
A road survey is an integral part of planning transportation by road. The following is an unexhausted list of items that
need to be checked during a road survey [10].
1) Axle loads, axle distance and total weight limits of roads and bridges,
2) Radii and road width at curves, bends, junctions and traffic circles,
3) Gradient of inclines and declines,
4) Vertical radius of dips and bumps in roads and at bridges and level crossings,
5) Width and height under road and railway bridges and viaducts,
6) Clearance under overhead lines and gantries,
7) Lay-by areas for temporary parking and passing,
8) Any other obstruction(s) restricting transport.
The road survey may prove that the planned route cannot be used. Even if alternative routes are available, it may
be possible to implement temporary alterations to the road or obstructions. The costs will increase, possible by a
prohibitive amount.
In addition, weather conditions and off-road options can influence the transport and the route chosen [10] [11]. In
particular, snow and ice conditions may stop the transport altogether unless the road is fully cleared by ploughing
and application of salt or sand.
Local or even national events may prevent movement of heavy loads on certain days or weeks. Such events could
include major sport events, National events or holidays; street fairs or markets; etc.
Other factors need to be considered during the planning stage. The distribution of braking forces of the tractor and
the loaded trailer needs to be as specified by the trailer manufacturer [11]. A proper ratio of mass between the tractor
and the trailer needs to be maintained [11]. The stability of the vehicle and its load must be verified.
The road transport planning process should include requirements for method studies, drawings and calculations of
the transport. These documents will address vehicle configuration, loading of the vehicle, lashing of the cargo, and
axle loads. These documents will also address the transport route, the requirements for size and weights, turn radii,
local difficulties, and risk assessments.
It should be noted that road transport does not end at the gates of the substation. The transport in the substation to
the final position of the transformer might still pose challenges whether the substation is still under construction or
not. Access to the transformer bays must be maintained during the lifetime of the substation to allow transformers
to be replaced. This will also be true for other situation where non-public roads are used. Conventional transport
planning using general road requirements might not be applicable.
Transport in areas with less developed infrastructures will provide its own unique challenges. The lack of a developed
infrastructure will make topographical features such as steep grades, mountain passes and river crossings more
challenging to negotiate. In addition, weather events and their effects on road conditions tend to be more dramatic.
Alternative routes might not be available for the transport of the transformer or for the diversion of other road users.
Page 40
PHOTO 22 - TRANSFORMER TRANSPORT IN MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN (PHOTO COURTESY STATNETT TRANSPORT, NORWAY)
Areas without a developed infrastructure will usually be large and remote, which leads to long transportation
distances. The road systems might not be controlled by a centralized government, which leads to dispersed
information about the road system to be used. The maintenance of the road system could be inadequate and affect
the usability and safety. The acquisition of the correct permits will become more difficult and time consuming.
8.1.3 Influence on Design

During road transport the transformer is subjected to mechanical loads, such as shocks and vibration. Many load
securing standards list the acceleration during road transport [12] [13]. The forward acceleration varies from 0.8 to
1.2g across different standards. The sideways and backwards acceleration are consistently listed as 0.5g. In some
standards, the sideways acceleration is increased to 0.7g when the load is considered unstable. Apart from standard
earth gravity, the vertical acceleration is hardly ever listed. One source mentions values of 0.85g and 1g [14] in
addition to standard earth gravity.
Sideways Backward Forward

0.5-0.7g 0.5g 0.8-1.2g
PHOTO 23 – PICTORIAL SUMMERY OF ACCELERATIONS DURING ROAD TRANSPORT (PHOTO COURTESY ROYAL SMIT TRANSFORMERS)
Page 41
These values might be considered valid for normal loads on normal trucks. Abnormal loads on specialised vehicles
might never experience acceleration of this magnitude. However, the accelerations above apply unchanged for
calculating the required load securing irrespective of the type of load or vehicle.
Some sources mention the vibration experienced during road transport to occur between 3 Hz and 350 Hz [11] [17].
Of course, road conditions, spring type and trailer conditions will affect the vibration and other mechanical loads on
the transformer.
To allow for proper load securing, a sufficient number of lashing point should be available. These lashing points must
be easily accessible and should have an appropriate strength. The strength of lashing chain can be as high as 20
tonnes. In other words, the securing of the transformer must be considered during the design of the transformer.
8.1.4 How to Minimize Forces during Road T ransport

The trailer type, its stability, suspension and state of maintenance will affect the forces during transport. Use a
reliable transporter, which is expected to choose an acceptable trailer or configuration, which will thus minimize the
forces.
A correctly lashed transformer will not move on the vehicle and minimize the force during road transport. This does
not considering failing lashing, which will result in the transformer falling of the vehicle. This will induce unacceptable
loads, which will almost inevitable damage the transformer. The lashing of the transformer should be reviewed to
prevent the transformer being moved with inadequate lashing. It may also help to have pictures taken from the
lashed transformer.
The transformer will experience excessive forces during excessive acceleration, fast cornering, heavy breaking,
exceeding (adjusted) maximum speed, hitting the inside of curves, etc. Therefore, driver skill, experience, and
responsibility will go a long way to minimize the forces during transport.
Road features such as rail crossing, speed bump, road access ramps, inclination and state of maintenance will
invariably induce forces on the transformer. Negotiating such features with care will minimize the forces and again
requires driver skill, experience and responsibility.
Driver skill, experience and responsibility may be insufficient if the driver is not informed about limitations on speed,
cornering, braking, etc. They should also be informed about the transportation route and any obstacles along the
route and time tables of permits. Of course, information about the transformer and transformer handling is invaluable;
however, some drivers are unaware of the special and delicate nature of a transformer.
8.2 Rail
8.2.1 General
At first glance, railway transportation of power transformers seems to be a great way to relocate these heavy weights.
However, as past investigations and articles have shown, a great variety of transport forces can occur. This
necessitates that proper care must be taken while using the extensive railway network to bring a power transformer
to its destination.
A part of the differences between these investigations can be attributed to improvements made in the last decades,
to the quality of both the railway network and railway rolling stock. However, there remain differences in transport
forces on railways compared to other transport modes. These differences are due to 7 main factors:
1) Type of railcar used

2) Type of buffers and couplers used on the rail car
3) Fixing method of transformer to the rail car
4) Changes in roadbed and track geometry
5) Differences in train braking mechanisms
6) Train configuration: Length, distributed power and transformer position in the train
7) Caution ticket used for the transport
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After taking a closer look to each of these 7 factors, the resulting loads acting during railway transport on a power
transformer are discussed in section 8.2.1.1 to 8.2.2.3.
8.2.1.1 Railcar Type

The first important factor is the type of railcar that is used. As the results of past measurements [20] [21] clearly show
a significant difference between rail car types, this is a factor to take in account while planning to transport a (new)
transformer over railways. Care must also be taken while using the different applicable standards regulating
transport. The purpose of these standards can change with the different types of carriages:
a) Standards for enclosed cars are meant to protect the loads inside the carriages.
b) Standards for open cars are meant to protect the railway from cargo falling off or striking adjacent
facilities.
The types of heavy transport gear for railways shown in this section are typically not owned by the railway companies.
This heavy gear is mostly owned by specialized heavy haulers, or dedicated companies who act as a rental service
for specialized railway equipment.
In this document, distinction has been made between the following types of railcars:
1) Heavy duty flatbed car:
A flatbed railway car is a standard railway carriage designed to carry loads that are too large or too cumbersome to
be loaded in enclosed cars. The loading platform is a flat plane, supported on both ends by a set of axes.
Transformers are generally too heavy to fit on the standard size flatbed cars and require heavy capacity types. These
heavy capacity cars are designed to carry more than 90 tonne and often have more than the typical four axles. [22]
PHOTO 24 - TRANSFORMER ON A HEAVY DUTY FLAT CAR (FOUR TRUCK). CONCRETE BALLAST IS USED DUE TO OFFSET LOADING ON RAIL CAR (HV
BUSHING POCKETS) (PHOTO COURTESY W. BERGMAN)
2) Depressed centre flatbed car:
Depressed centre flatbed cars are heavy-duty flatbed cars where the load platform has a depressed centre. In
general, these cars are also classified as “Heavy duty flatbed car”.
Past investigations [20] showed significant differences in transport forces acting on a transformer on the two flatbed
railcar types. While allowing for higher loads, flatbed cars with depressed centre showed higher forces acting on the
transformer during transport than normal heavy duty flatbed cars.
Page 43
The cause of these higher forces is believed to be the higher flexibility of the depressed car. For example, the
depressed centre car can bend or flex during longitudinal compressive forces, which results in a vertical deflection
and acceleration.
For this reason flatbed and depressed centre flatbed rail cars should be treated as different rail car types.
PHOTO 25 - DEPRESSED CENTRE FLATBED RAIL CAR IN ACTION (PHOTO COURTESY W. BERGMAN)
3) Schnabel car:
A Schnabel car is a specialized type of railway carriage that is designed to carry heavy and oversized loads in such
a way that the complete railway loading profile (see 8.2.4.2) is available for the load.
The Schnabel car is composed out of two beaks or load bearing parts with the load suspended between these two
parts. By doing so, the load will become a part of the railway carriage. A consequence of this is that most railway
operators require certification of the mechanical design of the transformer tank before the transformer is allowed on
their railway system.
When a Schnabel car is empty, the two parts are connected together to allow the Schnabel car to be pulled in the
train. Some Schnabel cars include hydraulic equipment that will either vertically lift or horizontally shift the load while
in transit (at very low speeds) to clear obstructions along the car's route [23].
Some Schnabel rail cars can have a deck inserted between the two ends. This deck allows transport of transformers
that were not built to withstand the forces experienced when loaded into a Schnabel rail car. The allowable
transformer mass is reduced by at least the mass of the deck. An example of this is shown in Photo 29.
Some other Schnabel rail cars have the option to replace the railway wheels with normal road wheels. This allows
transport to continue as a road transport at the end of the railway voyage.
PHOTO 26 – DETAILS OF A SCHNABEL RAILCAR WHILE CARRYING A TRANSFORMER (PHOTO COURTESY BILL DAROVNY)
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PHOTO 27 – TRANSFORMER ON A SCHNABEL RAIL CAR WITH DECK INSERT (PHOTO COUTESY BILL DAROVNY)
4) Girder Railcar:
A girder railcar is the last type of specialized railway carriage that is designed to carry heavy loads. This car provides
two strong horizontal beams or girders. The load is suspended between these two girders. In this position, the
transformer is the load however, the transformer does not need to be certified like transformers transported with a
Schnabel railcar running through most railway systems.
As with a Schnabel car, this girder railcar type makes almost the complete height of the railway profile available for
the load. Only a minimal clearance needs to be provided between the rails and the bottom of the suspended
transformer. The width of the transformer is however slightly more restricted because space needs to be found inside
the railway profile for the two girders.
PHOTO 28 – GIRDER RAIL CAR IN ACTION (PHOTO COURTESY KJETIL RYEN)
8.2.1.2 Type of Railcar Buffers and Couplers

A second factor with great influence on the transport forces occurring during railway transport is the type of buffers
(also called draft gear) and couplers that are used on the railway car. The required coupling speed is determined by
the type of coupler used on the railcar. The buffers used on the rail car determine the duration and the amplitude of
the resulting shock.
Page 45
The first feature, which should be expected of a suitable set of buffers and couplers for transformer transport, is to
cushion the impact between cars when the cars are moved together or apart. Secondly, these devices should remove
slack between the different railcars.
Buffers and draft gear can use combinations of springs, hydraulic cylinders and selected softer materials to provide
the desired cushioning or damping between cars. Each of the types of buffers listed below can be installed on each
of the types of railway cars as mentioned before.
In this document, difference has been made between the following two types of buffers:
1) Standard buffers:
Standard buffers as are installed on most of the rail cars.

2) High performance buffers:
High-performance buffers, or long travel draft gear, have a longer travel length than the standard buffers. As
mentioned by the CTU packing guidelines, these high performance buffers reduce the "normal" switching
impacts from 4 g to 2 g. [5] In some cases, these buffers are also referred to as cushioned draft gear or as
carriages with a cushioned under frame.
Data from the US department of forest products [24] shows a similar reduction of the amplitude of impact
forces during switching. Measurements on rail cars loaded with normal commodities resulted in the following
example: Standard buffers gave g forces of 10 g for 30 ms for an impact speed of 9 mph (14.5 km/h). High
performance buffers with 24 inch travel length gave 2.3 g during 250 ms for an impact speed of 12 mph (19.3
km/h).
This means high performance buffers significantly reduce the amplitude of the shocks occurring during
switching, at the cost of a longer duration of the shocks. This also means that using high performance buffers
does not necessarily reduce the energy content of occurring shocks.
These high performance buffers exist in two different types. It can be expected that use of each of these two types
results in different forces during transport. However, existing studies did not treat these two types as different.
Therefore, no measurement data is available yet which shows any significant difference between the following two
types:
a) Linked High Performance Buffers: The buffers at the front and at the back of the rail car are coupled with
the same hydraulic cylinder in the middle of the car.
b) Independent High Performance Buffers: The buffers at the front and at the back each have their own
hydraulic cylinder, resulting in completely independent operation of the buffers.
Couplers can be found in several varieties as well.
In some countries, for example in North-America and Australia, an automatic coupler is used. The common Type E
coupler, designed in 1932 and shown in photo 32 does not interlock in the vertical direction. While closed Type E
couplers will separate only in the most extreme circumstances. This lack of a vertical interlock led to development
of Type E shelf couplers and Type F and H couplers. Using varying "locking" features (e.g., top and bottom shelves
and machined interlocking), these more intricate couplers in most cases will prevent disengagement during a
derailment, reducing the chances of a train jack-knifing, or cars puncturing each other. Using these modern couplers,
coupling speeds can be limited to 6 mph (9 km/h) and lower. More information about these couplers can be found
in [25].
It should be noted that even automatic couplers always have some ‘slack’ against each other. This slack will allow
rail cars to traverse changes in horizontal and vertical track geometry and to pass through track switches without
damage to the couplers.
Page 46
PHOTO 29 – EXAMPLE OF E-TYPE COUPLERS (PHOTO COURTESY W. BERGMAN)
Some of the many types of couplers used in Europe are the following:
The basic couplers used in Europe and shown in Photo 33 are a combination of two buffers and a chain coupling.
This coupling limits slack and reduces shocks between rail cars.
PHOTO 30 – EXAMPLE OF BUFFERS AND CHAIN COUPLERS (PHOTO COURTESY W. BERGMAN)
Eastern European and Russian rail transport use different automatic coupling systems (SA3) for freight transport. To
initiate the coupling procedure, these couplings require a minimum speed of 9 km/h. These coupling procedures are
frequently performed at higher speeds to overcome increased friction due to deterioration of the coupler. This can
cause high dynamical forces with peak values above 10 g. These forces can be greatly reduced when the transformer
is transported in a carriage with high-performance buffers, or not switched at all while travelling in a block train [5].
Some countries railways still use a “link-and-pin” arrangement for coupling rail cars. However, this requires the
switchman to stand between the rail cars during coupling. This causes coupling to be a dangerous activity.
8.2.1.3 Connection Method between Transformer and Railcar

A third factor is the method that is used to connect the transformer to the rail car. This is clearly illustrated by the
measurement results given in the paper by Gadrix [21]. The following distinctions are made:
Page 47
1) Blocking and lashing only

The transformer is fixed to the rail car by using (wooden) blocks and
chains only. This is the easiest method of securing a load to a rail car.
However, it allows the load to lift up from the carriage in case of severe
shocks. This results in a hammering effect that causes more severe
shocks on the transformer. The wooden blocks are fastened to the
deck (wood) of the rail car using large nails. This method cannot be
used on large transformers and has not been used in many
jurisdictions.
In the example shown in Photo 34, the transformer is blocked with

braces welded to the rail car and is secured by means of rods, which
are bolted/tightened to the rail car. It is also common for cables to be
used. However, it is more difficult to tighten the cables adequately to
prevent movement of the transformer. This design is made by the
manufacturer and is approved by the railway since about 1980.
PHOTO 31 - EXAMPLE OF BLOCKING AND LASHING (PHOTO COURTESY W. BERGMAN)
2) Bolted or welded to rail car:
The transformer is firmly connected to the rail car by

using a connection method that can also arrest tension
forces in the connection. In practice, this means the
transformer is fixed by a combination of welded and
bolted connections to the rail car. One example is
shown in Photo 35. In this example, welded blocks are
used to prevent the transformer from shifting in
horizontal direction. Bolts are used to secure the
transformer in vertical direction and to prevent tipping
over of the transformer.
PHOTO 32 - EXAMPLE BOLTED AND WELDED FIXATION (PHOTO COURTESY W. BERGMAN)
The measurement results in the paper by Gadrix, Patton et al [21], showed significant lower vertical shocks acting
on the transformer in case of a fixed connection. The vertical shocks had duration of around 40-50 ms in both cases
while coupling with a coupling speed of 5 mph. The maximal g value of these shocks was however, 8 g in case of a
non-fixed connection and only 3.2 g in case of a fixed connection.
8.2.1.4 Caution Ticket used for Transport

A fourth factor that has an influence on the effect of railway transport on a transformer is the caution ticket under
which the railway transport is executed. This can have a large influence on the forces occurring during switching, or
might prevent switching completely.
In now obsolete North American switching yards, rail cars were switched on a downwards slope. The speed of the
cars while running down the hill was controlled by manually applying the brake shoes. If the worker applying these
manual brakes makes a mistake, switching impacts involving considerable deceleration may occur [5]. In such older
switchyards, the effect of a caution ticket should not be counted upon too much, as it depends solely on human
Page 48
attitude. Therefore, a customer of a North American railway operator who still operates this kind of older switching
yards should better not assume that the load is transported with proper care. The presence of a party responsible
for the transformer during switching might help urging railway employees to ‘show their best side’.
In now existing gravity switched (hump) yards, the speed of the descending rail car is measured and computer
controlled retarders apply braking forces to the wheel flange (not to the car brakes) to control how far the rail car will
roll along its designated track. Ideally, the rail car would roll just up to the previous car on that track. Care must
however still be taken: Switching impacts can still be significant in this kind of modern computer controlled switching
yards.
The Australian railway network is not that large, but is built according to the same setup as the North American
network. Therefore similar forces should be expected and the same precautions should be taken on the Australian
network.
Most switching yards, including many in North America, are motor controlled. The carriages are divided and
reassembled by being pushed (for example with a switching engine) over the switching yard “hump”. This approach
greatly reduced variability in switching speeds. However, in general, the UIC specifies an acceleration value of 4 g
for normal switching operations without the required additional specifications. In practice, this acceleration should
be regarded as a dynamic value. This means that shock loads with a maximal g-value of 4 g can be experienced by
the transformer. As explained in Section 5 about general design requirements and elements, this does not mean the
transformer should be designed to withstand a continuous g-force of 4 g in horizontal direction!
To prevent this kind of forces on sensitive loads, railway operating procedures define a whole range of different rail
cars that must not be switched normally. This is determined by the type of rail vehicle, the type of loading or certain
features. Rail cars operated under this scheme are either specially marked with symbols stating for example: "Hump
yard switching and kicking prohibited" or "Switch carefully". Alternately in Europe, they may be marked with special
symbols bearing a yellow triangle standing on its apex, a red circle ticket or the standard caution tickets. Rail cars
operating under the caution ticket scheme are divided into three classes. Each higher class requests more care
while handling the marked carriages.
For the most recent switching yards, this kind of caution ticket is replaced by an entry in the computer systems of the
railway carrier. On those switching yards only these computer entries will govern how the railway car is being
shunted.
In practice, this means both the entry in the computer system of the carrier and the physical markings on the
transformer should be provided to make sure the transformer is treated with proper care.
The last and best option related to these caution tickets is the use of block trains. These block trains are not allowed
to be shunted in between destinations and are known as "point-to-point" services or "rail cars not switched in transit".
A customer of the European UIC railways can assume the transport of large loads such as power transformers is
almost automatically placed in this kind of special purpose “block” trains. This cannot be assume elsewhere in the
world.
Due to the fact that railways in North-America generally use much longer trains than are common in Europe,
transformers in North-America will only be transported in such a special purpose train when it is specifically requested
and at great extra cost.
8.2.1.5 Changes in Roadbed, Wheel and Track Geometry

The fifth factor that has an influence during railway transport is the existence of changes in roadbed, wheel and track
geometry.
Railways use a steel wheel on a steel track. The rail car rolls on a steel track in a manner that keeps the rail car
relatively centred between rails of a fixed gauge or distance between the inside of the rails. On curves, the outside
wheel must travel a longer distance than the inside wheel; yet the wheels are fixed onto the same axle. To prevent
one of the wheels from sliding when on a curve, most of the railway wheels are made with a slight slant to their profile
such that when centrifugal force moves the wheels to the outside of the curve. The part of the outside wheel (closest
to the inside of the wheel) is of a larger diameter than the outside of the wheel on the inside of the curve). This is
Page 49
illustrated on Figure 3. The surface of the rail car wheel has a slope of about 2 to 3° from flat/horizontal to provide
for self-centring and travel on curves
FIGURE 3 - TAPERED RAILWAY WHEELS ALLOW THE RAIL PHOTO 33 – RAIL CAR “TRUCK” COMPOSED OF WHEELS, AXLE, BEARINGS, SIDE
WHEEL SET TO RIDE IN THE CENTRE OF THE TRACK AND TO FRAMES, SPRINGS, BOLSTER AND BRAKE RIGGING (PHOTO COURTESY W.
TRAVEL AROUND CURVES WHERE THE OUTSIDE RAIL HAS A BERGMAN)
LONGER CIRCUMFERENCE THAN THE INSIDE RAIL. [26]
This same profiling of the railway wheels keeps the wheels relatively centred between the rails however it does allow
the railcar to sway somewhat back and forth between the rails during normal travel causing minor lateral forces on
the load. This side-to-side (lateral) movement of the rail car is particularly pronounced when there is a change in
track direction such as travelling through rail switches or “non-straight” track alignments.
In addition to this, the type of brakes used also has an influence on the
quality of the wheels [27]. Use of cast iron brakes causes faster wear
and rougher wheels than composite brakes. The result is that rail cars
fitted with composite brakes have smoother wheels, are subjected to a
smaller amount of vibrations and cause less noise. However, unlike the
old cast iron brakes, some of the new types of composite brakes cause
the slanted (conical) shape of the wheels to deteriorate faster [28].
Occasionally, a wheel and axle will have the brakes applied faster or
harder than on other wheels, causing a flat spot to develop as the wheel
slides along the track. Later, this flat spot contributes to vertical
vibrations. An example of this kind of damage is shown in Photo 37.
PHOTO 34 - SPALLING ON A RAIL WHEEL ON

AN IN-SERVICE DEPRESSED CENTRE RAIL CAR
TRANSPORTING A TRANSFORMER (PHOTO
COURTESY W. BERGMAN)
Grinding of the rails has a similar positive effect on noise and vibrations as a smooth wheel surface. [29]. Light
grinding (0.1 mm) was already found to be sufficient to remove small defects and irregularities that cause more noise
and vibrations.
Railways use ties or sleepers to support the rails and to maintain the fixed gauge between the rails. These rail
ties/sleepers can be made of wood, concrete, metal or even a composite material. The ties/sleepers are generally
supported on a bed of crushed stone that provides vertical support as well as providing drainage. The crushed stone
is known as ballast. Main lines are generally maintained more often than branch lines or rail sidings that are used
only infrequently. Consequently, infrequently used rail lines or spurs can be quite unlevelled and not straight. The
result can be a non-smooth ride for the freight car. In addition, these older rail lines may have bolted joints between
sections of rail.
Bridges with rigid piers are used to cross over waterways, depressions along the rail route, and motorways. These
piers are massive structures that rarely move under most climatic and seasonal conditions. If the rail bed approach
Page 50
to the bridge structure is even slightly out of vertical alignment, there can be a sudden change in the vertical direction
when a rail car makes the transition between the ballasted roadbed and the significantly more rigid bridge. The result
can be sudden vertical accelerations in the upward or downward direction.
Older, non-welded tracks showed small gaps in between two sections of the railway. These caused periodic shocks
with a frequency related to the distance between two rail joints (typically 39 feet in North America but there are shorter
rails at switches and crossings) and the speed of the train. In most of the modern railway systems rail joints are
welded and these shocks will not occur any more. In case a transformer must be moved over an older track with
non-welded joints, speed should be reduced to minimise the vibrations caused by these joints. Some examples of
this kind of gaps are shown in Photo 38.
PHOTO 35 – EXAMPLE OF NON-WELDED RAIL JOINTS CAUSING VERTICAL SHOCKS TO THE RAIL CAR PASSING OVER THEM (PHOTOS COURTESY W.
BERGMAN)
When the rail car is passing through a rail switch or other changes in rail direction, lateral accelerations are caused
by the action of the rail car wheels changing direction. Guide rails ensure the wheels will follow the new direction,
although there may be some fast changes in direction as the wheel moves through the switch and rail geometry.
The same switch can cause vertical accelerations

when the steel wheel is passing through the “frog” of
the switch, i.e. that part of the switch where the rails
cross one another. The frog design attempts to
minimize the wheel dropping into the flange-way of
the frog. The vertical drop is however, dependent on
rail, frog wear and on frog design. Several frog
PHOTO 36 - RAILWAY SWITCH 'FROG' (PHOTO COURTESY W. BERGMAN)
designs support passage of the rail wheel much
better than others.
8.2.1.6 Train Braking

Train brakes are applied either by intentionally increasing air pressure to apply the brakes on each rail car or by the
emergency venting of air pressure to apply the brakes as fast as possible. Train brakes are designed to slow and
stop the train without intentionally causing the wheels to slide on the rail. The braking effort is however, the same
for a loaded or unloaded rail car. The stopping distance is therefore approximately proportional to the mass of the
train.
In case air pressure increases or emergency venting occurs, the brakes at the front of the train will react before those
at the back. This due to airline pressure drop along the length of the train. This means that cars at the front of a long
train are already slowing down, while the cars at the back of the train are still travelling at full speed. The more
rearward cars will run into the more frontward cars until the brakes are uniformly applied to all cars in the train, which
can take a few seconds. Thus the rear cars cause an impact to the front cars during quick or emergency application
of brakes.
Page 51
8.2.1.7 Train Length, Distributed Power and Position in the Trai n

The last factor that has an influence on the forces acting during railway transport is the train configuration. Railways
have been building longer trains in order to increase efficiency. A longer train will have a higher total slack, which
will result in higher shocks.
Maximal passenger train length in Europe and Japan is only 400 m [30]. Freight train lengths are generally slightly
longer: between 400 m and 700 m. However, tests are being done to increase maximal length in Europe to 1000 m
[31]. Trains in North America, on the other hand, are generally much longer and can be up to 4.25 km.
The slack in couplers is required to allow rail cars to move over somewhat uneven track, through switches and
through curves. When a constant speed locomotive pulls rail cars in a train up and down hills or other elevation
changes, the rail cars going up the railway grade (uphill) will stretch the train to take out all of the slack in the couplers.
When that same train starts to go downhill, all of the slack in the couplers will be run-in as the cars come together
with some minor to moderate accelerations.
This same slack in couplers allows the rail cars that are closer to the locomotive to start before rail cars that are in
the train and further away from the locomotive. The rail cars furthest from the locomotive have the highest longitudinal
acceleration when the train starts.
Forces due to slack in long trains can be controlled by placing additional locomotives in the train, also called use of
“distributed power”. These additional locomotives will be distributed over the length of the train. To have a positive
effect on slack, appropriate controls between the different locomotives must be used. Appropriately distributed and
appropriately controlled locomotives can reduce slack action, reduce resulting forces and reduce derailments.
The magnitude of the forces due to slack is also dependent of the position of the transformer in the train. Chapter
14 of [32] gives a detailed overview of the different slack actions in a train. The impact of the position of the
transformer on these forces as given in [32] can be summarized as follows:
1) Slack impact forces increase from the first car to the last car during braking. As the brakes are first applied
at the start of the train, speed differences will cumulate to a considerable difference towards the end of the
train.
2) Faster trains have smaller slack forces than slower trains. Due to the higher speed, speed differences
between the railcars are smaller. However, other shock loads increase considerably with increasing speed.
3) Empty cars at the start of the train cause larger slack forces on the following loaded cars. They will brake
faster due to the lighter weight, and this will increase the speed difference with the following loaded cars.
4) Not using locomotive bail-off results in higher forces than when locomotive bail-off is used. Using “bail-off”
basically means the locomotive brakes will not be used. Locomotive brakes are much stronger than rail
carriage brakes and would create a large speed differential.
5) While starting the train, slack forces are reducing from the first car to the last car. The speed difference
initiated by the locomotive reduces towards the end of the train due to slack and buffer action between the
rail cars. However, slack forces while starting the train are considerably smaller than slack forces while
braking and normal driving.
6) An additional effect is described in [33]. The calculations in this reference show that the occurring draft
forces are increasing together with the number of rail cars in the train equipped with high performance buffers.
In summary, this means the ideal place of the transformer in a long train is close to the front locomotive, with only a
few, heavy loaded rail cars between this locomotive and the transformer. The locomotive should be used with bail-
off. The railcar for the transformer should be equipped with high performance buffers and the other railcars in the
train should only have standard buffers.
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8.2.2 Forces Acting during Rail Transport

8.2.2.1 Resulting Dynamic Forces acting on a Transformer during Railway Transport
The factors shown in sections 8.2.1 to 8.2.1.7 are each influencing the dynamic forces occurring during railway
transport. This results in a large range of transport forces. It should therefore not come as a big surprise that only a
few standards give general numerical limits for the transport forces. Even when transport forces are given, the
question remains whether they are applicable for the mostly slow moving transports of heavy power transformers.
Details about these existing standards talking about transformer transport in general can be found in section 5.3
“Design requirements from Standards”. Some of these standards only describe the loads for which lashings design
load however in our opinion, these limits can also be used as design guidelines for transport loads.
The following standards give figures for the anticipated transport forces are only applicable to railway transport
1) AAR Open Top Loading Rules Manual [34]
The Open Top Loading Rules Manual only stipulates minimal limits for the fixing arrangement to comply with
loads on railway cars. These limits however form a safe design guideline limits for the transformer assuming
that the transformer is not likely to be subjected to larger forces than the restraints can handle.
Furthermore the forces given in the AAR are extremely high when applied to moving heavy power
transformers. It seems hard to understand how a transformer could experience this magnitude of lateral
acceleration without tipping over.
The high vertical forces are unfortunately realistic when the transformer is shunted without caution ticket. In
such cases the transformer has even been observed to be lifted slightly of the railcar! [21]
TABLE 1 - DESIGN LIMITS FOR SUPPORTS OF LOADS ON RAILWAY ACCORDING TO AAR [34]
Direction of Constraint Longitudinal Lateral Vertical
3.0 g 2.0 g 2.0 g
G Force to Yield (*) Total load restraint in Total load restraint in Total load restraint
each direction should each direction should should equal the light
equal three times object equal two times object weight of the carrying car
weight weight or two times the object
weight, whichever is less
(*) Indication “to Yield” means that resulting stresses while calculating with the constant accelerations indicated in
the standard needs to be below Yield strength of the used materials.
AAR
FIGURE 4 - ILLUSTRATION OF TRANSPORT FORCES APPLICABLE FOR A POWER TRANSFORMER AS GIVEN BY AAR OPEN TOP LOADING RULES [34]
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2) DB Richtlinie 934.9001 [35]
This standard of the Deutsche Bahn (German railways) assumes implicitly that high performance buffers are
always used while hauling heavy loads. The speeds are also thought to be considerably slow when hauling
loads over 80 ton, and these factors are reflected in the distinct load limit for these heavier loads. Furthermore
the standard assumes gentle coupling by pushing the carriages by controlled motor power. The standard
Western European non-automatic buffer and chain couplings for freight trains do not require a minimum
speed to engage. The resulting values given by this standard are shown in Figure 5
DB UIC
FIGURE 5 - GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF TRANSPORT FORCES GIVEN BY LEFT: DB934.9001 [35]– RIGHT: UIC [36]
3) UIC supplement 7º of 1.7.2005: RIV Appendix II – Section 1 [36]
This supplement of the standard refers to reciprocal use of railcars in international traffic includes a small
clause describing mechanical forces which can be expected on loaded freight. These forces are shown in
Figure 5. In contrast to most other standards, this document also gives an indication of the duration of the
load.
TABLE 2 - MECHANICAL LOAD LIMITS FOR FREIGHT ON RAILWAY ACCORDING TO UIC [36]
Train type Longitudinal Lateral Vertical

Normal train 4.0 g 0.5 g 0.3 g
(shock with duration (vibration 2-8 Hz) (vibration 2-8 Hz)
1/10 second) +normal gravity
Block trains, 1.0 g 0.5 g 0.3
Wagons with high performance (shock with duration (vibration 2-8 Hz) (vibration 2-8 Hz)
buffers, 1/10 second) +normal gravity
Wagons not subjected to shunting
The main observation which can be made about the values in the railway specific standards is that they need the
same significant improvements which are already described in Section 5.3 “Design Requirements from Standards”.
8.2.2.2 Resulting Static Forces acting on a Transformer during Railway Transport

A next aspect that needs to be taken in account while transporting a power transformer over railways is the occurring
static forces. Apart from normal gravity, these are mainly caused by tilting. Depending on the amount of tilting, this
could impose a long lasting load on the transformer which is added on top of other railway transport forces.
1) Tilting in Lateral Direction:
Sideways tilting of the railway itself is not so common and is normally kept within reasonable limits. However, due
to dynamic effects in corners, passing through track switches or changes in horizontal alignment of rails, the tilting of
the transformer can show larger values.
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Present tilting sensors installed in commercially available shock recorders are not accurate to measure lateral tilting
on railways. These sensors are firstly designed for the much larger tilting angles experienced during sea transport.
Secondly, these sensors measurement is for limited periods of around 20s every so many hours meaning little chance
to measure a tilting during railway transport. The development of these sensors is continuing and the measurement
of tilting on railways will become possible choice in the future.
2) Tilting in Driving Direction:
Tilting in driving direction is due to slopes and railway designers try to keep tilting angle below 1 % however, 4 % is
not uncommon near tunnels and hilly areas. Some extreme value listed up to 13.5 % [37] and a large traction power
will be necessary to haul a 200 tonne transformer on an extreme slopes.
During initial survey of the transport route, tilting in driving direction should be evaluated and it must be ensured that
occurring tilting forces are taken in account and that enough traction power is available to the train.
8.2.2.3 Resulting Vibrations during Railway Transport

Vibrations during railway transport are caused by a combination of imperfections of wheel shape of the carriages,
railroad track shape, geometry, and vibrations/resonances that can develop within the rail car. This means that
vibrations must be monitored during several long duration railroad voyages to collate a clear view on this aspect
however, the large amount of influencing factors causes the vibration measurements to be inconsistent.
Small vertical accelerations or vibrations are caused by non-smooth or slightly out-of-round wheels passing over the
steel rail, which may also have some non-smooth locations. These vibrations may be amplified by resonance(s)
excited within the rail car springs and support structure.
Recent studies of vibrations during railroad transport were mainly focused on the resulting noise produced by these
vibrations. However, some older studies such as the papers from AAR [20], Gadrix [21] and Ostrem [24] can still
provide an initial impression of the expected values.
Vertical vibrations are shown to increase with increasing speed of the railcar. With reasonable speeds (max 53 mph,
or max 85 km/h) the maximal amplitude of vertical vibrations should now be less than 0.7 g. [21].
Lateral vibrations were mainly caused by the rail joints and had a maximum of 0.33 g at 25 mph when the frequency
of these vibrations was corresponding to the base torsion mode of the railcar [21].
Longitudinal vibrations were found to be considerably lower than occurring slack action and had a maximum of 0.2 g
at 53 mph [21].
Developments in railroad track and railcar construction have reduced transport vibrations. Ostrem [24] estimated a
more realistic vibration envelope gives peak amplitude of 0.2 g with frequencies from 1 Hz to 100 Hz, more
investigation is needed to further refine this vibration envelope however.

An important step in transport planning for railroad transport is to check whether certificates are necessary to cross
the railroad systems. This step needs to be done even before design has started. For example, the transport
combination of transformer - Schnabel railcar needs specific certifications to be allowed on certain railroad systems.
A next step is to assess the feasibility of railroad transport; the choice of the contracted transporter is for most tracks
extremely limited. A short visual inspection of the track, which must be travelled and rolling stock owned by the
operator can easily reveal severe quality issues. In such case, the precaution should be taken to design according
to the (worst) situation on the tracks, which must be travelled.
Another crucial step is to establish the most restrictive loading profile or also called plate clearances for the railroad
systems to cross. This maximum transport loading profile is determined by physical restrictions along the rail lines.
It is generally an absolute restriction on transport and therefore must be recognized at the start the transformer
design. At considerable expense, it may be possible to temporarily move some of these restrictions during a special
transformer transport. Occasionally, the transformer is loaded with the CoG offset from the centre of the rail car and
ballast is added to bring the total CoG to the centre of the rail car, see Figure 2.
Page 55
When a rail transport falls outside the standard loading profile, transport costs and problems increase considerably
and therefore this is only feasible when non-standard loading profile has other benefits that outweigh the large
additional transport cost. In case that the transformer is oversized, this must be requested as soon as possible, and
a request should preferably already be made at the time of the initial tender offer. The railroad agencies must also
be involved when the outer dimensions of an oversized transformer and made aware of other necessary special
treatments (“do not hump”), position in the train, highest caution ticket and speed restrictions.
A transformer fitting inside the standard loading profile is considered as a normal load. It will be transported in a
normal train, yielding a normal transport cost. In such a situation, the transformer manufacturer or customer can’t
demand a specific speed restriction on a certain railcar. The speed followed will depend on the specific railroad, the
specific track conditions along the route and what other rail cars are in the train makeup. The request “Do not hump”
on the other hand must be made as soon as possible. In present days, this is a request that is only followed when
the required paperwork is filled in and when this request is stored in the computer systems of the railway carrier.
Adding the traditional big “Do not hump” signs does not usually have an effect on the behaviour of modern railway
carriers with automated switching yards. It is however still advised to keep this sign out of nostalgic reasons (in the
hope that seasoned railway persons will recognize the request) and for the less advanced railway carriers the
transformer might encounter during its journey.
A next item to be checked is the existence of different track gauge in case the transformer needs to be transported
over different railroad systems. A change in track gauge can, for example, happen at international borders or at
connection points between tracks owned by different railway operators. Negotiating such a change in track width
might require additional load breaks to shift the transformer from a railcar with one track gauge to a railcar with
another track gauge.
A related item which must be checked is the compatibility of different railroad systems. Crossing an international
border might require the use of different rail cars. This results sometimes in additional load breaks which could be
avoided by selecting a different route. For example, cross border railroad is possible between Mexico, US and
Canada. It is also possible between Norway, Sweden and Finland. Ongoing efforts at standardization between
various neighbouring countries make ongoing investigation worthwhile. As another example, cross border railroad
transport between France and Belgium recently became possible. And as a last example, cross border railroad
transport between France and Germany was at the time of writing not yet possible without changing rail car.
It is important to survey the route that transformer will be travelled and to check for unexpected obstructions. For
example, the transformer might fit perfectly inside the loading gauge. However, where a station needs to be
negotiated near a curve in the track, passenger platforms might provide an unexpected obstruction inside this loading
gauge.
A last item which should be checked for design process is speed limits for the actual transport and to safest design
option is to apply the forces occurring with normal transport speeds. However, some railroads impose strict speed
limits for larger and or heavier load, and this reduces occurring forces significantly and would allow for a more efficient
design. One example of this are the speed limits for loads over 80 tonne on the Deutsche Bahn (German railroads,
and the speed limits reduces the transport forces for the heavy loads by 50% compared to normal transport speeds.
Some additional elements need to be taken in account while making the final planning for railcar transport. Although
a fine must be paid for dirty or damaged railcar, the car will not be cleaned before it is send to the next customer.
Therefore railcars are often received in a deplorable condition such as shown on the left in Photo 40. Sharp
protrusions from weld remainders can severely damage the bottom of the transformer. Extra time needs to be
planned to clean the car, or additional wood needs to be placed between the transformer and the rail car as shown
on the right in Photo 41. Wood will increase friction and protect the bottom of the transformer but will increase total
transport height.
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PHOTO 37 – HEAVY DUTY FLATBED CAR WITH CONSIDERABLE WELD PHOTO 38 - WOOD PLACED BETWEEN A TRANSFORMER AND THE FLAT
REMAINDERS ON THE DECK. (PHOTO COURTESY W. BERGMAN) CAR TO PROTECT THE TRANSFORMER FROM WELD REMAINDERS ON
THE DECK OF THE CAR AND TO INCREASE FRICTION BETWEEN THE
DECK AND UNDERSIDE OF THE TRANSFORMER. (PHOTO COURTESY W.
BERGMAN)
8.2.4.1 Request Transport Permission over Rail

In certain regions the approval process to allow transport of a large load like a power transformer over the railroad
system can be a long process. For example, in India, a complete database exists of all railroad structures like bridges
and tunnels, which are in use. This database is distributed over several subsections of the railroad authorities, but a
single point of contact is provided to request such transport. Unfortunately, it could take up to one year for the request
to flow down the pyramid and subsequent approvals or disapprovals to move up again.
While the approval process timescale is different around the globe, the process should be started as soon as possible
and might introduce a serious impact on the delivery time of the transformer.
Another more regular issue is a compulsory inspection of the railroad transport by a qualified railroad person before
the transport is allowed to start, and should also be requested timely.
8.2.4.2 Loading profile

The most important constraint for transformer design is to fit within the railcar restrictive loading profile of the railroad
systems on which the transformer needs to be transported [38], meaning the specifications for the transport route
and the railcar to be used must be available in early design stage. Also, tolerance should be provided inside the
loading profile for the material used for haulage to prevent sliding on the railcar steel deck and to absorb surface
irregularities
An example of how a railroad loading profile can look has been given on the left in Figure 7. Care must always be
taken, as these railroad profiles tend to change regularly. Most recent profiles must be requested before starting a
new design which is meant to be transported by railroad.
The centre of gravity of the load must coincide with the middle of the railcar. Therefore with
the transformer inside the loading profile, the centre of gravity of the transformer must coincide
with the middle of this loading profile (and with the middle of the railcar). If the centre of gravity
of the transformer is not in the middle of the transformer, the off-centre distance is also lost on
the ‘short’ side of the transformer as is illustrated on in figure 6. To recover a part of this lost
distance is to use ballast to shift the centre of gravity of the total load on the railcar in the right
direction.
FIGURE 6 – LOADING PROFILE - LOST SPACE DUE TO OFF-CENTRE DISTANCE OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF TRANSFORMER
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Special care must be taken when rail transport has to travel over sharp bends in the railroad. Due to the considerable
length of a transformer transport, the transformer might fall outside the loading profile more than allowed while
negotiating these bends. This is illustrated in the centre in figure 7. Such situations can only be found by conducting
a proper railroad survey as soon as possible in the transformer procurement process. Depending on transport length,
non-removable obstacles inside the bend and ability of the selected railcar to shift the load sideways this might require
the size of the transformer to be restricted to an even smaller limit than allowed by the loading profile.
A transformer, which fits inside the most critical loading profile and does not need to negotiate too sharp bends, can
be transported at a reasonable price. When a transformer is outside this loading profile it will cause to be transported
in a special train. These special (large) trains cannot pass other trains except on specific spots on the railroad
network. This special treatment will cause a considerable disruption of the normal traffic. The costs of this will be
charged to the customer of the special train and will easily be a multiple of the transport cost of a normal train. An
additional cost of $75 /mile was not uncommon in 2012 for an oversized load.
FIGURE 7 - LEFT: EXAMPLE OF HOW A RAILROAD LOADING PROFILE CAN LOOK, WITH PHOTO 39 – EXAMPLE OF USE OF CONCRETE BALLAST
DIMENSIONS IN MM. – RIGHT: THE LONG LENGTH OF A TRANSFORMER RAILROAD TO SHIFT THE COG TO THE MIDDLE OF THE RAIL CAR
TRANSPORT CAN CAUSE THE TRANSFORMER TO SHIFT OUTSIDE THE RAILROAD (PHOTO COURTESY W. BERGMAN)
LOADING PROFILE TO THE INSIDE OF A CORNER IN THE RAILROAD
8.2.4.3 Support of Active Part in Tank

A second design issue is caused by the large differences in forces that can occur in railroad transport. Depending
on that actual transport conditions, occurring forces in longitudinal and lateral direction can differ greatly for railroad
transport. In such case, it can be justified to provide additional and or stronger supports in longitudinal directions.
8.2.4.4 Type of Railcar that will be used

In case a Schnabel railcar is used for transport, the transformer will be suspended between the two ends of the
Schnabel railcar. The transformer is regarded as a part of the railcar and not as a load on the railcar. The
consequence is that the combination of transformer and Schnabel railcar needs to be certified before it is allowed to
be transported in certain railroad systems. For example, specific certificate is required to transport a transformer
with Schnabel railcar on the Deutsche Bahn (German railroads) however with the transformer placed as a normal
load on a (depressed centre) flatbed railcar this certification process is avoided.
On the other hand, in North America only the Schnabel car needs to be certified. On North American railroads the
transformer manufacturer only needs to ensure that the transformer is designed strong enough internally for the
occurring loads during transport.
8.2.4.5 Design for Vibrations

In general railroad transport is used to cross large land distances. Consequently, vibrations acting during transport
will exist for a considerable duration. Vibrations and slow rocking motions, which during short time spans can easily
Page 58
be sustained by the transformer, might become dangerous if they are acting long enough. Therefore all advices
given in the Section 5.2 “Design for Vibrations” should be followed.
8.2.4.6 Provide Sufficient and Suitable Blocking and Lashing Points

Transformers transported by railroad experience considerably higher transport forces in longitudinal direction. These
forces can become large that it becomes near to impossible to fix the transformer properly in longitudinal direction
with lashings only. The transformer will always have to be fixed by a combination of blocks and lashes.
Typical constructions used to fix the transformer tank to the railcar are shown in Photo 43. The design of the
transformer needs to be fitted with the required provisions for this kind of fixations. In addition, sufficient normal
lashing needs to be provided to the top of the transformer.
Most of the railroad companies have specific rules for blocking and lashing of loads to the railroad cars on their
tracks. Therefore must ensure that the fixating points are according to the railroad company
Extensive examples for good lashing assemblies and dunnage constructions can be found in the Open top Loading
Rules Manual from AAR [34] and in bracing and lashing instruction in following section of this document.
PHOTO 40 - LEFT: STEEL BRACKET WELDED TO A RAIL CAR TO PREVENT LONGITUDINAL MOVEMENT. THE BRACKET IS LOCATED NEXT TO A TOWING
EYE TO PREVENT LATERAL MOVEMENT AS WELL.- CENTRE: FORMED CLIP WELDED TO THE RAIL CAR AND FITTING OVER THE BASE OF THE
TRANSFORMER. THIS CLIP PREVENTS VERTICAL MOVEM ENT AND MOVEMENT IN LATERAL OR LONGITUDINAL DIRECTION – RIGHT: BRACES WELDED
TO RAIL CAR TO PREVENT LATERAL AND LONGITUDINAL MOVEMENT OF TRANSFORMER. TRANSFORMER BOLTED TO RAILCAR TO PREVENT
VERTICAL MOVEMENT (PHOTO COURTESY W. BERGMAN)
8.2.4.7 Design for Multimodal Transport

Only in rare situations there will be a continuous railroad from the factory to the substation. In all other cases, the
transformer will also need to be transported over a (limited) distance by other means. This means that the transformer
will also need to follow the applicable guidelines for these other transport methods.
Care should be taken when defining the transport direction for these other transport modes. In some transport modes,
the transport direction can differ based on the transport vehicle, for example, the transformer could be stowed in
lateral direction of a vessel instead of in longitudinal direction.
8.2.5 How to minimize Forces during Transport

8.2.5.1 Lowering the Centre of gravity
Lowering the centre of gravity during transport of the transformer will achieve better control over the movement of
the railcar. This will result in a slight reduction of the forces acting on the transformer.
An efficient method to lower centre of gravity is to use a flat base for the transformer tank and to keep the height of
the transformer as small as possible.
The influence of lowering the centre of gravity on the occurring forces is however, expected to be limited and should
not be pursued at all costs. More important reductions in forces can be achieved at lower costs by other means as
given in the other sections of this chapter.
Page 59
8.2.5.2 Optimal Position in the Train

As described in clause 8.2.1.7 the ideal place of the transformer in a long train is close to the front locomotive, with
only a few, heavy loaded railcars between this locomotive and the transformer. The locomotive should be used with
bail-off. The railcar for the transformer should be equipped with high performance buffers and the other railcars in
the train should only have standard buffers.
8.2.5.3 Order Highest Caution Ticket and Shortest Train Length

The railroad carrier itself has a very large influence on the occurring forces. Therefore, the railroad transport should
be ordered with the highest caution ticket. Also the train length should be ordered as short as possible and the use
of block trains is a very strong recommendation.
8.2.6 Summary on Best Railroad Practices

1) Request railroad transport in time with highest caution ticket and prevent switching the railcar while carrying
the transformer.
2) Perform survey the transport route to final destination.
3) Select railcar type (flatbed car or Schnabel car)
4) Design the transformer with the following in mind:
a) To fit inside most restricting loading gauge and negotiate foreseen obstacles from the survey
b) With sufficient support of active part in travel directions
c) All small parts fixed with non-friction based means
d) Core laminations held in place with non-friction based means
e) Satisfactory support structure for the active part
f) Centre of gravity of transformer as low as possible
g) With sufficient lashing points on the tank in travel directions
h) Suitable for other required transport modes (multi-modal)
5) Use a suitable railcar
a) Equipped with effective long-travel, high performance buffers
b) Floor of rail car clean and free of debris
c) Good tight blocking at base of transformer
d) Transformer fixed firmly to railcar by bolting or welding
6) Locate the transformer close to the front locomotive with only fully loaded cars between the transformer and
this locomotive. Bail-off should be used for the locomotive. Other cars in the train should be equipped with
normal buffers.
8.3 Marine and Inland Waterways

8.3.1 General
Marine (sea or ocean) transport generally has lower acceleration values than railway or road transport. However,
marine vessels are sometimes exposed to unexpected extreme weather condition that is unavoidable and this may
cause damage to vessel and cargo.
Transportation on inland waterways (lakes, rivers, canals) carries a very low risk although during the docking stage
impacts may occur of similar magnitude to marine transportation.
1) Types of impacts during marine transportation
Damage can occur during loading, unloading, on board shifting, and on board lashing, which might have low
probability of occurrence but with high magnitude of impact.
If the transformer is located close enough to the engine, vibration with low frequency (2-30 Hz) could also cause
damage to the transformer. During marine transportation, ship rolling, pitching and yawing motion would create
shocks of low magnitude with low vibration frequency (2-30 Hz). The prolonged movement could lead to damage of
the transformer active part, with risk of core lamination displacement.
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2) Forces and motions during marine transportation
The cargo on board a ship will be subjected to forces resulting from ship movement. The ship movement may be
divided into three types of linear motion and three types of rotational motion as shown in Figure 7
Ship’s coordinate system: X-axis: longitudinal Y-axis: transvers Z-axis: vertical

FIGURE 8 - SHIP MOVEMENTS
The voyage on board a ship exerts a combination of forces on the transformer and these forces depend on the
severity of weather condition and may arise from the ship motion in pitching, rolling, heaving, surging, yawing or
swaying or a combination of any two or more.
The accelerations encountered on boards of a ship are not significant and subsequently the forces exerted on the
transformer are generally low. However, the frequency of the ship motion is generally low. The low duration rolling
motion would result in a side-to-side movement that needs to be born in mind.
Rolling, pitching and yawing with very low frequency (<10Hz) would create impact of low magnitude during marine
transportation.
Another possible ship movement is hogging and sagging shown in Figure 8. Hogging is the stress that a ship's hull
or keel experiences that causes the centre or the keel to bend upward. Sagging is the stress that a ship's hull or keel
endures when a wave is the same length as the ship and the ship is in the trough of two waves. This causes the
middle of the ship to bend down slightly, and depending of the level of bend, may cause the hull to snap or crack.
Page 61
FIGURE 9 - ILLUSTRATION OF HOGGING (2) AND SAGGING (1) OF A SHIP
The values for the acceleration and duration of the motion are presented in the International Standards, e.g.
International Marine Organisation (IMO)
There might be also shocks during departing and docking. However, normally the shocks for sea transport never
exceed 3 g.
Generally, the maximum acceleration in the vertical axis is more important than that in longitudinal and transverse
directions.
3) Summary of acceleration values for different motions
The following Tables 3 and 4 give international guidelines for ship transportation.
TABLE 3 - CTU (CARGO TRANSPORT UNIT) PACKING GUIDELINES
Mode of transport: ocean-going Forward Backward Sideways

vessel acting forces acting forces acting forces
Baltic Sea 0.3 g (b) 0.3 g (b) 0.5 g
North Sea 0.3 g (c) 0.3 g (c) 0.7 g
Unrestricted 0.4 g (d) 0.4 g (d) 0.8 g
1 g = 9.81 m/s²
The above values should be combined with static gravity force of 1.0 g acting downwards and a
dynamic variation of:
(b)= ±0.5g (c)= ±0.7g (d)= ±0.8g
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TABLE 3 - ACCELERATION COMPARISON FOR DIFFERENT REGULATIONS
[1] International Marine Organization- IMO guidelines for packing and cargo
[2] LIoyd’s Register Shipping – Freight container securing arrangement part 3 Chapter 14
[3] Floating production storage and offshore loading: FPSL- US Mineral Management system
4) Transport forces and motions during inland waterways
Inland waterways transport is generally smooth. The forces resulting from swell and wave height is not applicable
however, progressing through river’s locks and quay wall can result in impact that could give rise to dynamic loads.
In comparison to marine inland waterways is generally smooth and in the absent specific acceleration figures for the
inland waterways. Indicative acceleration figures to consider as guideline are listed:
 Roll is 0.1g to 0.15g;

 Pitch is 0.1g to 0.15g,
 Heave +/- 0.1g
It is understood that diesel engines used for the inland and waterway vessels may create some low frequency
vibrations, which under normal conditions should not give reason for any concern.

During the planning stage, quite a few issues should be well investigated. For example, a ship with suitable size,
capacity and stability should be chosen. The transformer should be loaded on board in a suitable location.
For inland waterways an on deck loading is usually fully acceptable this is usually not suitable for marine
transportation. However, on-deck loading could be allowed where the vessel stays in a harbour to avoid bad weather.
The transformer should not be loaded next to the engine chamber for marine transportation.
Adequate lashing and shoring should be used to prevent sliding and tipping of transformers.
During the planning stage, drawings of the transformer as loaded and lashed on barges or vessels are required
documents for transformer transport planning. Several studies on the vessel size and stability are also mandatory in
order to choose an appropriate vessel for transport.
All transformers have lifting provisions, which can be used for marine or inland cargo lifting. Lifting provisions at the
ends of a unit are ideal for securing on board. Lifting provisions at the sides of the transformers are critical for lashing
since the lashing angle is generally larger than 60° and regular tensioning should be applied to avoid slack.
The crane configuration and method of lifting the transformer and loading onto barges and pontoons are required
during the planning stage.
The port of loading should be checked as to whether it has cranes with adequate lifting capacity. If this is not the
case, either a roll-on roll-off vessel or self-geared vessel must be chosen.
When the transformer is not very heavy, a simple hook or single crane might be used. Twin-crane operation should
be used when the transformer is very large and is close to the capacity of ship’s single crane.
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For heavy transformers, when the unit is stowed transversely, the full capacities of twin-crane system can usually not
be exploited (Figure 10). Therefore, very heavy unit is generally stowed longitudinally since the cranes can reach
their outreach capacity, as shown below Figure 11.
FIGURE 10 – TRANSFORMER STOWED TRANSVERSELY FIGURE 11 – TRANSFORMER STOWED LONGITUDNALLY
It should also be checked whether the loading/unloading quays have the necessary capacity to hold a heavy
transformer (the tonnes/cubic metre ratio has to be sufficient) especially if the quay is made of wood. The same
applies for temporary storage areas in the port.

The transformer design must take into account the forces and impacts expected during shipment operation. Example
of the acceleration values are given in Table 4 to Table 6. Table 5 and Table 6 are only correction factors and the
final calculation should include the effect from Table 4 to obtain absolute values. Suitable electronic shock recorders
are recommended for recording transport data including frequency analysis capability and have the option for
inclination or rolling angle measurement. It is recommended to use two shock recorders for transformer transport to
eliminate chances of loss of data in case of shock recorder failure.
8.3.4 How to Minimize Forces during Transport

8.3.4.1 Influence of transformer location on the acceleration
The magnitude of the inertia forces due to alternating movements are dependent on the location of the transformer
on board the ship, the angle of the ship in rolling and pitching motion, and the natural period of the rolling and pitching
motion.
A suitable location for the transformer is in the hold of the ship rather than on the deck. The master of the ship should
be consulted.
IMO incorporates a comparison (Table 4) to illustrate the influence of the stowage location on acceleration values.
IMO uses a probability calculation for “worst case approach”. It is shown that “lower hold” location has always a lower
acceleration and at the half length of the ship there is the lowest acceleration value. From Table 4, it could also be
concluded that a transverse position for transformers is more preferable than longitudinal one.
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TABLE 4 – BASIC DATA OF ACCELERATIONS
Location along the ship 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
length
Transverse acceleration aY Longitudinal
acceleration aX
On deck, high 7.1 6.9 6.8 6.7 6.7 6.8 6.9 7.1 7.4 3.8
On deck, low 6.5 6.3 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.3 6.5 6.7 2.9
Tween-deck 5.9 5.6 5.5 5.4 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.9 6.2 2.0
Lower hold 5.5 5.3 5.1 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.3 5.5 5.9 1.5
Vertical acceleration aZ 7.6 6.2 5.0 4.3 4.3 5.0 6.2 7.6 9.2
Remarks to table 4:
1) Acceleration figures are given in m/s2.
2) The given transverse acceleration figures include components of gravity, pitch and heave parallel to the deck.
The given vertical acceleration figures do not include the static weight component.
3) The basic acceleration data are to be considered as valid under the following operational conditions:
4) Operation in unrestricted area
5) Operation during the whole year
6) Duration of the voyage is 25 days
7) Length of ship is 100 m
8) Service speed is 15 knots
9) B/GM≥13 (B=breath of ship, GM=metacentric height)
The metacentric height (GM) is a measurement of the initial static stability of a floating body. It is calculated as the
distance between the centre of gravity of a ship and its metacentre. A larger metacentric height implies greater initial
stability against overturning.
FIGURE 12 - SHIP STABILITY DIAGRAM SHOWING CENTRE OF GRAVITY (G), CENTRE OF BUOYANCY (B), AND METACENTRE (M) WITH SHIP UPRIGHT
AND HEELED OVER TO ONE SIDE
Note: For small angles, G and M are fixed, while B moves as the ship heels.
For large angles both B and M move.
In fact, the location of the transformer on board of the ship has a big influence on the metacentric height of the ship.
Ships with increased metacentric height would have a short rolling and pitching natural period, which would result to
“stiff” motion. The associated acceleration is high, inertia forces on the transformer core and windings are large.
When the metacentric height is decreased the motion is “soft” and the associated inertia forces are reduced. Heavy
loaded ships have provision of topside ballast tanks to reduce the metacentric height of the ship. This gives the
master of the ship some control over rolling and pitching natural period to reduce inertia forces with a view to safety
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and comfort. Thus the metacentric height should be reasonable high, which means not too small to have good
stability and not too high to reduce the forces on the on-board transformer.
Therefore, a suitable location for the transformer would be in the hold of the ship rather than on the deck. Of course,
it depends on the ship design. The position of on-deck could also work very well if the stability of the ship is well
studied. The acceleration is lowest at the 0.5L of the ship since it is close to the centre of oscillation in this case.
8.3.4.2 Influence of Ships’ Size and Speed on the Acceleration

The ship length and speed influence the ship acceleration values. IMO recommends a correction factor for ships of
a length other than 100 m and a service speed other than 15 knots. The acceleration figures should be corrected by
a factor given in Table 5.
TABLE 5 - CORRECTION FACTORS FOR LENGTH AND SPEED
Length (m)
50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200
Speed (kn)
9 1.20 1.09 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.79 0.70 0.63 0.57 0.53 0.49
12 1.34 1.22 1.12 1.03 0.96 0.90 0.79 0.72 0.65 0.60 0.56
15 1.49 1.36 1.24 1.15 1.07 1.00 0.89 0.80 0.73 0.68 0.63
18 1.64 1.49 1.37 1.27 1.18 1.10 0.98 0.89 0.82 0.76 0.71
21 1.78 1.62 1.49 1.38 1.29 1.21 1.08 0.98 0.90 0.83 0.78
24 1.93 1.76 1.62 1.50 1.40 1.31 1.17 1.07 0.98 0.91 0.85
Table 5 illustrates that the acceleration decreases with the increase of the ship length. For rough sea large vessels
should be used to reduce acceleration values.
8.3.4.3 Influence of Ships’ Stability on the Acceleration

The ratio of ship breadth/metacentric height of the ship (B/GM) influence the accelerations, therefore correction factor
should be included. For ships with B/GM less than 13, the transverse acceleration values should be corrected by a
factor given in table 3 (ref. IMO). Table 4 and 5 give some guideline how to choose a ship with better stability to
reduce forces during transport.
TABLE 6 - CORRECTION FACTOR FOR B/GM<13
B/GM 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 or above
On deck, high 1.56 1.40 1.27 1.19 1.11 1.05 1.00
On deck, low 1.42 1.30 1.21 1.14 1.09 1.04 1.00
Tween-deck 1.26 1.19 1.14 1.09 1.06 1.03 1.00
Lower hold 1.15 1.12 1.09 1.06 1.04 1.02 1.00
Of course, there are some precautions to be taken with the above three acceleration tables:
1) In the case of marked roll resonance with amplitudes above ±30°, the given values of transverse acceleration
may be exceeded.
2) In the case of heading into the sea at high speed with marked slamming shocks, the given values of
longitudinal and vertical acceleration may be exceeded.
3) In the case of running before large stern or quartering sea with a stability which does not greatly exceed the
accepted minimum requirements, large roll amplitudes must be expected with transverse accelerations
greater than the values given above.
8.3.4.4 Tipping and Sliding

When the rolling amplitude becomes important, tipping and sliding might occur as shown below in figures 12 and 13.
The principles for securing equipment on board are to prevent sliding in transverse and longitudinal directions with
respect to the ship.
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FIGURE 13 - TIPPING PHENOMENON FIGURE 14 - LASHING AND SHORING
Lashing and shoring are the most effective ways to avoid expected sliding and tipping. The use of a proper lashing
(refer to the IMO lashing code) is very important to avoid the damage of transformers during the shipment.
During the planning stage, a lashing and stowage calculation study should be done for each water transport.
Lashing to prevent tipping
Lashing to prevent sliding
FIGURE 15 - CROSS LASHING DEMONSTRATION
Cross lashing is commonly used to secure the transformer on board a ship. The ideal angle of cross lashing to
prevent sliding should be less than 25° from the horizontal line. The ideal angle of cross lashing to prevent tipping,
it should be between 45° and 60° from the horizontal line, as shown in Figure 15.
Direct lashing is also widely used, shown in Figure 16.
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FIGURE 16 - DIRECT LASHING COMBINED WITH SHORING PHOTO 41 – DIRECT LASHING
If possible, many lashings of equal length and small angle should be placed to secure the transformer.
As for compact units, which won’t have tipping problem within the admissible rolling angle range, many lashings with
small length and equal angle should be placed, as shown below in Figure 17.
FIGURE 17 – LASHING AND SHORING FOR COMPACT UNIT
The base of the transformers should be secured by shoring with the timbers or welded stops located on the vessel
deck. A typical example is shown in Photo 42.
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PHOTO 42 - ON BOARD SHORING
Rolling will be a typical phenomenon during the transport on heavy sea. For the expected heavy sea conditions,
additional lashing, dunnage, on-board shoring, or temporary bracing could be used to better secure the transformer.
PHOTO 43 - WOODEN DUNNAGE FOR IMPACT CUSHIONIN
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8.4 Air
8.4.1 General
The air transport of transformer is very rare because of weight and dimensional restriction as well as very high costs.
The following diagrams illustrate the accelerations associate with air transport. Dynamic stresses are expressed in
g [m/s²]. See figure below.
FIGURE 18 - TYPES OF ACCELERATIONS ASSOCIATE WITH TRANSPORT BY AIRCRAFTS
FIGURE 19 - DYNAMIC STRESSES ASSOCIATED WITH TRANSPORT BY AIRCRAFTS [G VALUES]
During cargo handling, stresses of 1.0 g may be assumed. [http://www.tis-gdv.de/] Jerky load breaks may generate
higher g values.
8.4.2 Results from Measurements

There are not many recordings of shock recorders available from air transport, but examples are provided.
1) Example 1:
Transformer air transport from Europe to USA in the year 2000. This transport was accomplished by the
cargo aircraft Antonov AN-124.
In the absent of actual previous measurement and a standard for air transportation, the maximum
acceleration for this air transport that was used as guidelines are listed below.
2.3g forwards
1.5g backwards
2.0g upwards / downwards
1.5g sideways
The maximum tilting angles of the aircraft are:
15° upwards
5° downwards
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15° sideways
2) Example 2:
Air transport from Europe to USA in the year 2003, there are no records of shock recordings available, but
the information was that the transport accelerations were very small. This transformer transport was
accomplished by the cargo aircraft Antonov AN-225.
PHOTO 44 - CARGO AIRCRAFT ANTONOV AN-225 (PHOTO COURTESY SIEMENS)
Main Transformer data:
Rated Power: 220 MVA

Transport Weight: 120 tonne (transformer body without accessories and oil)
Year of Manufacture: 2003
Length/width/height: 7.5 / 2.88 / 4.29 m
3) Example 3:
Transformer was air transport from Europe to Philippines in November 2013. The cargo aircraft Antonov
AN-225 was used.
PHOTO 45 - CARGO AIRCRAFT ANTONOV AN-225 (PHOTO COURTESY SIEMENS)
Main Transformer data:
Rated Power: 318 MVA Generator Transformer

Transport Weight: 140 tonne (transformer body without accessories and oil)
Year of Manufacture: 2013
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8.4.3 Impact on Transport Planning

Firstly, it is necessary to check types of aircraft that are available for special transport of the transformer, determine
transport of the transformer to and from the airports is possible. The aircraft dimension for loading, door openings
(L/W/H) and the maximum load capacity of the aircraft floor must be checked. To clarify how the transformer can be
moved from the loading door openings to the load-location in the aircraft.
For this special transport Antonov AN124-100 and/or Antonov AN-225 aircrafts are used in most cases. The Antonov
AN-225 is a larger version of the Antonov AN-124. During the transport planning, it is important to check at which
airports these large aircrafts can take off and land.
FIGURE 20 – DIMENSIONS OF ANTONOV AN-225
Technical Data Antonov AN-225:

Cargo hold: length 43.3m x width 6.4m x height 4.4m (volume 1 300m³)
Useful load: 250 tonne
Max. takeoff weight: 600 tonne
Flight range: without cargo 15 400 km
with 200 tonne cargo 4 500 km
with max. cargo 2 500 km
Takeoff distance: with max. cargo 3 500 m
Technical Data Antonov AN-124-100:
Cargo hold: length 36.5 m x width 6.4m x height 4.4m (volume 1 100m³)
Useful load: 120 tonne
Max. takeoff weight: 392 tonne
Flight range: without cargo 15 400 km
with 40 tonne cargo 12 000 km
with max. cargo 4 800 km
Takeoff distance: with max. cargo 3 500 m
8.4.4 Impact on Design

The main influence on transformer design is the maximum transport dimensions and the total weight of the entire
freight.
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The size and weight of the transformer transport depends on which aircraft type will be used. The maximum
dimensions and weights have to be always coordinated with the aircraft operator.
The dimensions and weights found in the transport documents for various aircrafts are not for transformers but only
for simple packing (e.g. crates).
For the transport of transformers by aircraft it is necessary to use a special transport supporting (e.g. photo 49). This
transport support affects the size and the design of the transformer substantially. The maximum height of the
transformer has to be checked, due to the restricted aircraft entry. The main influences for air transport of are the
maximum transport dimensions and the total weight of the entire transformer including accessories and transport
frame. The transformer permissible size and weight depends on the aircraft capability e.g. Antonov 225 has a useful
load up to 250 tons.
PHOTO 46 - TRANSFORMER SUPPORT STRUCTURE FOR AIRCRAFT TRANSPORT (PHOTO COURTESY SIEMENS)
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9 Shock Recorders
9.1 General information

It is a general practice to monitor the transportation of transformers by measuring accelerations that occur during
movement of the transformer. These accelerations are commonly measured by shock recorders. Modern electronic
shock recorders continuously measure the accelerations. When a pre-set acceleration is exceeded, the shock
recorder will register this occurrence.
The following sections describe the scope for proper use of modern electronic shock recorders to monitor the
transportation of transformers.
9.1.1 Physics
Shock recorders consist of dampened mass-spring system. An acceleration applied to the shock recorder will deflect
the mass-spring. This deflection can be measured. The acceleration can be calculated using the known spring
constant and mass. By monitoring acceleration over time, shocks and vibration can be identified as either a transient
or a periodic acceleration.
In addition to shocks and vibration, it is also possible to measure tilt and roll. Any angle away from vertical would
apply a lateral acceleration to the transformer.
9.1.2 Types of Shock Recorders

Mechanical shock recorders are still in use, however their usefulness is limited to recording little more than peak
acceleration on a lengthy paper roll. The time of the acceleration can be established from the position along the
length of the paper roll.
Electronic shock recorders are now common. They provide much more detail about the measured accelerations.
Electronic shock recorders can be divided by their type. Most are piezoelectric, but other type exists, e.g.
piezoresistive. Shock recorders can also be divided by their presentation of registered accelerations, e.g. peak,
event or acceleration time histories.
Accelerations can be presented as peak accelerations during transport. This is basically the same output mechanical
shock recorders provide. Accelerations can be presented as events, which not only includes peak acceleration but
also its duration. The most detailed presentation is an acceleration time history in which detailed acceleration data
is plotted against time. Of course, all data would be accompanied by a time stamp giving the time and date of the
shock.
Different methods for measuring the angle are being employed. One method is continuously to sample the angle of
the shock recorder at a fixed frequency of 4 Hz. The shock recorder will store both the minimum and maximum angle
within a pre-programmed time span. It provides information about the maximum angles the transformer has been
exposed to but does not provide information about the actual movement of the transformer. Another method is to
perform a measurement over 21s at pre-programmed intervals. The measurement is analysed and either the angles
recorded are stored, if no motion is detected, or else the full measurement is stored in an angle-time history graph.
This method does not record the maximum angle during transportation, but it will provide information about the motion
of the transformer. It is only suitable for angle measurements during sea transport.
9.1.3 Accessories
Many electronic shock recorders come with optional features to measure humidity, pressure and temperature.
Additional features such as GPS positioning and GSM messaging are becoming more common. These are not
always incorporated in the shock recorder itself. Other measurements are also available.
9.1.4 Limitation of Measurements

Shock recorders are limited by their measuring range of accelerations (in g's), their frequency range (in Hz), recording
time or battery life (in days or months) and available memory (depends on what is stored). The mounting location
may also reduce its usefulness. Different characteristics of the mode of transport may require different setups or
specifications.
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The measuring range will limit the magnitude of the accelerations that can be accurately measured. The frequency
range will similarly determine which shock durations (or vibration frequencies) can be accurately measured.
The battery life and the available memory will limit the programmable settings of the shock recorder. Setting low
trigger thresholds tends to result in more readings, which in turn will easily drain the battery of the recorder and fill
the memory.
The mounting location will result in more readings if the location is prone to resonance or close to shocks from rigging
equipment. These readings will make evaluations more difficult and time consuming.
When different modes of transport are used, the programmable settings might be less than ideal for some or all of
the modes of transport.
9.1.5 Guidance on Specification of Shock Recorder

The important specifications of the shock recorder are the measuring range, the frequency range, sampling rate,
battery life, acceleration presentation type and operating temperature range. Other environmental requirements may
be needed to specify.
9.1.6 Reliability of the Readings

Battery failure; incorrect programming or mounting; and file corruption are some of reasons shock recorders may not
produce any data to analyse.
Worse, improper design or use of shock recorders may result in false readings. Anti-aliasing and saturation could
also produce readings which may be incorrectly interpreted as shocks.
9.1.7 Shock Recorders Fitting Position and Quantity of Shock Recorders

Shock recorders are best mounted at or near the centre of gravity of the object being monitored. For transformers
this is often impossible or impractical. Fortunately, mounting shock recorders at or near the centre of gravity is of
less importance for large and heavy object such as transformers. When considering the position of the shock
recorders it is helpful to realize that no position will ever be perfect for every conceivable shock.
Regardless of the position, it is considered good practice to mount at least two shock recorders on the transformer.
These will provide either confirmation of recorded data or redundancy of shock recorders. Two shock recorders
should be mounted on opposite ends of the transformer. This way any shock to the transformer that is away from
the centre of gravity will have a reasonable chance of being properly recorded by at least one shock recorder.
Placing both shock recorders on opposite ends of the longitudinal centre line is a good option considering the
rectangular shape of most transformers. Placing both shock recorders near diagonally opposite corners is a good
alternative especially if the footprint of the transformer is more shaped like a square. The preferred location in height
is near the bottom of the transformer because any shock is most likely introduced to the transformer at its base.
Accessibility of the mounting location is a practical consideration for not putting the shock recorders either too high
or too low.
The previous paragraph would rule out positioning the shock recorder on the cover. Another reason to avoid the
cover is because there the shock recorders are more prone to being hit by lifting lugs. On the tank walls there are
usually more options to hide the shock recorder between stiffeners from rigging equipment hitting it directly. No
shock recorder should be mounted on a transformer without any cover protecting it from direct impact. Mounting the
shock recorder on the cover also can introduce a safety hazard when accessing the shock recorder.
9.1.8 How to Mount Shock Recorders

The shock recorders do not record the actual accelerations to which the transformer is subjected. The shock
recorders are normally mounted externally to the transformer tank, and therefore local structural response of the tank
is what is actually recorded. This local response may be an amplified acceleration due to resonance. This resonance
can be caused by impact of rigging equipment, registered as shocks. For this reason, the shock recorder should be
mounted on a rigid section of the tank. The resonant frequency of the local structure of the tank should have a value
outside the measuring range of the shock recorder.
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FIGURE 21 - THEORETICAL ACCELERATIONS DURING TRANSPORT AND THE EFFECT OF STRUCTURAL RESONANCE ON THE RECORDING
OF THE EVENT
Figure 21 shows three acceleration–time histories that might occur during transport. The green curve shows the
accelerations of the mounting structure due to resonance. The red curve is an actual event, which induces resonance
in the mounting structure. The blue curve will be the recorded event and almost matches the accelerations of the
green curve (blue and green curve are nearly the same). The recorded event incorrectly suggests accelerations
much more severe than the actual shock. It is also possible that rigging that hits the tank can induce resonance
without any actual shock occurring to the transformer as a whole.
Mounting the shock recorder to the active part would be ideal. The active part represents nearly all the mass of the
transformer and might be considered more rigid than the transformer tank. Mounting the shock recorder to the active
part is, however, less practical. There are few possible mounting locations due to limited access and is only
applicable to transformers transported without oil.
Another effect caused by resonance is the saturation of the accelerometers inside the shock recorders. This occurs
when the shock recorder is exposed to frequencies which match the natural frequency of the accelerometer. The
natural frequency of the accelerometer is typically larger than 10 kHz. When necessary the shock recorders can be
mounted on vibration isolators to reduce the influence such high vibration frequencies and to prevent incorrectly
recorded as shocks.
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FIGURE 22 - THEORETICAL ACCELERATIONS DURING TRANSPORT AND THE EFFECT OF THE ACCELEROMETER RESONANCE ON THE
RECORDING OF THE EVENT
Figure 22 shows three acceleration–time histories that might occur during transport. The green curve is the
accelerometer’s acceleration due to high frequency resonance (>1 kHz). The individual cycles cannot be shown on
the scale of the graph due to the high frequency. The red curve is an actual event which induces resonance in the
accelerometer. The blue curve will be the recorded event. The recorded event incorrectly suggests a shock much
more severe than the actual shock. It is also possible that rigging thumping the tank induces resonance without any
actual shock occurring to the transformer as a whole.
Mounting the shock recorder in a rigid location allows actual shocks being measured more accurately. Therefore it is
important to firmly mount the recorder and the chose a mounting location on the tank centre line and at opposite ends
of the tank.
No shock recorder should be mounted on a transformer without a cover protecting it from direct impact.
9.1.9 Analyses
Peak acceleration loggers yield little information. Due to the dynamic nature of a shock, measuring only the peak
value has very little meaning. Also, the shock recorder is recording a response at the mounting location and not the
input acceleration. However, if damage is found, the time stamp of the peak acceleration may provide an indication
when the damage occurred.
Event loggers provide the duration of a shock in addition to its peak value. This information allows for an estimation
of the damage potential of the registered shock. This peak acceleration is; however, still influenced by the response
at the mounting location.
Acceleration time histories yield even more data as their information can be analysed using techniques such as time
integration, Fourier transformation, power spectrum density and shock response spectrum analyses. This allows
high frequency response acceleration to be filtered from the data, leaving the low frequency acceleration to be
analysed.
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Most shock recorders will record information about events if a pre-set acceleration is exceeded. This practice of
recording an event based solely on the peak acceleration has some of the same drawbacks as only recording peak
accelerations, i.e. the event may have high peak accelerations but the damage potential is negligible due to its short
duration. Additional or different criteria such as energy content or velocity change should be used to determine which
events are to be stored for future analysis.
9.1.10 Evaluation of Analysed Data

The acceleration data can be analysed and compared with previous recordings. This allows the severity of an event
to be estimated and compared to other registered events. Estimating the damage potential of a shock is however,
is a task especially if shock recorders are intended to record hidden damage. For a design margin, a slightly less
severe event could not cause damage however a slightly more severe event could cause damage detectable by
other more reliable inspection methods. The analysis of the damage potential of repeated shocks, vibrations and tilt
and roll can escalate the event severity. Accelerations are recorded at a specific location on the transformer, which
is not always representative for the most damage prone parts. Added to that, the shock recorders could produce no
recording or erroneous readings. Therefore, comparing recorded data with acceptance criteria are used as guideline
for shock recording analysis.
9.2 Use of Shock Recorders

9.2.1 Specification of Shock Recorder
Below are the recommended requirements when choosing an appropriate (electronic) shock recorder.
1) The shock recorder should record accelerations in three orthogonal directions.

2) The shock recorder should record acceleration-time histories, which allows for detailed analysis. This
requirement renders mechanical shock recorders obsolete.
3) The shock recorder should record acceleration up to 10g. A shock recorder including a lower option or
setting is preferred for heavier transformers. As guidance, a transformer weighing 200 tonnes or more could
benefit from using this lower setting.
4) The shock recorder should record accelerations within a frequency band with a lower bound no more than 1
Hz and an upper bound of at least 250 Hz.
5) Low frequency acceleration due to movement at sea will not be recorded by most shock recorders. It is
recommended to include inclination or angle measurements along with the measurement of shock
accelerations. This will allow low peak and low frequency acceleration due to movement at sea to be
recorded.
6) High frequency accelerations are likely to be caused by vibrations within the structure to which the shock
recorder is mounted. The shock recorder should have some kind of filter to reduce the number of false
reading. Either a frequency filter or a minimum shock duration setting will allow for this.
7) The sampling rate of the shock recorder should be correctly chosen by the manufacturer of the shock
recorder. This sampling rate should be at least 2 and preferably 10 times the upper frequency of the
measuring range.
8) The shock recorder should be able to operate for at least 3 months.
9) The shock recorder and the batteries should be able to operate over a wide range of temperatures (-20 ºC
to 60ºC as a bare minimum). Some geographic locations could require operation down to -50 ºC.
10) GPS recording by the shock recorder is considered optional. It adds little value to the analysis of the
accelerations however it may assist with resolution of responsibility for damage.
9.2.2 Settings of the shock recorder

Below are the recommendations for programming the shock recorder for transport.
1) Use an acceleration range (measuring range) of 10 g. A higher setting will have reduced accuracy for low
accelerations. A lower setting may be acceptable, but higher accelerations will not be accurately measured.
For heavier transformers, i.e. over 200 tons, a lower setting of 3-5 g is recommended.
2) Use an upper frequency range of 30-50 Hz or minimum shock duration of 10-15 ms. This should reduce the
number of false readings due to vibrations in the transformer tank.
3) Use an appropriate threshold setting for recording acceleration-time histories (see further for comment). This
setting will be based on the transport modes and design specifications. The value should be at least 10% of
the measuring range.
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4) For monitoring during several transport modes, use setting for the most severe transport mode.
The shock recorder acceleration and frequency settings (recommended values given) registers the accelerations
occurred during transport. The effect of these settings is further described by the Figure 22.
FIGURE 23 - TRANSPORT THEORETICAL ACCELERATIONS - EFFECT OF THE PEAK VALUE ON THE EVENT’S RECORDINGS
Figure 22 shows three acceleration-time histories that might occur during transport. The blue curve will be correctly
recorded because it sits between the acceleration range values and the acceleration threshold values. The green
curve falls beneath the acceleration threshold and will not be recorded. The red curve exceeds the acceleration
range. It will be recorded because it exceeds the acceleration threshold, but it will be truncated by the acceleration
range.
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FIGURE 24 - TRANSPORT THEORETICAL ACCELERATIONA-EFFECT OF THE FREQUENCY ON THE EVENT’S RECORDINGS
Figure 23 shows three acceleration-time histories that might occur during transport. The blue curve will be correctly
recorded because it sits between the upper and lower frequency band values of the shock recorded.
The green curve falls beneath the lower frequency band and will not be recorded. The rolling movement of a ship
would be an example of such an event.
The red curve exceeds the upper frequency band and will not be recorded. Vibration within the structure of the
transformer tank would be an example of such an event.
9.2.3 Mounting and Location of Shock Recorders

Recommendations for mounting the shock recorders on the transformer are listed.
1) Use at least two shock recorders fitted on the transformer tank exterior. This provides confirmation for
recorded acceleration-time histories or redundancy.
2) A third shock recorder mounted on the active part is considered optional. It would allow for more advanced
analysis if this third shock recorder is connected in master slave configuration with one of the recorders on
the tank exterior as in the example measurement shown in Annex 7.
3) Two shock recorders should be mounted at the centre line of the longitudinal ends of the transformer tank.
If they are not mounted at the centreline, they should be diagonally opposite.
4) Shock recorders mounted on the transformer cover is not preferred.
5) The preferred mounting location is close to the transformer baseplate where shock load is likely transferred
to the transformer. Accessibility of the mounting location is a practical consideration and therefore a typical
mounting height is 1000mm±200.
6) Shock recorders should be bolted to the transformer tank (or active part). Using straps or magnets are
alternatives to using bolts but these methods are not preferred.
7) If numerous false readings due to structural vibration are recorded, the shock recorder can be mounted using
vibration isolators. The shock recorder manufacturer might provide guidance how to mount their shock
recorders using vibration isolation.
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8) The mounting orientation is irrelevant but should be recorded. Photos of the mounted shock recorders are
recommended for recording the mounting location, method, and orientation of the shock recorders.
9) The mounting location should be “rigid”, preferably near the corner of three intersecting surfaces. “Rigid”
means that the natural frequency of the mounting location lies outside the measuring band of the shock
recorder. “Rigid” also means that the mounting location lies at or near a node of the standing wave in the
transformer structure.
10) A “rigid” location is important and location rigidity takes priority over the exact alignment with the longitudinal
centre line or over a perfect diagonal location.
11) Shock recorders should be mounted to the transformer with a cover protecting from direct impact.
12) Shock recorders should be accessible for downloading data without removing the shock recorder.
FIGURE 25 - RECOMMENDED AND ALTERNATIVE MOUNTING LOCATIONS FOR TWO SHOCK RECORDERS ON TRANSFORMER TANK
FIGURE 26 - CONNECTION DETAILS OF SHOCK RECORDER TO TRANSFORMER TANK
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FIGURE 27 - RECOMMENDED MOUNTING LOCATION (IN GREEN) FOR SHOCK RECORDER

(AT INTERSECTION OF THREE PLANES AND PROXIMATE OF THE TRANSFORMERCENTRE LINE)
9.2.4 General Procedures using Shock Recorders

Recommendations for the general procedure of using electronic shock recorders are listed.
1) Authorized/trained personal should program, handle and analyse shock recorders and shock recorder data.
2) Use new batteries for each transport.
3) Synchronise the internal clocks of the shock recorders for each transport.
4) Check the shock recorder and the settings after programming before mounting to transformer.
5) Shock recorder should not start before it is mounted to the transformer.
6) Check that the shock recorder is running before start of the journey.
7) Shock recorder should be stopped before it is removed from the transformer.
8) Shock recorder memory must not be erased before the data is proven complete and properly stored.
9) Stored data should be easy accessible with recognizable file name backed up.
10) Note any irregularities concerning the shock recorders. Noting battery failure, memory full, removal and
remounting, reprogramming, accidental hits etc., will help analysis and improve procedures.
9.2.5 Analysis of Shock Recorder Data

Recommended procedures for analysing shock recorder data are listed below:
1) Initially check the programming of the shock recorder.

2) Shock recorder start time should be checked with the known time and date for mounting and removing of the
recorder as well as with the start and finish of transport.
3) All recorded acceleration-time histories during transport should be analysed.
4) For each acceleration-time history, analyse the frequencies, peak acceleration and change in velocity.
5) Analyses of the frequencies allows events with high frequency vibrations to be rejected as false readings
and provides information to turn noisy unrecognizable vibration into recognizable low frequency shocks.
6) If both the peak acceleration and the change in velocity exceed predefined limits, the transformer to be
checked with extra care. The recommended checks include internal inspection, core insulation resistance
test and an optional FRA test.
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9.2.6 Additional Notes about Shock Recorder

Additional notes regarding shock recorders are listed:
1) Acceleration-time histories with low change in velocity and especially the data not recorded by the others
shock recorders are likely to be caused by structural vibrations within the transformer tank. Such events are
normally identified with exceptionally high peak accelerations.
2) Shock recorders are not damage meters. The recorded data is indicative of unexpected transport events
including events with the potential to cause damage.
3) Shock recorders neither predict nor exclude transport damage and certainly do not indicate the extent of any
damage.
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10 Shock Recorder Application and Data Interpretation

There is a widely spread opinion that reading and interpreting shock recorder data and applying defined criteria will
give a clear indication for transport damage. Unfortunately, this is not always possible due to the numerous
components used in the mechanical construction of the transformer.
Structural analysis could be applied for rigid components and would allow calculating maximum permissible energy
content of shocks acting on the transformer during transport. This chapter explains how to consider e.g. the support
structure between tank and active part. Limiting curves for each transport direction could be derived and compared
against the energy of recorded shocks. Explanations are given on how to determine the energy content of a shock.
However, a transformer does not only consist of rigid structural parts (single blocks) but also of systems with hundreds
or thousands of single pieces. Therefore simulation results may not cover all necessary parameters to be considered.
This is in particular valid for single core sheets, core packages or windings with all their insulation components.
Hence, design rules based on empirical data are common as an addition to structural analysis and could be discussed
during the design review.
Main purpose of the use of shock recorders is to obtain an indication on whether something unusual has happened
during transportation. In this case energy limits need to be defined to decide if an in-tank active part inspection or
other measures are necessary.
10.1 Introduction to Limiting Curves

Each transformer has a number of main directions. These main directions are the axes along which the main mass
of the transformer is supported. The number and orientation of the main directions are thus defined by the design of
the support structure of this largest mass the active part.
For example, a section of structural components support the active part in the longitudinal direction. A different set
of components arrests shocks in the lateral direction. A last set of components takes care of vertical shocks. In such
case the transport direction, lateral and vertical directions are the three main directions. This means that for each of
three directions a limiting curve should be defined. This situation is illustrated on the left of Figure 28.
For other configurations, a certain set of components can take care of vertical shocks and a different set arrests
horizontal shocks as is illustrated on the right of Figure 28. In such case there are only two main directions and only
two limiting curves necessary.
FIGURE 28: LEFT: ILLUSTRATION OF SEPARATE SUPPORTS IN LONGITUDINAL AND LATERAL DIRECTION, RESULTING IN THREE MAIN DIRECTIONS –
RIGHT: ILLUSTRATION OF PINNED SUPPORT WORKING EQUALLY WELL IN EACH HORIZONTAL DIRECTION, RESULTING IN TWO MAIN DIRECTIONS
In case more than one active part is installed inside a single tank, each active part will have its own set of main
directions. The main directions of each active part are not necessarily the same!
In another case, it can happen that other components of the transformer cannot be regarded as a solid mass. If that
happens, these other components can justify the need for additional main directions.
A shock recorder does not need to be installed according to the main directions. However, the measured shock
recorder results (the three directions measured) must be resolved according to the main directions of the transformer
before analysing them. It is therefore of high importance that the position of the shock recorders are indicated on the
transport drawing.
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A limit curve needs to be derived for each main direction to allow interpretation of shock recorder measurement
results. These limit curves should be based on the design characteristics of the support structures of the important
masses in the individual transformer in that direction. For sake of simplicity it is advised for a manufacturer to design
all transformers according to the same minimum limit for a given main direction of the transformer and transport
method.
Examples of limiting curves of different suppliers in different directions can be seen in Figure 29. Design changes
can be applied depending on transport mode. However, these design difference for specific transport modes are not
shown in these presented limiting curves. Only supplier 10 makes a distinction between the different modes of
transport. The limits from this supplier are based on a considerable amount of transport experience, and clearly
show the influence of the selected transport mode.
Occurrence of shocks above these stipulated limits are a reason for concern. However, a first element which must
be noted is that this is not a direct indication of damage to the transformer! In case such high energy containing
shocks are registered, the transformer must be inspected according to the guidelines of the manufacturer. It is
strongly recommended that this inspection is done together with representatives of both the transformer manufacturer
and customer.
A second element which must be kept in mind is the fact that these limiting curves do not cover all possible events
which could occur during transport and that might have caused damage to the transformer. It only gives an indication
whether unusual severe transport shocks have happened during transport.
Other potential dangerous transport phenomena such as vibrations are not covered in this criterion. For example,
most vibrations will fall outside registration limits for shock loads because shock recorders only look at a very limited
number of cycles of the vibration. However, as several real-life examples have shown, vibrations can cause serious
damage to a transformer due to the large number of cycles. Unfortunately, knowledge of vibrations is at present not
sufficient to propose a usable limiting curve for vibrations.
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A) Transport direction B) Vertical direction
C) Lateral direction
FIGURE 29 – BOUNDRIES OF ACCEPTABLE SHOCKC DURINGS TRANSPORT AS GIVEN BY DIFFERENT TRANSFORMER MANUFACTURERES. LIMITS ARE
SHOWN SEPARATELY FOR A) TRANSPORT DIRECTION, B) VERTICAL DIRECTION AND C) LATERAL DIRECTION
The last element which must be kept in mind is that a shock recorder always has a certain recording window. This
is defined partially by the shock recorder specifications and partially by the pre-settings used transport measurement.
The registration window resulting from the pre-settings recommended in Section 9.2.2: “Settings of the shock
recorder” is illustrated in Figure 30.
1) Shocks below and to the left of this registration window will not be recorded. These shocks are below the
fixed or programmed minimal shock duration (to the left) or these shocks are below the programmed
recording threshold (below). This means that most vibrations will not be recorded by this programmed
setting. In fact, the selected settings are chosen in such a way that vibrations are not recorded! This is done
because the large number of vibration cycles would easily drain the battery of the recorder and overflow its
memory banks.
2) Shocks above this registration window will be registered with a truncated acceleration value. In
measurements this will be visible by a straight horizontal line at the maximal registered acceleration. This
will cause an underestimation of the shock energy however a reasonable correction can be made while
studying the measurement data.
3) Shocks to the right of this registration window are below the frequency band of the shock recorder and
therefore will not be registered at all. This is why shock recorders have little purpose during sea transport
when trying to monitor the low frequency (<1 Hz) rolling of the ship. These kinds of motions are generally
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recorded by an altogether different type of accelerometer than the ones commonly used to monitor
transformer transport.
FIGURE 30: ILLUSTRATION OF REGISTRATION WINDOW OF A TYPICAL SHOCK RECORDER WITH SETTINGS AS DESCRIBED IN SECTION 9.2.2 ”SETTINGS
OF THE SHOCK RECORDER”. LEFT: THE REGISTRATION WINDOW IS PLOTTED FOR REFERENCE ON TOP OF THE SUPPLIER BOUNDARIES OF
ACCEPTABLE SHOCKS DURING TRANSPORT IN TRANSPORT DIRECTION. RIGHT: THE REGISTRATION WINDOW WITH INDICATION OF THE REASON
WHY REGIONS OUTSIDE THE WINDOW ARE IGNORED
10.2 Limiting Curves

A limiting criterion considering the comments of the previous section could have the shape shown in Figure 31. This
curve is composed of two sections: An angled section as described in section 10.2.1 and a horizontal section as
described in section 10.2.2, Shocks occurring above this limiting curve are a reason for concern.
FIGURE 31: PROPOSED SHAPE OF INDICATIVE CURVE FOR MAXIMAL ALLOWED ENERGY CONTENT OF TRANSPORT SHOCKS
10.2.1 Maximum Energy Content (Angled Line)

The energy content of the shock is one of the most defining aspects that define whether a shock can cause damage
or not. In a reference system which moves at the initial velocity of the transformer, this energy content of a shock
can be defined as:
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐸(𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
𝑒(𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = = ∫ 𝑎(𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑎(𝑡) ∙ 𝑣(𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑡 < 𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥
𝑀𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑜
0 0
The energy content of each shock needs to be smaller than the allowed limit E Max. When this limit is plotted on a
shock-duration/acceleration graph with double logarithmic scales it becomes an angled line.
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Derivation of this formula and its limitations are explained in detail in Annex 1 – Derivation of Shock Limiting Curves.
In summary these are:
1) Information of the shape of the shock is not retained in an acceleration-time plot. This creates the need to
take the energy limit belonging to the worst occurring shock shape and a certain grey zone above the limit.
In this grey zone, the damage potential of a shock increases when the shape of the actual shock is closer to
the worst case shock shape.
2) This energy limit is derived assuming the support structure is the weakest element of the active part. All
other components must be at least as strong as the support structure. If one of the other components is the
weakest element, part of the limiting curves will have to be based on empirical values. As it is impossible to
define an accurate EMax theoretically for a complex system like the windings or the core due to the many
influencing elements such as tolerances, temperature, residual moisture (after final drying or after ageing in
service), etc.
3) The allowable limit can be different for measurements on the active part and for measurements on the tank.
Example measurements as shown in Annex7 show that resulting shocks on the active part can be
significantly reduced compared to the initiating shock on the tank. However, as this difference depends highly
on the used fixation system and is expected to be small for most of the commonly used fixation systems, it
is recommended to use the most limiting curve
More advanced representations such as pseudo velocity shock spectrum (PVSS) could be used to include the
effect of the shape of the shocks. Although this kind of advanced method would be a strong improvement, they are
not yet generally known and using them would require a certain amount of training to all involved persons. Also,
the options to produce this kind of graphical representations are not yet available in the software tools that
accompany present shock recorders.
10.2.2 Maximum Static Acceleration (Horizontal Line)

The support structure of the active part will be able to sustain shocks with a certain maximum acceleration regardless
of the shock duration. This is shown by the horizontal part of the limiting curve.
10.3 Interpretation of Measured Shocks

The very start of any interpretation of measurements is to clean up the recorded data. Events like impacts of sling
chains on the recorder or impossible events like a shock of 4 g for 4 s caused by measurement errors need to be
removed.
The second step is to transform the values along the axes of the recorder to values along the main directions of the
support structure of the active part(s) of the transformer. A shock can be represented by a special vector. The values
recorded are only the scalars of this vector along the axes of the recorder. With some basic vector calculations,
these can be recalculated towards the scalars of the same vector along the main directions of the support structure.
The next step is to define the energy content of each shock or the velocity change caused by each shock for each
main direction. Most recent revisions of shock recorder software contain this as a standard feature however
calculation is done according to the axes of the shock recorder! In case the shock recorder could not be mounted
according to the main directions of the support structure, this built in calculation can’t be used!
A second point of caution is the definition of a shock. To prevent false recordings and save energy, an electronic
recorder will only start measuring when a certain threshold is crossed and stops recording after a fixed time period.
This means a small part at the start is not registered and the last part of a shock with duration above the recording
period is truncated. On top of that, the definition of the shock used during the calculation can also cause removal of
some parts of the shock. The size of these neglected data depends on the exact settings of the device and software
implementation. As this reduces the measured energy in the shock as illustrated in Figure 31, care should be taken
that these neglected parts are really negligible! The definition used to define the shock can therefore lead to minor
differences between different programs and analyses. The following are examples of different definitions of the
shock:
1) DIN EN 15433-6 [44]: “The shock duration … is defined as the duration at which the acceleration … is equal
to or greater than 10 % of the peak value …”.
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2) Moni Log manual [45]: “The shock duration (t) is the period of time during which the permanently set hardware
threshold (approx. 3 % of the measuring range) is exceeded on at least one channel.”
3) Manual analysis: The shock duration is taken as the period during which the first cycle of the shock is
larger/below 0.
FIGURE 32 – ILLUSTRATION OF THE NEGLECTED PART OF THE SHOCK ENERGY CONTEND
Based on years of experience, a velocity change of over 1 m/s in any direction is found to be uncommon. Even
though the transformer is capable of sustaining shocks with larger changes of velocity, it is considered as a wise
precaution to inspect the transformer when shocks with a change of velocity above this value have occurred.
However, the manufacturer of the transformer can specify a higher or lower inspection limit depending on their design
and transport practices. The limit corresponding to a velocity change of 1m/s is shown on top of the registration
window of the recorder in Figure 30. The conversion from this change of velocity to a line of maximal energy content
is given in Annex 4 - Convert Maximal Velocity Change to Maximal Energy Content”.
Figure 33. By analysing this shock by hand, it can be seen that this shock is composed of different triangular peaks.
The energy content of each peak needs to be calculated separately and checked with the criterion applicable for the
transported transformer. After fitting a triangular shape, the maximum amplitude of the indicated peak can be
estimated as 1,1 g and the duration is 75 ms.
Plotting 𝑔𝑀𝑎𝑥 and t in the graph with the limiting curve allows an easy visual comparison between shock and limit.
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FIGURE 33: TIME – ACCELERATION CURVE OF A MEASURED SHOCK. THE DURATION OF THE SHOCK IS TRUNCATED AT 10% OF THE PEAK VALUE
An example of a recorded shock is also presented in Annex 8. This annex gives a detailed example of shock recorder
data analysis. It presents a real world incidents that provide a lot of information of what SR’s will measure during
such incidents, and how to interpret the information.
10.4 Updating of Design Limits

One present industry practice is to design and calculate the support structure of the active part for a static maximal
acceleration. This sound practice is founded on the fact that designing for a higher static acceleration also increases
the withstand capability for shock loads. This approach allows limiting design time and costs due to its simplicity
while using values that can be agreed upon with the customer.
The used design limits are based on experience and concrete information about the design and transport modes
which will be used. Better and improved static design limits can be derived from measurements and damage cases.
Each damage case needs to be investigated in detail and the following questions must be answered:
1) Were there unacceptable shock loads, which caused damage during transport?
2) Was there a violation of the design rules?
3) Did incidents occur which could not been taken in account?
Only when the answer to each and all these questions is “no”, the design limit should be reviewed and modified.
Otherwise different preventive actions are more appropriate.
For example, if the damage is caused by the rolling motion in sea transport without exceeding any limit for transport
loads, then increasing the design limit does not help. A different design approach must be taken, which prevents
components from creeping due to the slow rocking motion.
All necessary steps should be taken to improve knowledge of transport loads. This means using shock recorders
with the option to log basic parameters of occurring vibrations without draining the battery of the recorder and using
shock recorders with an additional tilt and roll sensor for sea transport. This additional knowledge will allow defining
a similar design limit for vibrations.
A good starting point for this design limit for all transport modes excluding railway is to calculate with a static
acceleration of 1 g in all directions with maximal stresses below yield strength of the material. For railway transport,
a static acceleration of 2 g in travel direction should be taken. Based on more and better information, or based on
experience and design knowledge or the geographic location of the railway, this design limit should be increased or
reduced as needed.
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10.5 Design Review Guidelines

During a design review, the acceptable limits for transport loads must be stated by the manufacturer in terms of
maximum velocity change caused by mechanical loads or maximum energy content of these mechanical loads.
These limits should be given for each main direction of the transformer. A limit of maximum energy content could,
for example, be shown as a graph indicating the different limiting combinations of maximal g-value of the shock and
corresponding duration of the shock.
A second item to validate during a design review is the type of impact recorder to be used. A shock recorder must
be able record accelerations versus time. The consequence of this is that all mechanical shock recorders shouldn’t
be used anymore and are considered obsolete. Electronic type shock recorders must be verified to have the desired
capability and characteristics!
The customer should ask the manufacturer about his experience and design practices to ensure the transformer can
withstand the stresses, which might occur during transportation. The design criteria and measures to be taken may
depend on transformer weight, transport modes, load breaks, special handling in certain countries, assembly status
of transformer and different transformer concepts.
The following list shows important components of the transformer which should be discussed during a design review
about transport of the transformer. For each of these components, it should be clear how the manufacture ensures
that these components are suited for the intended transport:
1) How the core laminations are clamped:

a) At the connections between yokes and limbs.
b) In the limbs: banding, gluing or other methods
c) In the yokes: number and position of yoke bolts, bandings or other fixing elements.
d) Securing of core packages against sliding: retaining bolts, bands or other fixing methods.
2) Discuss the coupling between transformer active part and transformer tank/cover:
a. How is the coupling made (construction, material, insulation).
b. What is the number of support devices at top.
c. What is the number of support devices at bottom.
3) Review the assembly of parts outside the winding clamping plates e.g.:
a) Insulation parts or strips for winding lead exits.
b) Loose ends of leads to be connected to bushings.
c) High voltage tubes, cables.
d) Electrical shields for bushings.
4) Review assembly of other components, e.g:
a) Series reactors.
b) Preventive autotransformer.
c) CT support structure.
d) Saturable reactors.
e) Varistors (ZnOs).
5) Discuss temporary transport support structures which must be removed before commissioning.
6) Will the transformer be transported with one or more of the following components assembled:
a) Bushings.
b) Conservator.
c) Cable end sealing.
d) Cooling equipment.
7) When the transformer is transported oil or partial oil filled, review oil sloshing effect and prevention.
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11 Indication of Centre of Gravity
11.1 Requirements for the Graphical Symbol to indicate the CoG

The transformer transport mass must be optimum, and economical for the transport. Accessories that could be
damaged by transport or that exceed the transport dimensions are also removed. This mean large transformer are
normally transported filled with dry gas, and for most transformers external components such as radiators,
conservators and bushings are disassembled and transported separately. The consequence of this is that the CoG
of the transformer changes during these different transformer situations.
11.1.1 Transformer Assembly Conditions

The different possible transformer assembly situations are:
1) Transformer without oil and all external components removed typical transport condition for large power
transformers.
2) Transformer with oil, but all external components removed typical transport condition for smaller power
transformers which can still be transported with standard means when the oil is still inside the tank.
3) Transformer without oil with all external components assembled. On site situation when a large transformer
is assembled next to its final location, but with oil is too heavy to move the final meters.
4) Transformer oil filled with all external components assembled. The working condition of the transformer.
Existing standards including IEC 60417 and ISO 7000 each give one standard symbol to indicate the CoG. Using
the symbol from one of these standards could be an option provided the symbol is repositioned according to the state
of the transformer. In practice, this will offer too large a risk of human error since in many transport situations, the
position of the symbol would not be changed according to a new situation.
11.1.2 Centre of Gravity Symbol Characteristics

A good symbol to indicate a power transformer’s Centre of Gravity (CoG) should include characteristics identified in
the following list. Examples of symbols according to these guidelines are given in Section 11.5.
1) The option should indicate on which axes the symbol is placed. In many cases, the symbol cannot be placed
on the exact point of the CoG due to accessories or stiffeners. In such case, two separate symbols must be
used; one symbol on the vertical axis and one symbol on the horizontal axis.
2) The symbol should be dissimilar to indicate different situations to allow easy indication of the CoG during
various condition of the transformer.
3) Each of the symbols should be fixed to the tank such that to prevent one of the symbols from being placed
at the wrong position. For example, each of the symbols can be fixed to the tank with a different pattern of
bolts. Another approach would be to use an index plate: a plate large enough to cover the position of all
CoG’s. Each respectable CoG will then be place at the correct position on its dedicated index plate.
4) The symbol should show all necessary information in a graphical way to reduce language issues. Text on or
around the symbols should be optional and not strictly required when interpreting the meaning of the symbol.
11.1.3 Centre of Gravity Symbol usage

This symbol should be used in a way, which fulfils the usage requirements given in the following list.
1) Both vertical and horizontal axes of the CoG must be indicated. Either with one or two separate symbols.
2) The CoG must be indicated, at least on the tank long and short side. Preferably on all four sides.
3) The symbol should be weather proof and applied in a weather proof manner to ensure that the symbol is still
readable and attached to the transformer at the end of the transformer lifetime. The preferred method for
fixing a CoG indication is to use corrosion resistant bolts or threaded studs and holes as glue might loosen
over time.
4) The symbol should be visible during transport. This means it must be applied to the main tank as well as the
outermost layer of packaging material (or transparent packaging material should be used). The symbol
should not be hidden by other components such as radiators. For safety, it should always be added on the
tank as well in case the packaging material gets damaged or is accidentally removed too soon.
5) Provisions should be made to ensure that only one CoG is indicated on the tank at the same time. For
example during transport only the CoG indication for that situation should be visible on the tank. The other
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CoG indications should be stored in a pocket in the control cabinet or fixed on their appropriate place turned
with their symbol side towards the tank wall.
6) The indication for the CoG which is visible should be replaced depending on the condition of the transformer.
Instructions to perform any action which changes the CoG should include the step to change the CoG symbol
to the correct symbol for the new situation. People working with the transformer should also be warned to
verify that the correct CoG indication is placed on the transformer before start of handlings of the transformer
which require the location of the CoG.
Annex 10 shows not recommended examples of the CoG and centre line which do not follow these guidelines, and
Annex 11 - Not recommended Examples to indicate a Centre Line.
11.2 Recommendation for respecting the CoG indication

The final recommendations for indicating the CoG are listed in the following guidelines.
1) Regardless of the intentions include with the order of the transformer, CoG symbols for all four possible
transport situations should be provided. This to prepare the transformer for unforeseen moves in the future.
2) The calculated position of the CoG and total weight of the transformer should be validated by measurements
as shown in Section 11.1.3: “Weighing of the Transformer”.
3) On the different drawings, only the applicable CoG for the relevant configuration should be indicated. For
example, on the transport drawing showing the transformer in transport configuration, only the CoG of
transport should be shown. On the outline drawing showing the transformer in fully assembled condition,
only the CoG of this fully assembled position should be shown.
4) Information about the location of all 4 CoG’s should be given on the drawings. Preferably on four separate
drawings: three dedicated transport drawings and one outline drawing showing the fully assembled oil filled
condition.
5) The indication of the CoG is a safety aspect during transport. Therefore the transporter needs to have the
required information to verify that the symbol applied to the transformer is put at the correct location. One
possible method would be to provide the transporter with the transport drawing of the state in which the
transformer must be moved.
11.3 Indication of the Centre Line

In case a centre line is used as a reference to indicate
important features on the transformer, this centre line
should also be indicated on the tank. This symbol should
be made and applied in a similar way as the symbol plate
for the centre of gravity.
Care should be taken to use only one centreline in each

plane for a given transformer and to ensure that the
centreline symbol can’t be mistaken for the CoG symbol.
A good example of an indication of a centreline is shown
Photo 47.
PHOTO 47 - GOOD EXAMPLE OF INDICATION OF A CENTRELINE
11.4 Indication of the CoG of a Package of Transformer Components

Many transformer components for a large power
transformer are typically sent in separate packages. The
CoG of each of these packages does not changing during
the transport. At the final destination, the packages will
be unpacked and the components assembled on the
FIGURE 34 - COG AS PER ISO 7000:2012. transformer. Therefore, for these packages, one of the
existing symbols to indicate a CoG from IEC 60417 or
ISO 7000:2012 [16.1] is perfectly suitable and should be
used for these packages of transformer components.
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These symbols should be applied visibly on the outer

layer of the packaging using a method which is strong
enough to remain on its place till well after the end of the
transformer transport.
FIGURE 35 - COG AS PER IEC 60417
11.5 Example of Graphical Symbols to Indicate the Different CoG’s

The symbols given in this Annex 10 are a consistent set that indicates the different CoG of the transformer in an
unambiguous way. The different guidelines given in chapter 11.1 are implemented in these symbols. The given
symbols should be printed/etched on a metal plate, which is fixed by bolts or nuts and treaded rods. The symbol
size should be minimal 10 cm.
This recommended set, or a similar set following the guidelines from chapter 11.1 should be added to the well-known
transformer standard IEC60076-1: “Power Transformers – Part1: General”.
11.5.1 CoG for Transport without Oil

This set of symbols is to be used when the transformer tank is transported without oil and with all accessories
removed. This symbol will have to be used for almost all of the transports of large power transformers. Only the
smallest power transformers can be transported with oil. In this last case, this symbol will not be used.
These symbols should be engraved and filled with colour RAL 9005 (RGB 010-010-010, HEX #0A0A0A) on a
corrosion resistant metal sheet of min 2 mm thickness and fixed to the transformer with corrosion resistant bolts.
FIGURE 36 - COG WHILE TRANSFORMER IS TRANSPORTED WITHOUT OIL. LEFT: SYMBOL PLACED ON TWO AXIS OF COG - CENTRE: SYMBOL PLACED
ON HORIZONTAL AXIS OF COG ONLY - RIGHT: SYMBOL PLACED ON VERTICAL AXIS OF COG ONLY
11.5.2 CoG for Transport with Oil

This set of symbols is to be used when the transformer tank is transported with oil and with all accessories removed.
This symbol will mostly be used for the smallest power transformers which can be transported with oil.
For larger power transformers this set of symbols could be required in case the transformer needs to be oil filled in
the vicinity, but not on its final destination. This situation can occur when the vacuum filling installation can’t reach
the transformer on its final destination. In such case the transformer can be oil filled as close as possible near this
final destination and next transported oil filled to this final destination.
These symbols should be engraved and filled with colour RAL 9005 (RGB 010-010-010, HEX #0A0A0A) on a
corrosion resistant metal sheet of min 2 mm thickness and fixed with corrosion resistant bolts to the transformer.
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FIGURE 37 - COG WHILE TRANSFORMER IS TRANSPORTED WHILE ALREADY FILLED WITH OIL. LEFT: SYMBOL PLACED ON TWO AXES OF COG - CENTRE:
SYMBOL PLACED ON HORIZONTAL AXIS OF COG ONLY - RIGHT: SYMBOL PLACED ON VERTICAL AXIS OF COG ONLY
11.5.3 CoG for Transport Assembled without Oil

This set of symbols is to be used when the transformer tank is transported without oil and with all accessories like
radiators assembled. This situation can for example occur when the transformer is assembled next to its final bay
and oil filling would make the unit too heavy to move.
These symbols should be engraved and filled with colour RAL 3026 (RGB 255-000-000, HEX #FF0000) on a
FIGURE 38 - COG WHILE TRANSFORMER IS FULLY ASSEMBLED BUT NOT (YET) FILLED WITH OIL. LEFT: SYMBOL PLACED ON TWO AXES OF COG -
CENTRE: SYMBOL PLACED ON HORIZONTAL AXIS OF COG ONLY - RIGHT: SYMBOL PLACED ON VERTICAL AXIS OF COG ONLY
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11.5.4 CoG when in Operation

This set of symbols is to be used when the transformer is in its fully-assembled, oil-filled working condition: All
accessories installed and oil filled. This set is typically used when the transformer is in its final position of operation.
The smallest power transformers could be transported in working condition. In such case, this symbol should also
be used during the initial transport.
These symbols should be engraved and filled with colour RAL 3026 (RGB 255-000-000, HEX #FF0000) on a
FIGURE 39 - COG WHILE TRANSFORMER IS IN OPERATION. LEFT: SYMBOL PLACED ON TWO AXES OF COG - CENTRE: SYMBOL PLACED ON
HORIZONTAL AXIS OF COG ONLY - RIGHT: SYMBOL PLACED ON VERTICAL AXIS OF COG ONLY
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12 TRANSPORTATION PROCESS
12.1 International regulations on transportation – Incoterms® rules

12.1.1 Introduction to Incoterms® rules
Incoterms® rules or international commercial terms are a trademark of the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)
and are series of international trade terms, published by ICC and widely used in international commercial
transactions.
The Incoterms rules ® describe the rights and obligations, the risks and responsibilities for both purchaser(*) and
seller when it comes to delivery of goods.
In the Incoterms® 2010 the word buyer is used. In this guide the WG have decided to use the term purchaser only.
The first version was introduced in 1936 and the latest edition (at time of writing) dates from 2010.
12.1.2 Introduction to Incoterms® 2010 rules

The 11 Incoterms® 2010 rules are structured in two distinct groups:
1) Rules for any mode or modes of transport

EXW: Ex-Works
FCA : Free Carrier
CPT: Carriage Paid To
CIP: Carriage and Insurance Paid to
DAT: Delivered At Terminal (new rule)
DAP: Delivered At Place (new rule)
DDP: Delivered Duty Paid
2) Rules for sea and inland waterway transport
FAS: Free Alongside Ship
FOB: Free On Board
CFR: Cost and Freight
CIF: Cost Insurance and Freight
(*) In the Incoterms® 2010 the term “ buyer” is used. In this guide the WG have decided to use the term “purchaser” only.
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FIGURE 40 INCOTERMS® 2010 RULES - THEIR BORDERLINES AND LIMITATIONS
Note: Incoterms® is a registered trademark of the International Chamber of Commerce. (www.iccwbo.org/products-and-services/trade-

facilitation/incoterms-2010/the-incoterms-rules)
12.1.3 Incoterms® 2010 rules and power transformers

In the following sections a brief explanation of the 11 actual rules is given, and the consequences for power
transformer transportation projects are discussed.
Transporting power transformers is very complex due to its often extreme dimensions.
Transformer width, height, and/or weight make transportation ‘projects’ rather complex. Normally the length of
transformers does not cause problems, but the overall length of the transporter can do so.
The dimensions have an important influence on the following activities:
1) The design of the transport plan (see paragraph 12.4 for details)
2) (Un)Loading of machine on/from truck/wagon/vessel
3) Requirement of special road permits or rail clearance
4) Ramp capacity of barge, vessels, and terminals
5) Lashing/stowage/dunnage of truck/wagon/vessel
6) Liner terms (responsibility of loading and discharge of vessels)
As a consequence some of the Incoterms® 2010 rules are not suitable for transport power transformers while special
attention is required for some others.
12.1.4 Ex-Works (EXW)

The seller has very limited responsibilities for any EXW sales. In fact, all seller has to do, is to place the goods at
the disposal of the purchaser at the seller’s premises (or other named place) not cleared for export and not loaded
on any collecting vehicle.
It is generally considered that EXW should be used only for domestic sales, not for international sales.
The EXW rule should never be used for power transformers.
The reason is simple, it is (near) impossible that the selected carried is able to load the machine on the vehicle
without the aid of the equipment (and personnel) of the seller.
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Another potential problem is the proof of exporting the goods. The export activities are to be organized and paid
for by the purchaser, but the seller must be able to proof the exportation for instance to justify an invoice without a
sales tax like Value Added Tax. The seller will have to ask the purchaser to provide him with proof of exportation.
The customs legislation in almost every country ALWAYS declares the seller as responsible party for export
customs activities, whatever the contract or Incoterms® rules says.
Finally if a Letter of Credit is used, it is common that the bank requires providing original way bills. Seller might find
it difficult to obtain this from the purchaser for an EXW-sale.
Conclusion: EXW should be avoided for power transformers.
12.1.5 Free Carrier (FCA)

Free Carrier means that the seller delivers the goods, cleared for export, to the carrier nominated by the purchaser
at the named place.
The chosen place has an impact on the obligations of handling and unloading the goods at that place:
 If delivery occurs at the seller’s premises, the seller is responsible for loading.
 If delivery occurs at any other place, the seller is NOT responsible for unloading.
The first complication is the use of the word ‘delivery’. Under ICC terminology, there is a distinct but very important
difference between place of delivery and place of destination. These two terms that must never be mixed up:
 The place of destination is the place to where the transformer is transported to.
 The place of delivery is the place where transfer of risk from seller to purchaser occurs.
For transformers, the loading and unloading activities are often very expensive and of vital importance to ensure a
safe expedition.
12.1.5.1 FCA Plant (Seller’s Premises)

Compared to EXW, this is already an improvement as now the seller is obliged to load the goods on the vehicle of
the carrier nominated by the purchaser; however, there are still two possible traps:
1. Export clearance documentation
The seller must obtain, at purchasers own risk and expense, any export license(s) and carry out all customs
formalities necessary for the export of the goods.
In reality, often the carrier (who is nominated by purchaser) executes all export formalities, even if this is against the
Incoterms® rules responsibilities. In those cases, the seller has the obligation to obtain the proof of export clearance
from the carrier as otherwise the files are incomplete which can be very costly if the customs/tax department decides
to audit the seller. However, the carrier has no obligation to provide this document to the seller as there is no
customer/client relationship between seller and carrier.
There is also a serious commercial risk; often a transport invoice or an invoice based on a transfer price is used for
the export customs value. These values are often (much) lower than the sales price. Imagine if the carrier would
hand this value to the purchaser!
2. Stowage/lashing of the goods
As mentioned above, the Incoterms® 2010 rules deal with the parties’ obligations for stowage in containers, but of
course (large) power transformers are not shipped in containers. Therefore only the ‘contract of carriage’ stipulates
the responsibilities; therefore it advised that the parties deal with this in the sale contract.
For road transport it is necessary to look at the CMR rules [58]
However, these rules do not provide a solution either. They do not specify which party is responsible for loading,
discharge or stowage. The parties have to reach an agreement themselves. In France for instance, this is ‘translated’
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as follows: if the undividable load is 3 tonnes or less, it is the carrier’s responsibility. If the load is above 3 tonnes, it
is the shipper’s responsibility (or the responsibility of the ‘loading place’ if this is not at shipper).
And in Belgium it is also very clear: the transport company is always responsible for lashing/stowage unless the
parties have agreed differently.
For a FCA sale, the carrier is usually nominated by the purchaser. (It is possible that on request of the purchaser, or
if the purchaser does not give transport instructions in due time, the seller may contract for carriage on usual terms
at the purchaser’s risk and expense).
In practice it happens regularly that the nominated carrier does not bring the right number of chains, or brings the
wrong kind of chains, or brings chains in a bad state. To avoid that the seller must stop the shipment from departure,
it is recommended that the seller sends its lashing procedures to the purchaser.
12.1.5.2 FCA – other Locations

This is technically possible, but should be avoided for transformers as:
 The same risks apply as for FCA plant.

 The accsess to, the surface at, and the weight withstandability of the named place must be checked.
 Any additional load break is highly undesirable as it leads to extra costs and reflects a serious increase of
risk.
The process is then:
1. The seller nominates a carrier.

2. The seller loads the transformer on a truck (or wagon) provided by carrier.
3. The carrier drives the transformer to the named place.
At the named place the carrier unlashes the transformer. Here ends the seller’s responsibilities because the seller
only has to place the transformer at the disposal of the carrier or another person nominated by the purchaser on the
seller’s means of transport ready for unloading. So, as a consequence the purchaser must nominate a carrier that
unloads the truck/wagon. And of course the purchaser must organize the onward transport including loading,
securing etc.
These unloading and reloading activities can take place at the same time but would require a planning by both parties
that matches. If for example, the truck chartered by purchaser is late, detention penalties for seller might be
applicable. Or even worse, additional handling and storage charges might be applicable, which will lead to high extra
costs for purchaser.
Conclusions FCA
1) Export clearance: seller should select a supplier for this important activity; do not leave this to carrier.
2) Lashing/securing: seller must have its own lashing procedures for each applicable model. Seller must send
these to the purchaser; whose carrier must take precaution and bring the necessary equipment in perfect
state (number and type of chains). Seller has the right to refuse to let go a vehicle if not lashed correctly;
however, this may lead to additional costs if the customer/carrier did not get the correct procedures
3) Avoid “FCA other locations” unless purchaser insists. Despite its inconveniences and risks it is still a better
alternative to FAS or FOB.
12.1.6 Carriage and Insurance Paid to (CIP) and Carriage Paid To (CPT)
CPT and CIP mean that the seller delivers the goods to the carrier nominated by the seller at an agreed place, and
that the seller must contract for and pay the costs of carriage necessary to bring the goods to the named place of
destination. For CIP, the seller also contracts for insurance cover against the purchaser’s risk (loss or damage) to
the goods during the carriage. Both require the seller to clear the goods for export and may be used for all modes
of transport including multimodal. They are widely used Incoterms® rules although little used for transformer
transport.
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Once again, the place of delivery place is where the risk is transferred from seller to purchaser while the place of
destination is the place where the transformer will be delivered physically. This means that the seller fulfils its
obligation to deliver when it hands the transformer over to the carrier and not when it reaches the place of destination,
or in even more simple wording, seller pays for transport but does not have the risk of transport. Very often the
purchaser misunderstands this and believes that it is the seller’s responsibility to deliver the transformer in good state
to the place of destination.
There is a trap linked to transformer transport; the discharge of the vehicle/wagon/ship at the named place of
destination can be very costly. These costs such as terminal handling charges, hiring lifting equipment etc. are for
the purchaser’s account unless the transport document makes it clear that these charges were for seller’s account
(this is extremely rare for a CIP/CPT sale).
Also, if the transformer is not off loaded on time, the seller can be held responsible for sharing demurrage or detention
charges. To avoid these additional costs, the sales contract should stipulate the responsibilities and costs for each
party (and especially for contingency and unexpected reasons).
The second trap is linked to insurance. When CIP is used, the seller is obliged to procure insurance for the benefit
of the purchaser. The carrier is in principle responsible for the arrival of the goods at their destination at normal speed,
undamaged, and without losses. However, this liability is limited through international conventions and through
national legislations and regulations. The principal rule is that carriers are responsible for loss caused by negligence.
Because of problems related to the burden of proof, this responsibility is sometimes considerably reduced and is also
very limited in terms of money.
Many owners of goods are under the delusion that if goods are lost or damaged during transport, this will be made
up or dealt with by the carrier. This is not the case. As a result, transformers are too often transported uninsured or
not sufficiently insured.
If the seller and purchaser have agreed on an Incoterms® rule, it is clear who has to bear the risk of any given leg of
transport. It is up to them to provide insurance cover for the risk they individually undertake.
When each party insures only for its own interest for its leg of transport, it could often be difficult, if not impossible, to
prove when and where the loss or damage occurred and which insurer has to indemnify for it. Tests at load breaks
or responsibility breaks are not absolute in determining where any damage occurred.
The best solution is to agree that one of the parties insures the entire transport, from seller’s premises up to the place
of destination. This is represented by the warehouse to warehouse cover clause, which is the best and least
expensive solution.
As seen above, owners of goods often refuse cargo insurance as they consider this unnecessary, pointing out that
the risk is sufficiently covered by the insurance company of the carrier or forwarder. They do not realize that this kind
of insurance only covers the damages/loss if they are able to proof the failure or negligence of the carrier or forwarder.
Liability insurance is not sufficient - cargo insurance is required.
Conclusions on CIP/CPT
1) CIP/CPT can be used for transformer transport.

2) For CIP, be vigilant on the insurance and check what your policy covers.
3) For purchasers, specify your insurance requirements to the seller to avoid serious problems.
4) Be vigilant who is responsible for organizing/paying the discharge activities at the place of destination.
12.1.7 Delivered at Terminal (DAT)

DAT means that the seller delivers the goods, once unloaded from the arriving means of transport, are placed at the
disposal of the purchaser at a named terminal at the named port or place of destination.
The term ‘Terminal’ includes any place, whether covered or not, such as a quay, warehouse, container yard or
rail/road or air cargo terminal. A terminal cannot simply be an open field as there must be organization of the space
for receiving goods.
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DAT requires the seller to clear for export where applicable but he has no obligation to clear the goods for import,
pay any import duty or execute any import customs activities.
The place of delivery and therefore the point where the risk is transferred is the named terminal.
DAT was introduced for the container business as in the previous rules, the unloading of the containers from the
vessels was not included. This ‘omission’ has now been repaired.
This new rule can be used for power transformers, in fact, it is a very good alternative to CIF-sales. Be careful since
it is not suitable if the place of destination is any other than a terminal. It is especially suitable for transformers if the
parties agree that the unloading of the transformers on a quay (or directly on to a vehicle on the quay) in the named
terminal is included. This depends mainly on the liner terms (see paragraph12.1.12).
If the discharge from vessel is NOT included, DAT should never be used.
There is one more point of attention; the unlashing of the transformer. It is possible that the machine is discharged
from the vessel with the lashing chains still at place. This is especially the case when the transformer is put on a
multiwheel trailer (on a ro/ro or on a multi purpose vessel). When applicable the sales contract should mention that
the unlashing is not included.
Conclusions on DAT
1) Can be used for transporting power transformers if:

2) The named place of destination is a quay in a seaport terminal.
3) The place of delivery is also at this quay.
4) The discharge from the vessel is included in the sale contract.
5) Be vigilant on unlashing activities.
6) Seller accepts revenue recognition when goods have arrived (often many weeks after departure date, impact
on quarterly sales figures).
12.1.8 Delivered at Place (DAP)

DAP means that the seller delivers when the goods are placed at the disposal of the purchaser on the arriving means
of transport ready for unloading at the named place of destination.
DAP requires the seller to clear for export where applicable but he has no obligation to clear the goods for import,
pay any import duty or execute any import customs activities.
The place of delivery and therefore the point where the risk is transferred is the place of destination.
The main difference with DAT is that under the DAP rule, any place of destination can be agreed on (in the country
of destination), such as job site, customer’s premises, etc.
As mentioned, the unloading is not included; however, if the seller incurs costs under its contract of carriage related
to unloading, the seller is not entitled to recover such costs from the purchaser unless otherwise agreed between the
parties. In other words, if both parties agree in the sales contract, ‘DAP unloaded named place of destination’
becomes a perfectly acceptable agreement.
Conclusions on DAP
1) It is a perfect rule for transformer sales if both parties want the seller to deliver the transformer at the seller’s
premise/site, loaded or unloaded but with the purchaser executing all customs import activities.
2) Same comments as for DAT: seller accepts revenue recognition when goods have arrived (often many weeks
after departure date, impact on quarterly sales figures).
3) The seller should check with its risk management team and/or its insurance company whether the policy
covers the complete voyage and of course what is covered.
4) Recommended wording: “DAP (cleared, (unloaded) at named site or foundation)”. For instance: “DAP
cleared and unloaded at Berlin xx substation”.
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12.1.9 Delivered Duty Paid (DDP)

Means that the seller delivers the goods when they have been placed at the disposal of the purchaser, cleared for
import on the arriving means of transport ready for unloading at the named place of destination.
The seller bears all the costs and risks involved in bringing the goods thereto, and has an obligation to clear the
goods not only for export but also for import. The seller must pay any duties for both export and import and to carry
out all customs activities. Duty includes the responsibility for and the risks of the carrying out of customs formalities,
customs duties, taxes (including VAT), and other charges. However, if the parties wish to exclude from the seller’s
obligations some of the costs payable upon import of the goods (such as VAT), this should be made clear by adding
explicit words to this effect in the contract of sale.
DDP represents the maximum obligation for the seller and therefore a minimum for the purchaser.
The seller accepts revenue recognition when goods have arrived (often many weeks after departure date, which can
impact on quarterly sales figures).
This rule should not be used if the seller is unable to directly or indirectly obtain the import license. If for instance,
both parties wish the purchaser to bear all risks and costs of import clearance, the DAP rule should be used.
For power transformers, DDP is widely used because of the complexity of the transportation. Therefore it is often
decided to leave this to the manufacturer as he knows best how to handle/lift/transport the transformers.
The unloading of the goods at the named place of destination is not included; however, as was seen with DAT, both
parties can agree that the seller organizes the unloading (in contract of carriage) and recovers its costs from
purchaser.
The term in the sales contract would then be: “DDP unloaded named place, Incoterms® 2010”.
The main risk is the obligation to organize and pay for the import customs activities/duties. These obligations can be
extremely complicated in some countries and their risks can easily be underestimated. The payable duties (especially
VAT) can be very high. Even more important, the DDP sale means that the seller is mentioned as importer on the
import customs declaration form and is therefore responsible for the import clearance. It does NOT mean that the
seller can ask a customs broker to clear in behalf of the purchaser, by using the VAT-number of the purchaser.
If the seller is the importing party, understand the consequences for revenue recognition in the importing country
such as payment of direct taxes. It is now even considered a domestic activity/sales, which might lead to loss of the
opportunity to refer to international law/arbitrage. This can be avoided if the seller sells first to a local daughter
company or agent, and then locally to customer.
Often customers are public companies with tax exemption; however, the exemption is only applicable if the purchaser
is officially importer of the goods. This would NOT be the case for a DDP sale. As a result seller might end up paying
for the taxes without any means of recovery. As a consequence, DDP should only be accepted by the manufacturer
(seller) if he or his forwarder understands perfectly the customs conditions in the country of destination. It is a clearly
a rule for specialists.
Conclusions DDP for power transformers
1) DDP should be avoided when possible as the customs/tax impact can be extremely important, even for an
internal sale in a single market like the European Union. There are better solutions such as DAP (cleared).
2) DDP should only be chosen if the seller knows precisely what it takes to accept and execute all import
customs responsibilities/obligations.
3) Seller and purchaser must agree beforehand whether unloading is included and whether VAT payments are
to be borne by seller. Without any prior agreement, unloading is not included and VAT payments are for the
seller.
4) The seller should check with its risk management team and/or its insurance company whether the policy
covers the complete voyage and of course what is covered (see also the chapter on Insurance).
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12.1.10 Free Alongside Ship (FAS)

FAS means that the seller delivers when the goods are placed alongside the vessel (e.g. on a quay or a barge) at
the named port of shipment. The risk transfers when the goods are alongside the ship, and the purchaser bears all
costs from that moment onwards.
The term can obviously be used only for sea or inland waterway transport.
The seller has to export clear the goods.
The parties are advised to specify as clearly as possible the loading point at the named port of shipment, as the costs
and risks to that point are for the account of the seller; The associated charges may vary according to the practice
of the port.
Conclusions on FAS
The FAS rule should be avoided if possible for power transformer transport.
Under this term, if there are applicable terminal handling charges, these are often divided between seller and
purchaser as it is often not clear which party has to bear which charges.
1) For transformers these costs can be very large, and depend among others on the liner term (see
paragraph12.1.12) and consequently it is free for interpretation which party pays what.
2) Also - if the ‘ship’ is late, who will pay for detention/demurrage charges?
3) The best way to avoid long discussions between purchaser and seller is simply to avoid this sales term.
4) If there is a letter of credit, it is better to avoid FAS as it might be difficult to obtain a Bill of Lading.
12.1.11 Free On Board (FOB)

(Not to be mixed up with the American version of FOB-sales.)
This rule is to only be used for sea or inland waterway transport.
“Free On Board” means that the seller delivers the goods on board the vessel nominated by the purchaser at the
named port of shipment. The risk transfers when the goods are on board the vessel and the purchaser has to bear
all costs from that moment onwards. If no specific loading point has been indicated by the purchaser, the seller may
select the point within the named port of shipment.
The seller has to clear the goods for export.
It is clearly stated that the seller delivers the goods on board. FOB under Incoterms® 2010 rule states that the risk
is transferred on board.
Delivery on board must be completed by the “local habits” in the port, but these may vary widely. In some ports,
goods are considered ‘on board’ for delivery purposes when they are under ‘ships tackle’. In the absence of local
procedures, the default position is that goods may be considered to be delivered on board the vessel when first at
rest on deck. This means that additional shifting activities on board and lashing and dunnage installation still need to
occur. It is highly recommendable for purchaser and beller to find agreement beforehand.
There are several other subjects that must be considered to avoid future issues.
Export clearance
Do not leave this important activity to the carrier which often happens in practice. For further information see ‘FCA’.
Choice of port, terminal, and vessel

The purchaser can choose all. Port, terminal, and vessel must have the correct capacity for the often extreme
dimensions. If for example, the chosen regular ro/ro or break bulk vessel does not have the necessary capacity, the
goods cannot be loaded (safely). If the vessel nominated by purchaser is unable to take the goods, then the
purchaser bears all risks of loss or damage to the goods.
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Stowage, lashing, and dunnage

The stowage and lashing of the goods are NOT included in FOB sales. This means that the purchaser must organize
and carry the costs, but very often in practice seller pays and organizes.
On deck loadings
It is generally not allowed to accept ‘on deck’ loadings for transformer shipments. This is especially the case for deep
sea vessels. The seller has an interest to check because sometimes parties search for the cheapest shipping
solutions and the deck option (often much cheaper) can be easily overlooked.
Storage charges
The port authorities usually offer a number of free days for storage of transformers, oil, and accessories. As a result
of the FOB rule, the purchaser indicates on which day all goods must be present at which terminal in the port. If the
vessel is then delayed, it is often impossible to delay the delivery of goods to the port without any additional costs.
These additional costs can be storage charges and possibly extra handling charges (loading of transformer directly
from truck onto vessel or via quay). You can expect long discussions regarding which party will have to pay these
extra charges.
In practice, the port authorities will charge them to the forwarder that organizes the FOB activities. This forwarder
will charge the seller who will probably really struggle to get its money back from purchaser. However, according to
the Incoterms® 2010 rule, the purchaser must pay any additional costs incurred if: the vessel nominated by the
purchaser fails to arrive on time, is unable to take the goods, or closes for cargo earlier than the time notified, provided
that the goods have been clearly identified as the contract goods.
Conclusions on FOB
1) Despite its many inconveniences, the FOB rule is in principal suitable for power transformers. It is clearly
not ideal for sellers due to the loss of control (of the main part of the shipment) and risk for unexpected costs
often difficult to recover.
2) The risk of applicable storage charges is very great and the main reason that this loss of control can be
costly.
3) The moment of delivery (i.e. risk transfer) is far from clear and several other potential problems must also be
discussed or even be formalized beforehand.
4) Seller should therefore avoid the FOB rule and should suggest DAT or DAP as a minimum term. Unless of
course the seller wants the revenue recognition in the country of departure, in this case FCA quay of chosen
port would be preferable.
5) If purchaser insists on organizing the waterway transport, FCA seller’s premises could be agreed location.
12.1.12 Cost Insurance and Freight (CIF) and Cost and Freight (CFR)
Both rules are only be used for sea or inland waterway transport. Both rules mean that the seller delivers the goods
on board the vessel in the named port of shipment, or more precisely, the seller delivers the goods against a Bill of
Lading freight prepaid. The risk passes when the goods are on board the vessel.
The seller must contract for and pay the cost and freight necessary to bring the goods to the named port of destination.
These terms require the seller to clear the goods for export.
The difference between them is rather simple; for CFR the seller does not procure insurance coverand for a CIF sale
he does.
There are several traps that must be considered and discussed between both parties.
Transfer of risk from seller to purchaser

As for all four C-terms (CIF, CFR, CIP and CPT), the risk passes and costs are transferred at different places. This
is often a major reason for confusion and misunderstanding between purchaser and seller.
Yes, The seller ships the goods to port of destination, but as mentioned above, the risk is already transferred in the
port of shipment (when the goods are placed on board). This means that, if for instance, the goods get damaged
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during the sea voyage or during discharge at the port of destination, the seller can no longer be held
responsible/liable. For any insurance claims: a ‘clean’ Bill of Lading means that the goods have been transferred on
board in good state which automatically means that seller has fulfilled all its obligations and can no longer be held
responsible for any transport damages to the goods.
Misunderstanding on who organizes/pays for discharge from vessel

As for all four C-terms (CIF, CFR, CIP and CPT), the risk passes and costs are transferred at different places. This
is often a major reason for confusion and misunderstanding between purchaser and seller.
Yes, The seller ships the goods to port of destination, but as mentioned above, the risk is already transferred in the
port of shipment (when the goods are placed on board). This means that, if for instance, the goods get damaged
during the sea voyage or during discharge at the port of destination, the seller can no longer be held
responsible/liable. For any insurance claims: a ‘clean’ Bill of Lading means that the goods have been transferred on
board in good state which automatically means that seller has fulfilled all its obligations and can no longer be held
responsible for any transport damages to the goods:
1) Liner Terms - General Statement:
Liner Terms is a very ambiguous statement and can be interpreted in a variety of ways in different ports of the
world and by different Ship Owners/Agents. It is highly recommended that purchaser and Seller clearly define the
extent of responsibility when quoting on this basis. The most common liner terms are ("Free“ is viewed from the
Ship Owners point of view - not the Shipper's):
a) FIO: Free In Out
Cost of loading and unloading a vessel is not included in the freight offer. Often used for bulk cargo
goods. The ship is only responsible for expenses arising as a result of the ship calling into the port,
i.e. tugs, pilots and light dues etc. The ship is not responsible for the speed of loading or discharging.
b) FIOS: Free In Out Stowed
The freight rate only covers the actual carriage. All cargo handling operations (loading, discharging),
even stowage of the goods, are excluded.
c) FIOST: Free In Out Stowed Trimmed
Same as FIOS but also trimming is excluded. These costs will be billed separately to the shipper or
consignee.
d) FIOS LSD: Free In Out Stowed Lashing Securing Dunnaging
As FIOS, but also lashing of the cargo and the use of dunnage will be invoiced separately. Dunnage
is loose materials used to support and protect cargo in a ship's hold, often wood.
e) FILO: Free In Liner Out
FILO rate excludes the cost of loading and (where required) the cost of stowage and lashing. Carriage
and the cost of discharging (offloading) as per the custom of the port are included. Shipper will receive
a separate invoice for loading and lashing.
f) LIFO: Liner In Free Out
LIFO is the opposite of FILO. LIFO rates exclude the cost of discharging in the port of destination but
the costs of loading are included.
g) LILO: Liner In Liner Out
Cost of loading and discharging (offloading) is included.
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h) FLT: Full Liner Terms
Generally implies that the freight amount provided includes both shore-based and on-board
stevedoring, lashing/unlashing, dunnage materials, securing/unsecuring and all costs of presenting
to/receiving the cargo from the ship’s side. May vary under different port practices.
i) HOOK–HOOK: Full Liner Terms for geared vessels
Similar to FLT, with the Ship Owner assuming the cost of loading from the moment the goods have
been attached to the ‘hook’ until they are presented ‘under the ships hook’. Often the crew may not
attach the cargo and the Shipper/Receiver must assume “slinging costs”/“heavy lift expenses”. The
cost of “unhooking” is for the consignee/purchaser and may vary under different port practices.
To be absolutely sure of all liabilities, it is always advisable to request that terms clearly and concisely
indicate what is or isn’t included in your particular contract - in layman’s terms.
Liner terms are very important for transportation of power transformers.
2) The following aspects are to be considered when using CIF/CFR.

a) As mentioned under CIF/CFR terms, the seller delivers when the goods are placed on board in the
port of shipment.
This is an important change to the Incoterms® 2000 rule, when the risk passed at ship’s rail (see also
FOB). But it is not clear what is meant by ‘on board’. Goods may be considered to be delivered on
board the vessel when first at rest on deck. So therefore before any shifting activities, stowage, lashing,
dunnage or other activities that may have an impact.
If any of these activities leads to damage to the transformer or its accessories, you can expect long
discussionsas to which party is liable as it is unclear when the risk transferred.
b) The seller must bring the goods to the named port of destination.
This can also lead to misunderstandings. If seller procures a free out service, the ship’s owner only
has to call the port of destination. All other costs (unlashing, unsecuring, unloading, all terminal
handling charges etc. etc.) will be for purchaser. Also included are detention and demurrage charges
if the port would be congested or if bad weather would delay the discharge activities. Even if all goes
well, the costs can be enormous, (consider the cost of hiring cranes for discharge).
c) Double costs.
If seller has procured the carriage on full liner terms (or hook to hook), all handling charges in the ports
of shipment and destination will be included and paid for by seller. Purchaser must not also pay for
local handling charges or organize the discharge from the vessel. In other words, it is quite possible
that both purchaser and seller pay for the same activities without knowing so of each other.
The seller and purchaser should agree on the following to avoid these (liner term) traps:
 CIF/CFR “all unloading costs at port of discharge are for the receiver’s account” if the liner term is
Free Out.
 CIF/CFR “all unloading costs at port of discharge are for the seller’s account” if full liner terms or
hook to hook is applicable.
d) CIF sales to certain countries not allowed.
Some countries forbid CIF sales as they mandate that the purchaser to procure ‘local’ insurance
services. However, often these local companies do not provide the required service level. There can
be a risk for delayed pay out or even no pay out.
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e) Insurance matters (CIF only)
When CIF is used, the seller is obliged to procure insurance for the benefit of the purchaser. The risk
is transferred in the port of departure, but the transformer will be insured until the port of arrival. The
purchaser should procure insurance from the port of departure untill final destination (or to be more
precise, from where the insurance of the purchaser stops). As a consequence, if the transformer
becomes damaged at sea, the purchaser should contact the insurance company of the seller as the
risk has not yet transferred to the purchaser.
However, when each party insures only for its own interest for its leg of transport, it could be often
difficult, if not impossible to prove when and where the loss or damage occurred and which insurer has
to indemnify for it. Tests at load breaks or responsibility breaks are not absolute in determining where
any damage occurred.
The seller should also check the insurance policy of the purchaser to make sure it is sufficient (own
risk clauses, all risk policy etc.)
The best solution is to agree that one of the parties insures the entire transport, so from seller’s
premises up to the place of destination. This is represented by the warehouse to warehouse cover
clause which is the best and less expensive solution.
As seen above, owners of goods often refuse cargo insurance as they consider this unnecessary,
pointing out that the risk is sufficiently covered by the insurance company of the carrier or forwarder.
They do not realize that this kind of insurance only covers the damages/loss if they are able to proof
the failure or negligence of the carrier or forwarder.
Liability insurance is not sufficient; cargo insurance is required.
Conclusions on CIF/CFR sales
1) CIF/CFR conditions are suitable for seller and purchaser, and can also be used for transformers.
2) Be vigilant on the transfer or risk, which takes place in the country of departure!
3) Make sure seller and purchaser agree on liner terms to avoid nasty surprises for either party.
4) If the port of discharge is in a country with which the seller has little experience, he must check on local
requirements for CIF sales.
5) Purchaser and seller should find agreement in the sales contract which party should pay unloading in the
port of discharge. The Incoterms® 2010 rule can be modified according like CIF “unloaded port of discharge”.
6) Insurance: seller insures the transformer until delivery at the port of destination, but the risk is transferred at
the port of departure. If an incident happens “at sea”, the purchaser should contact the insurance company
of the seller, as the risk is now at the purchaser.
7) The purchaser therefore has an interest to check that the insurance policy of the seller is adequate.
12.2 Tender Process

The transformer tender process always starts with the customer specification, which may be everything between
some minor indications up to very detailed.
The design department and/or the sales department makes the interpretation and evaluation of the customer
specification.
The task of the tender engineer is to find an optimum design, i.e. find a transformer concept and design, which is a
balance of:
1) Exactly meet the specified technical performance data such as losses or loss evaluation, impedances, noise,
cooling etc.
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2) Being competitive; less complexity, standardized components, and simple tank designs etc. to reduce the
design and production costs.
3) Material usage for copper and iron, depending on impedance and loss evaluation.
4) Once the transformer is optimized, the weight and outer dimensions is fixed.
Unfortunately the optimum transformer design is very often conflicts with given transport limitations and, as such, the
designer may have to compromise to find the best economical solution.
These limitations are set by transportation mode, tank dimensions (weight, length, width, and height), access to
foundation, and local regulation. Typical design alternatives due to those limitations are:
5) A railway design rather than a road transport profile.

6) A “Schnabel” wagon/car design instead of a simple "wagon with side rails" design.
7) Five-limb design instead of three-limb design to limit tank height.
8) Two tank design instead of single tank design in case of transformers with reactor.
9) Phase shifter transformers with separate series and exciter units.
10) Rectifier transformers connected with regulating transformers.
11) Three separate single-phase units instead of one three-phase unit.
It is obvious that these listed alternative solutions have a large impact on total transformer costs. For large or special
power transformers, a detailed investigation of transportation restrictions and possible transportation alternatives is
strongly recommended. This is especially important in case of missing, obsolete or unknown transport specifications.
During the tender stage, a close cooperation with customer, logistics experts and tender engineers to clarify relevant
transportation issues are strongly recommended. Otherwise, there is a high risk for design changes in case of an
order, which may result in much more expensive design solutions, compared to the design at tender stage.
In reality: however, customers rarely grant manufacturers the required extra design work but insist in receiving firm
offers including transportation for a transformer to be delivered often more than a year later. As a result, the
manufacturers often do not have sufficient time to calculate the optimum solution and therefore carry risks:
12) The manufacturer overestimates the total costs including transportation. As a result, the manufacturer may
not win the business due to wrong calculations, or the customer pays more than necessary.
13) The manufacturer underestimates the total costs and may therefore end up with a lower or even a negative
margin.
12.3 Transportation Assessment

Road and rail systems continue to evolve with changing demands. Those requiring road and/or road transport of
large equipment must present their needs to local and regional authorities and constantly follow-up to ensure that
transportation routes continue to be available to and from required manufacturing and substation locations.
Route planning involves regular contact with road and rail authorities to maintain relationships and to ensure required
routes continue to be available for critical locations.
Transport planning should not be left to the freight forwarder alone. A factual check of the planned full route's profile
during planning is necessary. Do not assume the route has not changed since the last use. The plan should be
reviewed by future owner of the transformer.
Experienced freight forwarders should be selected with proven records and with references for the transportation
companies to be used.
The transformer outline or transport drawings should be critically reviewed by experienced transport planners at an
early stage in the transformer design. The actual route clearance and load capability should be factually checked.
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12.3.1 Transport – General

The following general check points related to transporting transformers are recommended:
1) A transport safety analysis should be performed before any transformer is transported as well as for any
changes in transport mode.
2) Identifying which side or orientation of the transformer that should enter the substation first can prevent
unnecessary turning or rotating of the transformer on site.
3) Shock forces from transportation must be evaluated in terms of both magnitude and duration, i.e. the energy
of the shock(s).
4) The transport plan should include action(s) in the event of changes to the planned schedule or unplanned
delays.
5) Contingency storage should be evaluated as part of the transport plan.
6) The transporter must be appropriately sized and compatible with the transformer and its fittings being
transported.
7) The safe, secure and damage free transport of accessories is equally important to the overall delivery of a
transformer.
8) Identification of the centre of gravity in the transport condition is of fundamental importance.
9) Measurement of the loaded transformer clearance profile is of fundamental importance.
10) Transformers are secured to the transporter by direct and indirect attachment. Indirect attachment relies on
friction, which can be increased by the use of wood, rubber, etc. between the transformer steel base and the
steel deck of the transporter. Facilities for direct attachment must be rated for the anticipated or regulatory
stated forces.
11) Transporters need to be in serviceable condition, fee of defects that will adversely impair transformer or
public safety, or will fail to meet regulatory requirements.
12) A very clear, unambiguous drawing needs to describe how the transformer is to be lifted by crane or moved
by jack and slide system, including where the safety cribbing is to be placed and where the slides can be
placed for all directions of travel.
12.3.2 Transport Mode – Marine and Waterways

For the transportation on ocean, sea, river, canal, or lake the following guidelines are recommended:
1) Ocean transport can apply forces and angles to the transformer due to pitch and roll of the ship. Low
frequency shocks or vibrations can result in damages.
2) The weight of the transformer, amount of other cargo and the size of the vessel can affect the way a particular
ship handles at sea and consequently the impact to the transformer.
3) Transformers should not be transported on open decks as a general rule.
4) Transformers should be transported as close to the centre of the ship as reasonably possible.
5) Transformer transport on waterways must account for currents and shore conditions during unloading.
12.3.3 Transport Mode – Road

For the transportation on road the following guidelines are recommended:
1) The transport plan must include clear instructions on what must be done if delays occur during the transport,
especially at rail crossings or other critical portions of the route.
2) Sometimes only certain defined portions of the road way must be used, such as the centre of the road to
clear arched bridges, or avoid lower load bearing capability along the edges of the road, one side or the other
of the road to allow for clearance to obstructions, etc. Sometimes certain portions of the roadway will have
lower transport limits than other portions of the roadway. A full understanding is required of the load bearing
capability of the entire road and off-road portions of travel
3) Almost all road transporters usually travel in the forward direction only. This allows for clearance on each
side of the trailer to be different while the centre of gravity is loaded in the centre of the trailer. The operator
of the truck must be aware of different protrusion of the load on each side.
4) Drivers must be provided with clear instructions to follow all defined exceptions to "normal" traffic flow along
the route.
5) Maximizing assembly prior to transport can expose the transformer and accessories to additional damage
due to transport shock and vibration.
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6) It is prudent to halt transport when unfavourable environmental conditions are encountered.
12.3.4 Transport Mode – Rail

For the transportation on rail the following guidelines are recommended:
1) Transformers must be loaded with their centre of gravity at the centreline of the rail carriage. The result is
that the transformer may protrude from each side by a different amount and profile. The net result is a
clearance profile that is twice the widest distances from the centreline.
2) Clearance must be checked under all conditions such as whether rail traffic on adjacent parallel tracks is
allowed.
3) The effect of rail transport is sometimes underestimated by manufacturers, normally not using rail transport.
As an example, rail transport in Europe appears to be less damaging that rail transport in North America and
some other countries, South America predominately uses road and ocean transport of large transformers.
4) Manufacturers on continents where rail transport is less usual must investigate and design to the forces
expected to be encountered by rail transport in all countries for the total route. The core and coil restraining
systems must be able to sustain shock forces encountered during the rail portion of the journey.
5) Vibration during rail transport has likely contributed to transportation damage of transformers.
6) An early and detailed inspection is essential, especially when there are indications of possible transport
damage (impacts registered on the recorder and no internal gas pressure) would have initiated a return to
the factory for more complete repair (while the schedule still allowed for the long transport time).
7) Particular attention must be given to the ability/clearance of the transporter to pass over rail crossings.
12.3.5 Transformer Preparation for Transport

The following guidelines are recommended related to transport preparation:
1) Procedures should implemented to ensure that shock recorders have adequate battery life for the duration
and temperatures expected during the transport, are correctly programmed to record shocks expected for
the mode of transport, and are switched on prior to departure.
2) Photographs of the loaded transformer are beneficial during investigation of any incident. Photographs of
the shock recorder and its location should also be taken and preserved.
3) A process should be followed to ensure shock recorders have the appropriate settings installed, adequate
battery life for the anticipated transport duration, and are correctly initialized/turned-on.
4) When loss of transport gas pressure, dryness, visual damage, shock recorders data and core ground
insulation indicate that further inspection is required, FRA tests are recommended not only at the factory but
also after installation (see also 12.3.5).
12.3.6 Transformer Receiving

On receipt of a transformer at final destination the following is recommended:
1) An early and detailed inspection is essential, especially when there are any indications of possible transport
damage. Such early inspections can avoid unnecessary delays by initiating a return to the factory for more
complete repair (while the schedule still might allow for the increased transport time).
2) Persons receiving the transformer must follow local safety procedures.
3) Measure the core ground insulation,
4) Look for sign for loss of transport gas pressure and dryness
5) Look for signs of visual damage
6) Evaluation of readings from Shock recorders
7) To perform FRA tests at the factory and repeated after installation (and/or in transport condition) for further
assessment of possible transport damages.
a) Caution must be provided that the tests must be done with the transformer in the same condition as
the testing will be done on site. For example empty of oil and with test bushings (most likely condition
during transport). Could also be tested in the fully assembled and fully filled condition in the factory
but then the transformer must be returned to this condition before the comparison test can be used
meaningfully. The latter one will also give fingerprint for later FRA measurements during lifetime of
the transformer.
b) FRA testing in transport conditions will provide results before fully erecting the transformer.
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c) FRA testing in multiple configurations is the best of course, but requires more effort.
12.4 Transport Planning

12.4.1 Introduction
Transport planning, has historically followed the rational planning model of defining goals and objectives, identifying
problems, generating alternatives, evaluating alternatives, and developing plans. It is involved with the evaluation,
assessment, design, and siting of transport facilities and has to consider an ever-changing infrastructure with the
objective to get a transformer from A to B safely, cost effectively, and on schedule.
Transportation of power transformers increasingly requires a multi-disciplinary approach, as the installations are
usually located in populated areas. Oversized transformer transport may potentially occur with great variations in
road/railway standards, weather and seasonal conditions as well as location. The importance of these elements
varies from region to region, from country to country.
Among others, attention is given to the following:
1) Legislation often imposes inland waterway transportation is mandatory to as near as possible to the
substation, even if this solution is not the most cost effective.
2) In rural regions, oversized transport can suffer from lack in alternative route choice.
3) Bridge/tunnel capacity can be very restricting especially if the infrastructure is ageing.
4) Railway branch lines originally built to construct a generating- or substation may have been closed down and
the alternative route is now a road that may not be dimensioned for the transformer.
Based on many decades of experience it can be state that “Nothing related to an oversized transformer transport is
ever normal”.
Every element of the itinerary has to be analyzed in advance and adapted carefully to the actual transport being
planned.
An oversized transport includes all transportation of goods that require a special permit. A special permit is necessary
if one or several of the convoy dimensions exceed the national or regional limits (for weight and/or height/width/length)
for standard transport. A convoy is a loaded truck or wagon.
For instance, in most European countries a maximum width of 2.55 m and maximum height of 4 m height is
considered as standard, with any load above these dimensions being considered as “oversized”. Every country can
in addition have own regulation(s).
It is important to understand that these maximum dimensions are applicable for the convoy and not for the load. For
instance, if a transformer is 4 m high, the total height of the convoy may easily be 4.3 m high at the very least.
The same applies for the weight. As an indication, and depending on the circumstances, one must add 30%-50% to
the transformer weight to get to the convoy weight. As an example, a 60 tonne transformer might well be a 90 tonne
convoy weight.
The means of transport (e.g. beams) could cause that the convoy width to be larger than the trailer width but also
larger than the transformer width. Of course the convoy length is always much, much longer than the transformer
length.
These limits may vary as the road and highway system varies between the countries based on climatic and
geographical conditions.
The transport planning can typically be divided into pre-transport planning and final transport planning, which again
can be divided in final transport planning by the purchaser of transport and final transport planning by the freight
forwarder / Transport Company.
These two phases of transport planning are more in detail described in the following sections.
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12.4.2 Pre- Transport Planning

To cope with all limitations due to dimensions, season, legislation, infrastructure etc. it is vital to have a good transport
plan.
A “transport plan” (in this context not the transport drawing) is a list of all mandatory measures required to have
available before a transport takes place. If there is a possibility that the transport could be emergency-based due to
a transformer failure, the transport plan must be prepared in advance for all transformers in all substations and power
stations. The last checking of known and new obstacles takes place by surveying the planned route during the
dismantling time of the failed transformer or the contingency transformer.
An ideal transport plan holds all possibly needed information related to the transport process including technical
specifications of the transformer, which tools that are available, detailed pictures and transformer station description,
as well as history, such as standardized on-site reports for every transformer, routes driven, dispensations
needed/given and calculations performed. These transport plans must be reviewed regularly. Local and regional
plans for new bridges, over- and under-passes and tunnels must be monitored and commented on so that the
installations are not subsequently fenced-in by changed road conditions.
The means of transport for an oversized transport depends on the size of the transformer to be transported and the
source and destination route for the transport. A long distance transport of an oversized transformer usually requires
multimodal solutions (combination of road, waterway and/or railway).
Shorter and most of inland transport is carried out on road, but some countries have an extensive network of inland
canals which may be used while also rail transport from manufacturer to installations is common in some countries.
In a schedule the pre-planning could look as follows:
1) Identify number and size of oversized loads.

2) Determine the potential delivery options (water, road, railway or combination).
3) Assess handling capabilities for every load break.
4) Identify closest most suitable port of discharge.
5) Assess preferred shipping method to port of discharge (barge, geared break-bulk vessel, ro-ro vessel,
pontoon, ferry).
12.4.3 Geographical Information Systems (GIS) in Pre- Transport Planning

A Geographical Information Systems (GIS) may be used for provisional transport planning. It is most important to
verify that the GIS information is up-to-date and accurate however. The requirements for such a planning system
may be:
1) Find the most suitable transportation route considering factors such as height, weight, distance and speed.
2) Develop a method for route solving based on oversized transport criteria.
3) Create maps to ease the transport of transformers, visualizing aspects of oversized transport, such as
transportation routes, distribution of transformer substations, generators, access to sites, and to provide
authorities and preparedness regulators some insight into the problem.
4) Improve the period of transformer transport through data structuring and route solving.
GIS-based tool implementation has the potential to improve transport preparation and decrease the time spent on
planning and carrying out a transport by visualization and mapping of transportation routes, decreasing on-site
surveys, and by storing, displaying and calculating obstacle information. With GIS-tool it is not possible to refine the
efficiency of preparing the transformers for transport including dismantling the failed and/or the reserve transformer
and then handling it on the sites however.
Preparing the transport route by removing traffic signs and gantries, removing lightning fixtures in tunnels, removing
the centre of roundabouts including flowers and hedges and removing or lifting the tramway catenaries are all billed
by the transport forwarder and are mainly executed by service providers by order of the road owner. They all have
different lead-time and systems for their planning.
Data must be improved and maintained before a GIS-based tool can be efficient in transformer transport planning.
These data, such as a new tarmac layer in an underpass reducing the free height with another 100mm or after an
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opening of a new tunnel, must be updated very swiftly. Hence, routes must still needs to be surveyed in order to
reduce the number of unknown obstacles.
12.4.4 Final Transport Planning by the Purchaser of the Transformer Transport

Every oversized transport (as the transport of power transformers) is in principle unique and differs in destination,
cause and dimensions. But there are basic procedures and methods.
The following scheme is based on the idea that purchaser or seller of the power transformer subcontracts the
transportation to a freight forwarder or to a trucking company.
The final transport planning the purchaser of the transformer transport can be divided into five steps.
Step 1: Preliminary requirement
The whole process starts when an installation requires delivery of a transformer. This can be for a planned
replacement, an emergency replacement after transformer break down, or even for a new substation/power plant.
1) The first step must be to analyze the incoterms (term, place of delivery, and place of destination). See also
chapter 12.1 on Incoterms. The chosen Incoterms will show you if the entire transport organization and
responsibility is for purchaser (FCA factory), for seller (DDP/DAP), or in the most complicated situation, both
purchaser and seller must organize the transportation together (mainly FOB, DAT and C-terms).
Step 2: Information organisation
Collating all the necessary information and documentation is essential to organize the transport and these points
must be paid attention to:
1) The contract for the transformer will specify important information on the place of destination, delivery date,
and Incoterms, among others.
2) Transport drawing of the transformer with clear indication of all lashing points and centre of gravity. Ideally
in dwg, dxf or if not available in pdf format.
3) A packing list containing transformer, all accessories, and oil.
4) Full delivery address including land description, address, postal code, state, country, contact name/number.
As part of planning programe the transformer is prepared and if needed filled with a dry gas like nitrogen and
made ready for transport. This procedure is even applies to emergency replacement transformers that may
be stored while connected to a voltage source.
5) It is common that more than one freight forwarder/transport company to bid for the transportation and site
handling.
6) Asking at least two different companies potentially allows the finding of different technical and different
commercial offers.
7) It avoids complacency and provides choice for decision making.
8) The following information should be included in the tender documentation, (the list is not exhaustive)
a) Incoterms 2010 (term and place).
b) Pick up place.
c) Transport drawing of transformer.
d) Packing List.
e) Delivery site access, its limitations for transport, discharge options (jacking, crane etc.).
f) Preferred modality, i.e. train, truck, barge, or some combination.
g) Subcontractors that can be used or are not to be used.
9) The tenderer must provide at least:
a) Full details of price for services and validity date, specify the transport details included and excluded.
b) Full technical offer with a complete itinerary with information about subcontractors, modalities, and
equipment that will be used (type of wagon, trucks, barge and for sea transportation the use of break
bulk, a ro/ro vessel or a geared vessel).
c) Equipment used for each load break (fixed port crane, mobile crane, crawler crane, jack and slide
etc.).
d) The equipment and method that will be used for positioning the transformer on its final foundation.
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Step 3: Analysis of results of the tender process
1) Review of offers received, including analysis of both technically and commercially matters
2) The final forwarder is selected
3) In case there is a joint responsibility between seller and purchaser (as in FOB or CFR/CIF terms), the
transport companies chosen by the Seller and Purchaser must contact each other to ensure a smooth
planned operation.
Step 4: Preparation of required transport- and handling documentation
Depending on the complexity of the transport (from local to intercontinental), the size of the transformer, the Incoterms
rules and the way the contract is financed (letter of credit) several documents must be prepared. In some cases,
these documents must accompany the transformer during shipment.
The list below is based on the most complex transport operation, which in most cases will be multi modal transport
(the list is not exhaustive). Some documents are not always required.
1) Final transformer drawing.

2) Complete Packing Lists including accessories and oil with special mentioning for dangerous goods.
3) Certificate of Origin.
4) Certificate of Conformity.
5) Dangerous Goods Certificate.
6) Commercial Invoice.
7) Crane configuration (for each crane to be used).
8) For each load break a drawing of the transformer loaded/lashed on each hydraulic trailer, barge, vessel,
pontoon, wagon etc.
9) Technical details of every load break (including tug boats).
10) A risk analysis for every load break.
11) Classification Certificate provided by classification agency/body for barges/vessels.
12) Stability study of any barge/pontoon.
13) Methods study for loading the transformers on barges and pontoons.
14) Lashing calculation study for each road or rail transport.
15) Stowage calculation study for each water transport.
16) Discharge and handling on customer’s site, precise rigging plans for gantry systems, jacking and skiding.
17) List of all subcontractors to be hired by the freight forwarder.
18) Import License or Bond for country of destination.
19) Copies of all road permits for exceptional transport.
20) Copies of the Navigation reports for each water transport.
21) Copies of the Insurance policies for each subcontractor.
Step 5: Origanisation of the prevention actions with risk management team and insurance company
A thorough risk management of all parts of the transport operation are always necessary and all activities including
preventive actions must be paid attention to and planned in advance.
Handling at load breaks always involves high risk and special precautions have often to be taken. Example of such
are described below.
1) It is quite common that the insurance company of both parties often requires prevention missions at any load
break done by an inspector.
2) Although a load break is either under the responsibility of the purchaser or seller (never both), it is quite
common that both parties organize a prevention mission for the same load break. In fact, it is possible that
there will be three or more inspectors if the freight forwarder or transport contractor has also requested a
mission.
3) During any load break it is the task of the inspector to follow the handling activities very closely. The inspector
has the right to stop an activity if he believes it is not handled safely.
4) Handling activities are defined as any lifting of the transformer, loading/discharge on any
vehicle/wagon/barge/vessel, all lashing/stowage activities, and of course positioning the transformer on its
foundation.
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5) The Inspector will provide a full report with his conclusions. In case of any anomalies, this report can help to
determine who is at fault.
6) After pick up at manufacturing plant: follow up daily with the freight forwarder is required to ensure that the
plan is respected, which enables positive communication between seller and purchaser.
7) After delivery: Collect all documents made up by third parties (Bill of Lading, other transport documents,
customs documents).
8) Analyze the different load breaks with the freight forwarder and note improvement areas.
12.4.5 Final Transport Planning by the Freight Forwarder or Transport Company

The Freight Forwarder / Transport Company has the responsibility to ensure the transport which are agreed in a safe
and optimum way. This includes to, in detail plan the route, means of transport and all aspect related to load securing
in addition to receive the necessary permits related to the transport.
A list describing which aspects the Freight Forwarder / Transport Company must pay attention to in relation to
transport mode and site activities is given in the following.
Road transportation
1) Identify the potential road route option.

2) Identify the structural issues of the route.
3) Assess the route for physical obstructions.
4) Risk assessment of the route for operational and environmental concerns.
5) Determine the preferred transport route for physical obstructions.
6) Determine trailer choice subject on two main types: long distance transport (over 5km), or short distance.
7) Define hydraulic suspension set up for trailer through method statement/calculations. Decide type of trailer
e.g. small neck, girder frame, and for short distance self-propelled modular trailers (SPMT).
8) Assess suitable trailer configuration, conducting through stability calculations.
9) Consultation with road authorities.
10) Physical review of routes.
11) Consider transport forces and accelerations will be produced as a result of moving from rest, cornering, or
heavy braking.
12) Determine lashing procedures, every case requires its own approach. The lashing depends on the
transformer weight, deceleration zone, acceleration zone, friction between deck and transformer, longitudinal
and traverse slope/gradient of road.
13) Transverse lashing based on angular velocity (travelling through corner).
14) Location of lashing points to determine angle of chains.
15) Monitoring (gas bottles pressures, impact recorders).
Marine and inland waterways transportation
1) Identify suitable inland berths or potential facilities.

2) Identify ports of loading and discharge (inland waterways and sea).
3) Identify requirement for geared vessels.
4) Identify ramp and terminal capacities (cranes).
5) Review navigation issues (water levels, tidal effects, hydrographic surveys).
6) Determine preferred waterway transit methods.
7) Complete environmental impact assessment.
8) Complete ecological assessments.
9) Consider forces acting upon unit during voyage (pitch, yaw, roll, heave).
10) Adapt lashing securing calculations to consider these forces.
11) Lashing/securing to be designed accordingly (welded stoppers or chains/wires, welded ‘D’ rings or similar).
12) Determine positioning on board the vessel: the higher on board, the greater pitch or roll effect. Not too close
to engine room etc. On deck loading are prohibited for short sea or deep sea voyages.
13) Attendance of Insurance/Marine Warranty Inspector.
14) Monitoring (gas bottles pressures, impact recorders).
Railway transportation
1) Identify the type of rail car required.

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2) Identify the railway route options.

3) Obtain rail route clearance.
4) Determine the requirement of special railway authorizations.
5) Assess securing on rail car (blocking/bracing).
6) Identify the location where to load and unload the wagon.
7) Monitoring (GPS Tracking, impact recorders).
8) Identify the transit methods (from barge/vessel or from truck onto wagon and vice versa).
Site installation
1) Identify access to site and on site transportation options.

2) Identify presence of rails to/on/near foundation.
3) Obtain a detailed site map.
4) Determine requirement for self-propelled trailer.
5) Determine minimum distance between trailer and foundation
6) Distance effect procedure for unloading the transformer and therefore determines the handling equipment
load capacity.
7) Review installation by skidding/sliding, jacking, or cranes
8) Impact loads may be applied as a result of pulling, jacking or lifting, slewing on the crane, and final set down.
These loads are normally negligible compared to the transport or road induced forces. In some countries a
cable and winch system is used, which may lead to a slide and stick load effect during the pulling operation.
12.5 Responsibilities
The manufacturer of the transformer has the responsibility to design a transformer which is suitable for transportation
with the transport mode(s) that are chosen. Hence that the transformer manufacturer must design and engineer
provisions mentioned below.
1) Provision of transformer transport drawings, dwg, dxf and pdf format that clearly shows all dimensions, centre
of gravity, lifting points, location of impact recorders at least.
2) Provision of suitable lifting points.
3) Provision of suitable lashing points.
4) Correct information regarding sizes and weight.
5) Correct information regarding lateral/longitudinal/vertical centre of gravity.
6) Suitable carrying provision for transport.
7) Fitting of gas bottles and adequate protection – clear displays.
8) Placing and fitting of Impact recorders.
9) Optimum transport weight (oil is replaced by a dry gas for large transformers).
The transport contractor on his side must assure that the following activities are carried out and documented.
1) Apply for permits in timely manner and monitor progress.

2) Provide risk assessment and method statement documentation in a timely manner.
3) Ensure that all subcontractors are approved and have safe work systems.
4) Ensure that the transformer is lashed in accordance with guidelines.
5) Observe gas pressures and impact recorders at load breaks and advise of any changes.
6) Ensure the client is fully informed on progress and main risks at tender stage and throughout the contract.
7) Provide insurance in line with contract, if applicable.
12.6 Measures to secure safe transport

This section gives recommendations for ensuring that transports are executed in a safe way, which controls are
possible, or advisable to implement. The section mainly covers road and barge transport, as for the other transport
modes not much can be done once the transport has departed.
1) Select the freight forwarder based on at least the following criteria for selection of Transport Companies.
a) Should be decided at contract stage. Specialist job – only specialized forwarders should be used.
b) Specific experience with transformer handling and transport.
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c) Experience of the project manager.

d) Acting just as an agent or actual executor of the transport.
e) Knowledge of regulations, country of destination, languages, etc.
f) Number of insurance cases and their resolution.
g) Degree of participation in the process.
h) Experience of the subcontractors.
i) Inspect equipment/ pre visit to transport company.
2) Permits must be obtained before the transport.
3) Describe when and how the dry gas pressure gauge must be checked.
4) Plan how to handle language problems commonly encountered on international transport. It must be possible
to communicate with substation people on site – safety regulations.
5) Describe the driver actions in case of transformer tank dry air gauge zero pressure, oil leakage, etc. (e.g.
Send e-mail, telephone call to contact persons who must be available).
6) Describe speed limitations on route.
7) Describe the required actions at load breaks.
8) Direct daily connection by phone/sms to the transport manager reporting transport route update changes.
9) Consider option for a pressure sensor that can be connected to the shock recorder. This could give an
automatic warning in case of too low pressure if it is equipped with a mobile phone or satellite connection.
10) Transport with 2 bottles of dry gas (one direct connection to the tank, second for supplement and spare).
11) Pictures should be taken of the load before and after transport.
12) Monitoring transport should be planned (including shock recorder and via SMS /GPS-module).
13) Review transformer and accessories transport documentations, check report from the transporter and
persons performing the work.
14) The complete transport should be weighed before it is loaded to ensure correct transport weights. It is
advisable to weigh the transformer to ensure the actual weight (over-estimate results in higher freight and
permit charges, under-estimate can result in halted travel or fines). This could be a part of the testing
specification.
15) Verify transport dimensions and are measured.
16) Define transformer transport direction to avoid need for “turning” the transformer on site.
17) Clarify the reporting requirements.
12.7 Handling at load breaks

A load break is most commonly employed when one transport mode cannot be used for the entire voyage. The
voyage might require transport by truck from manufacturing plant or power plant to a port, river or sea transport to
the port of discharge, and by another truck to final destination. Other combinations are truck/rail, truck/air, or even
truck/barge/vessel/rail/truck for intercontinental transportation of large power transformers. Transloading is also
required at railway break or gauge points since the equipment between lines might not be compatible. The transfer
requires handling of the transformers and it causes expense and risk of damage. Therefore, the chosen trans-loading
facilities should be designed with the intent of minimizing handling. Due to divergent capacities of the different
transport modes, the facilities typically require some storage facility.
It is required that both the transformer and the site where the load break takes place are properly equipped for
movements considering the following.
1) Rigging: The process of lifting, moving and securing load vertically or horizontally using mechanical load-
shifting equipment. In order to allow this kind of movement, the transformer must be provided with lifting
lugs/eyes properly design to withstand its weight distribution among them, according to the statements of
standards relating to transformer design. When the facility where the rigging of the transformer will occur
does not have a crane, the rigging process shall be studied, taking account of aspects such as the limit loads
of the provisional crane, slings certification, soil adequacy certification and weather studies (for open areas)
summarized in a Rigging Plan.
2) Jacking: When a crane is not available or the space for crane structure is limited, the transformer is lifting by
jacking. Usually this process is not performed alone and to allow the transformer to be slide, skidded, hauled
or rolled (on rollers). Transformers must be supplied with a set of jacking pads, appropriately marked and
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designed to withstand the weight distribution of the equipment. Precautions for soil adequacy for jacking load
and selection of suitable and maintained hydraulic jacks.
3) Skidding: After the transformer is lifted, horizontal movement called skidding is performed by a sliding
platform(s) over rails. The contact between the tank bottom and the skidding platform(s) can happen over
the whole area of the bottom or just in some regions. Taking this into account, the tank bottom must be
design for such contact pressure. Normally, this process happens in the final movements at the destination
such as placing the equipment in its operating bay. To allow the horizontal hauling of the transformer, the
transformer shall be provided with appropriately designed pulling eyes, in addition to a sufficient number of
pulling eyes in the installation cell.
4) Rolling: diversely from the skidding process, the rolling is done by placing rolls under the tank bottom to haul
the transformer over them. Contact regions between the rolls and the bottom are line contacts and for such
contact pressure and regions the tank bottom shall be designed.
When required, a set of wheels must be provided with the transformer in order to move the equipment along rail
tracks. This kind of movement happens more often to place the transformer in its final site location.
In case of emergency movement, precautions must be taken not to subject any handling equipment to operation for
which it was not designed. The maximum loads that may be applied on jacking pads or lifting eyes must be
determined and respected. The transformer can only be skidded or rolled if its tank bottom was specifically designed
for these operations. The jacking pads or lifting points on a transformer may not have been designed for jacking of
the fully assembled and oil-filled transformer. It may also not be possible to lift the fully assembled transformer with
a crane unless special spreader bars or other equipment is used (due to sling interference with accessories on the
transformer.
12.8 Handling at site

Sometimes a transformer will be assembled at the site, oil filled and only then moved into its final position during a
short outage duration. A transformer designer needs to know that this situation and process is planned for the
transformer. Specific actions should be documented in the transportation instructions if they need to be followed,
such as removing the oil from the conservator tank.
PHOTO 48 - TRANSFORMER (FULLY ASSEMBLED) MOVED BY MULTI-WHEEL TRAILER (PHOTO COURTESY SOUTHWEST INDUSTRIAL RIGGING)
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The following discussion related to jack and slide (jack and glide), (jack and roll) process is intended to review with
transformer designer how a transformer might be handled at the receiving site. An understanding of the process is
necessary to provide a safe transformer design that allows movement of the transformer in the two horizontal axes.
PHOTO 49 - TRANSFORMER SUPPORTED ON FOUR RELATIVELY SMALL-AREA ROLLER-PADS DURING SLIDING MOVEMENT (PHOTO COURTESY W.
BERGMAN)
Although relatively complete blocking is provided along the path of travel, the transformer only rests on four small
areas during the movement. The transformer designer should be aware that these four slide or roller areas may not
be in the same plane due to imperfections in the blocking on the substation gravel (or other material), especially
when somewhat flexible rails are used.
During jacking operations, blocking must be installed as the transformer is lifted or lowered. This is a safety
requirement in the event that a jack or hose or valve fails during the lifting process.
Transformers may be moved by crane or by sliding. The transformer designer must ensure the transformer tank and
base can withstand the forces imposed by these actions.
The transformer may need to be moved in the direction of the long axis of the tank, the short axis of the tank or in
both directions.
PHOTO 50 - TRANSFORMER BEING PREPARED FOR MOVING IN THE LONGITUDINAL AND LATERAL DIRECTIONS (PHOTO COURTESY W. BERGMAN)
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Any transformer that is jacked must have safety blocking installed in case of jack, hydraulic hose, or valve failure.
The jacking locations and the blocking locations must not interfere with the safe placement of the slide rails. The
designer must be aware of the load bearing locations, where a mover may place such blocking and slide rails and
where prohibited areas are located. When sliding a narrow transformer, it is prudent to place the rails as close to the
outside of the base as possible to provide maximum stability.
The transformer designer must also be aware that construction persons will place the blocking at their convenience
unless it is very clear where they may NOT place blocking or the slides. At first it may seem obvious that the blocking
would be placed under the structural portion of the base; however, the need to move this transformer in the
longitudinal direction makes the need for blocking in other locations. At least the blocking is more or less under the
core but whether it is in an allowable position is less certain.
PHOTO 51 - TRANSFORMER BLOCKING NOT UNDER STRUCTURAL BASE. (PHOTO COURTESY W. BERGMAN)
PHOTO 52 - TRANSFORMER PREPARED TO SLIDE ALONG LONG AXIS (PHOTO COURTESY W. BERGMAN)
Note in the above photograph, how the blocking is installed inboard from the structural base members to allow the
rails to be placed under the structural base members. Note also how stability of the transformer is affected while
transformer is only supported on the blocking inside the transformer base structural members and the jacks have
been removed (to allow placement of the rails).
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13 Transport Drawing and Instructions

A Transport drawing must include the following information.
1) Centre of gravity (CoG) in the transport condition. The centre of gravity shall be shown on the transformer
tank side. Minimum on two sides, longitudinal and lateral, or on all four sides.
2) Weight and dimensions of the transformer in the transport condition.
3) The transformer is to be marked with reference line (centre line). This line is also shown in the Transport
Drawing.
4) Details of transformer base showing acceptable jacking, blocking and skidding/sliding locations with a
minimum supporting area during transportation.
5) The location of lifting and pulling eyes, jacking pads and bearing surfaces for moving the transformer by
sliding or use of rollers.
6) Securing/ lashing points on the transformer for all expected transport modes with maximum load and angle
7) Size, position and height above foundation of the jacking pads.
8) Maximum sling angle from vertical when lifting main tank with minimum length of the sling.
9) Special lifting requirements including the use of spreaders or special slinging tackle shall be shown on the
drawing.
10) Location of shock recorder(s) and their settings.
11) Special precautions when moving the transformer.
12) The oil level suitable for transport the transformer.
13) Location of dry gas refill device with bottle(s)
14) The worst required profile of transport in the lateral view of the transformer (scaled).
15) If the transformer needs brackets for transportation the location should be shown.
A Transport Drawing must accompany the transformer during transport and be readily available to those handling
the transformer during transport. Good practice is to include the transport drawing information on a metal plate
attached to the transformer tank.
Note: This information may be included on the transformer outline drawing only if the required transport and
transformer moving information is distinctly separated from the other information on the outline drawing.
See Annex 9 - Examples - Transport Drawings (-plans) showing the required information.
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14 Load Securing
14.1 Introduction
The transformers should be manufactured with adequate facilities for securing for transport.
1) Prevent damage to the transformer during transportation (lashings do not cause damage to exterior
components, allows for movement of the transformer on the carrier, expose the transformer and
components to unanticipated forces, etc.
2) Meet National and International regulations for transport of general and dimensional cargo (the means of
securing the cargo meet statutory requirements for lashings (number, strength, safety factors, identification
of lashing characteristics and ratings, etc.)
3) Allow for the safety of persons and other transportation carriers that share the route with the transformer
carrier
The purpose of load securing is to prevent the cargo (transformers and accessories) from moving while on the
transporter/carrier. Loads that move may strike other objects that are being transported at the same time either
causing direct damage or indirect damage through shock loading when they subsequently hit the transporter or other
cargo. Sliding loads that affect other fixed objects can increase the shock loading on both objects and increase the
longitudinal and lateral forces on the transporter. Load movement can cause
4) Damage to the load or other objects on the same transporter,

5) Severe safety issues if the load falls off the transporter or the location of the load shifts on the transporter,
which can change the clearance profile of the loaded transporter. The load might then strike stationary
objects or other vehicles sharing the route.
6) The CoG of the loaded transporter can change, transport stability effected or even causing load to roll over.
Cargo’s movement on surface of the transporter is dangerous to the driver and to anyone sharing the route. The
steering of a vehicle can be affected by how the cargo is distributed (i.e. position of CoG) and/or secured on the
vehicle, making it more difficult to control the vehicle and possibly leading to severe accidents. Load securing is not
designed to keep the load secure in the event of a crash or rollover. Load securement is intended to immobilize the
load during transport. Securing accomplished by either direct or indirect methods. Various world jurisdictions have
increased regulation of the safe securing of loads.
This chapter discusses best practice guidelines on transformer securing for road transport.
14.2 Load Securement Methods – Indirect and Direct S ecurement

Indirect securement creates downward forces to restrain the load against the transporter and relies on friction to
prevent load movement. They must be tight to be effective. A common example is a strap that passes over a load
and is attached to the transporter at each end of the strap. The strap holds the load against the surface of the
transporter to increase friction, thereby holding the load in position. Indirect securing is very dependent on the friction
forces, which are dependent on the coefficient of friction between the transformer base (steel) and the transporter
(commonly steel). This is why it is so important to use friction mats, wood or other material that increases friction.
For example, a steel transformer on wood between the transformer and transporter surface might have a friction
force of 50% of the transformer weight, while use of rubber may increase this to as much as 70%. Steel on steel has
a very low coefficient of friction, which is the reason that transformers sometimes move on a steel deck of a
transporter.
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FIGURE 41 – INDIRECT SECUREMENT
Direct securement acts to directly restrain a load from moving. Direct securement acts against forces directly in line
with the securement. Direct securement is weakened if over tightened but must be sufficiently tight to prevent load
movement. The securing angle is lower when the securing device is crossed from one side to the other. Attachment
of the securing devices closer to the bottom of the load makes them more effective for direct securement. Direct
securement can also be accomplished by means of blocking or fastening to the transporter to prevent movement.
FIGURE 42 – DIRECT SECUREMENT
The angle between the securement and the transporter is vitally important to the effectiveness of the securement.
Indirect securement should ideally have a large angle (from the horizontal) to take advantage of the full strength of
the securing devices in increasing the frictional forces on the load. Direct securement should have a small angle
(from the horizontal) to take advantage of the full strength of the securing devices in increasing the restraining forces
on the load. If more than one direct securement is used, they must all have the same tension or the load will only be
secured by the tightest securement. It the tightest securement fails, the remaining securement may not be adequate
to hold the load in position (or meet transport regulations). Securement intended to hold the load against both lateral
and longitudinal forces must consider the resulting vector restraint and loading of the securing devices making an
allowance for the angle of attachment to the load and to the transporter.
Remember that each type of securement/lashing/tie-down has a Working Load Limit (WLL), also called “Safe
Working Load (SWL)”, to accomplish safe transport and is used by regulatory authorities to determine compliance.
Generally, such securement must be marked with the WLL. Some countries ban securement that is not marked with
the WLL.
14.3 Examples - Accidents and Load S ecurement

An example is shown below of a transformer steel base loaded on steel beams on a steel multi wheel trailer. Chains
are inadequate for indirect or direct restraint. The example shows what can happen when an accident causes one
side of the multi wheel trailer to collapse. Transformer with no restraining friction slides off trailer.
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Chain could not restrain No wood or

lateral movement friction mats
PHOTO 53 - TRANSFORMER STEEL BASE LOADED ON STEEL BEAMS ON A STEEL MULTI WHEEL TRAILER (PHOTO COURTESY SOUTHERN COMPANY)
Accidental collapse of
one side of trailer
PHOTO 54 - TRANSFORMER SLIDES OFF THE STEEL TRAILER WITH NO FRICTION ENHANCEMENT (PHOTO COURTESY SOUTHERN COMPANY)
Below is an example showing a transformer loaded with wood between trailer and transformer steel base. Chains
maintained indirect loading and friction restrained transformer from sliding off trailer.
PHOTO 55 - TRANSFORMER THAT REMAINS ON TRAILER DESPITE ANGLE OF SLOPE (PHOTO COURTESY SOUTHERN COMPANY)
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14.4 Quick Reference: 11 Significant Directives for Load Securing

Power transformers require correct securing, consequence of incidents can be much worse than for general cargo.
The transformer designers, loading operators and transporter workers need to follow these basic directives:
1) Before the vehicle is loaded, check that the load platform, bodywork and any load securing equipment are of
good quality and in a serviceable condition. This is particularly important if the securing is not the
responsibility of the driver (as is the case in some countries).
2) Secure the cargo in such a way that it cannot make the vehicle tip over.
3) Determine the securing method(s) best adapted to the characteristics of the transformer (locking/blocking,
number of chains, position of chains etc.).
4) All power transformers should have sufficient number of lashing points and 8 lashing points above the CoG
(see drawing below) is usually sufficient. The chains must restrain the transformer from moving longitudinally
(front to back) or laterally (side to side). Chains can be used to restrain the transformer by a combination of
direct and indirect methods.
5) Check the manufacturers’ recommendations on vehicle and blocking equipment are followed.
6) Check that the securing equipment is rated for the transport forces during the journey. The equipment must
be able to withstand heavy braking, strong cornering, bad road or bad weather conditions.
7) Ensure that the transformer is loaded with the CoG in transport configuration as close as possible to the
longitudinal axis.
8) Check the secured transformer during the journey regularly, especially after the intial short distance, heavy
braking or other abnormal situations during driving.
9) Use equipment supportsing the cargo such as friction mats, boards, beams, etc.
10) Ensure that the securing equipment does not damage the transformer.
11) Adapt safe driving speed, comply to transport conditions that transport loads to transformer remains low.
FIGURE 43 - LASHING ON ROAD TRANSPORT (LONGITUDIAL AND LATERAL VIEW)
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14.5 Legal Requirements

Legal requirements and basic common sense demand that transport cargo are secured, whatever the journey. This
is to protect people involved in loading, unloading and driving the vehicle, together with other road users, pedestrians,
transformer itself, and the vehicle.
Loading and unloading should be carried out by appropriate trained staffs that are aware of the risks. Transformer
designers and those loading transformers should not assume that workers hauling transformers by road fully
understand the physics of load securement or the regulatory requirements for safe transport.
Drivers should also be aware of the additional risk moving load will be under transport. The driver has the
responsibility not start the journey if the transformer is inadequately loaded or secured. Railroads will almost certainly
not accept the load if it is not secured in accordance with the railway requirements and standards. In practice and
often the shipper’s employees (i.e. employees of the transformer manufacturer) carries out at least part of the loading
operation. Therefore, all involved parties must be aware of their respective responsibilities. In many situations, there
is not a sole person responsible for the loading and securing operations.
In some countries/states, the legal obligations of the other participants involved with the transport process are
accountable within their national/state regulation. Unfortunately, there can be inconsistency between these
regulations.
Most countries/states have legal requirements that cargo must be placed on the vehicle so that it cannot endanger
persons or goods.
However, it is important to understand that the legal obligations for the responsibility of correctly securing (lashing)
the transformers are different around the world. It is very important to note that the regulatory requirements vary
depending on the country, province, state and even city or municipality where the load is transported; hence the
importance of providing adequate attachment features and locations on the transformer.
14.6 Chain Lashing

The lashing eyes must be compatible with the strength of the lashing; transformers are lashed directly between the
lashing eyes and the lashing points of the vehicle. This is called direct lashing if the chain angle is low to the
horizontal.
The lashing equipment (chains) should be positioned so that they are in contact only with the lashing points of the
transformer to prevent damaging the transformer.
For chain lashing, two properties determine the mechanical strength of a chain, size of the links and the material
quality. The chain must comply with the requirements for the transformers.
Lashing chains shall never be used when knotted, twisted or connected with a pins or bolts. Lashing chains must be
protected against the loads corners using protective sleeves and/or edge protectors.
Lashing chains showing any signs of damage must be replaced. The following are considered to be indications of
damage requiring the replacement of faulty components:
1) Chains: superficial fissures, elongation exceeding 3%, wear exceeding 10% of the nominal diameter, visible
deformations or cracks.
2) Connecting components and tensioning devices, deformations, splits, cracks pronounced signs of wear,
signs of corrosion.
Calculate separately the number of lashings required preventing sliding and the number of lashings required to
prevent tipping over. The highest number is the minimum number of lashing required.
Further information can be found in standard EN12195 - parts 1 to 4.
As a general guidance for lashing a transformer 8 chains should be used (for front and back longitudinal securing,
and front and back lateral securing).
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Proper loading and load securement is vital for safe transport of transformers.
14.7 Supporting Equipment - Friction Mats

The loading surface of the transporter as well as spacers can be made of high friction material for increasing the
sliding friction between the platform bed and the transformer. The characteristics of these friction mats must be
chosen for the type and size of load and the conditions during which it is being transported.
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15 Transport With and Without Oil

Oil filled transformers are meant to always have their insulation covered with the oil used in service however, for
transportation and storage it is often necessary to remove the oil. Prolonged time intervals without oil can cause
future insulation and dielectric problems. Moisture could penetrate into the insulation and oil gradually leaches out
of the insulation to the bottom of the tank. Defined procedures need to be followed to limit these problems to
acceptable limits.
15.1 Transportation and Storage without Oil

If a high voltage transformer is to be transported without oil and the time between draining the oil in the factory and
installation is more than a few months, it is strongly recommended to oil fill the transformer prior to the storage period.
Oil filling is to prevent moisture ingress to the transformer insulation. Moisture will weaken the insulation quality and
cause deterioration of the insulation.
When transportation or storage under oil is not practical, filling with dry gas is acceptable for short periods but
precautions have to be taken. Nitrogen or dry air can be used as gas filling however, nitrogen has health and safety
issues and in many cases the usage is not allowed. Entering the tank is not permitted prior to the complete
replacement of nitrogen by dry air.
Dry air cannot be used in case of transformers being filled with esters and in this case nitrogen must be used. An
alternative procedure could be to fill and process a transformer with oil after being tested with an ester fluid. In this
case, transport under dry air might be possible.
For transport or storage without oil, the transformer is filled with dry gas at a pressure of 200 mbar (at 20 °C) while
the oil is being drained. When the filling is completed, the tank is connected to one or more dry gas bottles, which
are secured to the tank. An automatic filling device provides a constant positive pressure. The dew point of the dry
gas is normally in the range of -50 °C to -60 °C.
The pressure in the dry air bottles can be up to 200 bar. A reducing regulating valve is used to provide a positive
pressure of about 350 mbar nominal in the transformer tank. A pressure relieve valve on top of the transformer is
carefully adjusted to slightly above the filling pressure, e.g. 350 mbar. It is recommended to measure the dew point
prior to transport. The dew point should be less than - 40 °C at 20 °C ambient.
The transformer tank filled with dry gas must on no account be opened during transport, nor must the gas bottles be
removed, if they cannot be reconnected within 48 hours. If the transformer tank has an obvious leak, or if the gas
bottles show a significant pressure drop during transport, make sure that the leak is sealed, and inform the
transformer manufacturer.
The time period for a transformer under gas is limited, because the insulation material will start to de-impregnate. A
preference of many transformer manufactures is to limit this time to 6 months or even less from the time the oil is
drained at the factory prior to transport. Transportation and storage in dry gas beyond this period must be approved
by the supplying factory. The required oil-filling can be relevant for potential warranty claims, i.e. a loss of warranty
is possible in case given rules are violated.
However, due to project delays it might happen that it is not possible to fill the transformer with oil after 6 month.
Depending on defined parameters the supplier might permit storage duration without oil up to one year. In this case
the general condition of the transformer is to be monitored and regular checks with possible corrective actions must
be made according to the manufacturer’s instruction, for example:
1) Maintain minimum positive pressure (e.g. 200 mbar), exchange bottles

2) Perform dew point measurements
3) Prior to filling with oil vacuum treatment according the manual is necessary
4) After oil filling hot oil circulation at an oil temperature of at least 60 degree C is required
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15.2 Transportation and Storage with Oil

If transport weight and dimensional limits allow, smaller transformers typically up to 50 MVA and 145 kV are
transported with all or most of the required oil in the main tank. Some of these smaller units may also be transported
with dry nitrogen or air in the gas space on top of the oil.
The gas space can be connected to a bottle with nitrogen or dry air. In this case the transformer will leave the factory
with positive pressure
During transportation, the majority of insulation parts are normally covered by oil. Therefore, in many cases a vacuum
process prior commissioning is not required.
A gas cushion may allow oil sloshing which could cause damages during transportation. HV leads and other
insulation parts exposed to the oil movement should be solidly fixed.
Oil spilling during transportation and storage must be avoided. Protection of protruding devices such as valves,
pipes, pressure relief devices, etc. is required. An emergency plan must be available in case of an oil spill.
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16 Testing
16.1 Transformer Testing

16.1.1 Factory Acceptance Tests
The transformer is tested at the factory to verify design and manufacture meet the technical requirements specified
in international [1], regional [48] [49] or national [50] standards and/or required by the purchaser.
The tests listed in the above standards as:
1) “Routine tests” [1] [48] [49] [50] shall be made on every transformer.
2) “Type test” [1] [50] or “design tests” [48] [49] shall be made on transformers with changed design and modified
performance
3) “Special test” [1] [50] or “other tests” [48] [49] may be specified by the purchaser in addition to routine tests.
16.1.2 Factory Fingerprint / Baseline Tests

Factory fingerprint tests are not considered acceptance tests. Such fingerprint tests are used to improve future
diagnostics and will have an important value in case of investigations after the transformer transport and/or
maintenance.
It is important to have reference test results against which the results of subsequent tests can be assessed. These
reference test results must be on a fault-free and new transformer [51].
There are a number of tests, which may be performed as a basis for analysis after transport [51]:
1) Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) for fully-assembled and oil-filled transformer [52] [53] [54].
2) Dew point measurements after the transport gas humidity has stabilized and before transport.
3) Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) measurements prior to transport [52]. FRA test is optional
measurements on the transformer equipped with small bushings in the transport configuration and with oil
quantity used for transport (empty or full except for a gas space above the oil).
FRA test is recommended as part of the overall fingerprint for evaluating normal or accidental changes in the
mechanical condition of transformers. The measurement of frequency response is standardised [52] [53] [54]. In
these standards, FRA is recommended as a method to evaluate the transformer transport; the test can provide in-
depth information about the parts susceptible to transport damage, core, windings and clamping structures. FRA
measurements (before, at load breaks, after transport) is optional, and needs agreement between the transformer
manufacturer and the purchaser.
16.2 Transformer Weighing

The maximum weight of the loaded transport vehicle depends on the transport weight of the transformer as this
weight, and the transport route, determines which mean of transport is possible. i.e. a girder hanger. Both maximum
permitted total weight, and the maximum permitted axle/wheel load of the loaded transport vehicle determines how
many axle sets (axles) the girder hanger has to be equipped with. Often bridges give a limit sometimes demanding
the use of a temporary dolly under the transformer to reduce the axle load when passing the bridge. However, the
use of a dolly will increase the total weight of the transport vehicle and this total weight may also be limited by the
bridge design and condition.
This maximum weight of the loaded vehicle often limits the transformer transport. For instance in Norway transformer
maximum transport weight is 250 tonnes. It is important to understand the transport permit is not flexible regarding
the transformer maximum mass/weight. If the transport permit is issued for 250 000 kg, it is not allowed to transport
250 001kg. This means the transformer specification must limit the maximum weight with zero tolerance, to 250
000kg. The Mechanical Design Review must address the margin in the mechanical design for the factual weight
ensure the permitted maximum weight is not exceeded.
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Some purchasers will demand this maximum weight is checked after the transformer is prepared for transport and
before it is dispatched to the forwarder. This may not be done by the safety load cell in the factory crane lifting hook
as this system is normally not accurate enough. However, loading cell system exists with the necessary accuracy.
PHOTO 56 – LOAD CELLS
Load cell with accuracy of approximately + 0.5 % of rated capacity up to 50,000kg is available in the market. A digital
indicator unit, which converts the electrical force-weight signal from the load cells to a display panel, also provides
the necessary traceability.
FIGURE 44 - LOAD CELL LOCATION ON WHEEL SETS
16.2.1 Determination of Centre of Gravity - Principle

The transformer mass may also be checked to verify the Centre of Gravity in the horizontal plane.
A specialized load cell could be placed between crane hook and transformer when it is lifting in preparation for
transport. However, this only gives total weight and no information about the position of the Centre of Gravity.
Standard overweight load cells in the crane are not accurate enough.
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The transformer mass may be used to verify the Centre of Gravity in the horizontal plane. Assume the following lay-
out of the measurement.
FIGURE 45 – PRINCIPAL OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY DETERMINATION
The location of the Centre of Gravity as defined by tl and tw can be calculated using the following formula:
(FCH1 + FCH3 ) ∙ 0 + (FCH2 + FCH4 ) ∙ l1 + (FCH5 + FCH6 ) ∙ (l1 + l2 )

tl =
FCH1 + FCH2 + FCH3 + FCH4 + FCH5 + FCH6
(FCH3 + FCH2 + FCH5 ) ∙ 0 + (FCH1 + FCH4 + FCH6 ) ∙ w

tw =
FCH1 + FCH2 + FCH3 + FCH4 + FCH5 + FCH6
16.2.2 Determination of Centre of Gravity - Measurement

Measurement of Centre of Gravity was performed on a transformer 200 MVA 420/138/- kV using six load cells. The
values are shown on the transformer base sketch below:
FIGURE 46 – MEASUREMENT OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Transformer Centre of Gravity determined according to measurement is at position 465 and 25 mm from the
transformer centre lines.
Transformer Centre of Gravity determined by calculation during transformer mechanical design is at position 470 and
30 mm.
Results obtained by measurement show significant accuracy when compared with calculated centre of gravity.
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16.3 Monitoring Management of Transformer Transportation

Some aspects of the transformer transport can be monitored.
16.3.1 Transport Gas

Transformers tank generally contain a pressurized gas during transport, whether the tank is empty or oil filled a small
gas space is allowed above the oil level.
Generally, a transport gas pressure/vacuum gauge is provided (range of 35 kPag, 0.35 barg, 5 psig).
The transformer will be equipped with at least one make-up bottle of dry gas. During transport two options are
applicable to the make-up gas bottle valve, open or closed.
1) Transport with the gas bottle valve open
When there is a small leak, the transformer maintains a positive pressure until the gas bottle is depleted. Gas will
also be added if venting occurs through a pressure relief device when the ambient temperature becomes high (in a
very hot location). However, the consequence is that if there is a leak, the gas bottle could empty and the transformer
gas pressure will become negative for parts of the journey. Even after the leak is repaired obtaining a suitable dry
gas bottle might be difficult in transport.
2) Transport with the gas bottle valve closed
With closed valve a leak can be observed (on tank pressure gauge), the leak can be corrected en route and there is
still a reserve of dry gas to reapply pressure to the transformer. However observation of the transformer gas pressure
becomes a mandatory requirement along the route or at load breaks where skilled resources might be available to
repair leaks. The significance effect of small leaks is for the transformer tank loses complete gas pressure and there
is no automatic replenishment of internal gas.
A compromised solution that might be practical especially for large transformers, is to provide two make-up gas
bottles and to open the valve on one bottle and retain the second bottle as a reserve with its valve closed until
additional gas is needed if there is leakage.
16.3.2 Transformer Geographic Location

Some shock recorders can be equipped with GPS and SMS based communication features which allow transmitting
of GPS base location, tank gas pressure, and some other forms of information.
16.4 Transformer Evaluation during and after T ransport

16.4.1 Preliminary Condition Assessment
Immediately after arriving to the site, perform an inspection in order to find any damage that may have happened
during transport. All preliminary condition assessments, field installation and energizing operations should be
supervised by a representative of the manufacturer. Such condition assessments can also be performed during
transport at load breaks, for example, after unloading the transformer after sea transport or immediately after rail
transport.
1) Visual inspection
The transformer shall be visually checked for leaks, tank external marks and scratches, sheared off parts, bent plates
or beams and other signs of rough handling [55] [56] [57].
2) Impact recorder data analysis
Impact recorder data analysis shows whether shocks and vibrations have occurred, in the transverse, longitudinal
and vertical directions, during the transport, loading and unloading processes [55] [56]. The magnitude of vibration
and shocks is recorded in terms of acceleration “g” values. The ranges of the impact recorder are analysed after the
transformer is unloaded. If the recommended acceleration limits have been exceeded, it does not mean that damage
has occurred to the transformer, but a deeper data analysis is required.
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3) Core / frame insulation resistance measurements
Core insulation resistance measurements will show whether the core sheets to ground (and if applicable frame)
insulation has been damaged [55] [56].
4) FRA measurements on site arriving
If the FRA test was performed prior to shipment in transport condition, on site FRA measurement in the transport
configuration may be performed to compare with the FRA measurement prior to shipment [52] [56]. There are
necessary to install test bushings for this purpose.
5) Gas pressure and dew point check
The main tank is filled with dry air or nitrogen gas in order to avoid any moisture entry [55] [56]. A positive pressure
indicates no moisture or air has leaked to the tanks’ internal, but zero gas pressure indicates there may be moisture
inside. When the dew point measurement of the transport gas indicates moisture in the transformer, the manufacturer
should be notified. In that case, the manufacturer’s recommendations for field drying of the insulation should be
followed.
6) Internal inspection
Normally an internal inspection is not required. Some manufacturers or users recommend an internal inspection in
all cases, to check the core earthing (when external access not available), bolted connections, windings clamping,
core lamination. Internal works are necessary to remove the temporary supports used to improve the stability of the
core during transport. Some bushing connections must be made from inside the tank.
In case an internal inspection is required, the transformer instruction manual for the allowable exposure time for the
core and winding and internal work, must be consulted.
7) Incident reports
All abnormal transport condition during or after journey is completed should be immediately reported to the
manufacturer. The haulage company should report the exact location of incidents, type of damage caused to the
equipment, nitrogen or dry air pressure drop, and final location of the transformer for an inspection.
8) Evaluation of the assessment
The final statement to determine the equipment’s status should review all information available. This statement is
the basis for deciding whether to proceed with transport or to halt transport and perform adjustments before
continuing with transport. In a worst case scenario, other than scrapping or rebuild on site, the transformer would be
returned to the factory.
16.4.2 On-site Acceptance Tests and Checks related to Transport

Prior to energising of the transformer, tests and checks are performed to determine the fitness of equipment.
The equipment’s manufacturers recommend a wide range of acceptance and start-up procedures. In all cases the
manufacturer’s instructions and recommendations must be followed, although basic guidelines and instructions are
available.
Transformer tests and site assessments report of the status of transformer after transport, including the
recommendations and repair activities or the transformer transport back to factory are reviewed. The major
diagnostic techniques provide information on possible failure of power transformers.
The tests that must be performed after the on-site assembly are provided by transformer manufacturer, test
agreement or standards [55] [56] [57].
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The need for performing some or all of the following tests and checks depends on the transformer category and the
agreement scheme with the manufacturer.
1) Insulation resistance [55] [56] [57];

2) Transformer turns ratio (TTR) [55] [56] [57];
3) Windings resistance [55] [56];
4) Insulation power-factor test and capacitance [55] [56];
5) Excitation current test [55] [56] [57];
6) Core insulation [55] [56];
7) Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) on the fully assembled and oil filled transformer (and in transport
condition if required). FRA may indicate signs relating to fitness of the core and winding internal components,
including winding deformations, displacements, partial collapse, and shorted turns and open winding,
loosened clamping structures, broken clamping structures, core connection problems, core movements,
faulty core earthing [51] [52] [53] [54] [56].
8) Oil leak inspection [56].
For further information Annex 5 and 6 gives graphical and table representation of transformer evaluation during and
after transport.
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17 Conclusions and Recommendations

The case studies of transport incidents collected from some countries shows severe transport incidents related to
transformer transport. It is important to learn from incidents and “the lessons learned” from each incident should be
studied carefully as they give useful information and guidance. Transport incidents involving large power transformer
are generally severe and have a potential for large economic impacts and also injuries to people. It is important to
pay attention to the risks involved when it comes to transport planning. Related to this, the choice of transport mode,
suitable transport equipment, load securing and also transport forwarder are of great importance.
A power transformer must be designed to withstand the transport related mechanical forces (loads). To do so one
must understand the impacts (mechanical forces compared to the transformer design limits) the different transport
modes (road, rail, marine and waterways, air) can cause. Often there are multimodal transport involved which also
involves load breaks and the “worst” condition must be taken into considerations when designing a transformer to
withstand the transport forces. The guide gives general design requirements and the recommendation is to use
these in addition to the part describing the transport modes and their specifics (influence on design, influence on
transport planning, how to minimize transport forces). Permanent active part supporting structures are preferred.
It is also recommended during the design to take general precautions against long-lasting vibrations and slow
repeating movements to prevent dislocation of components, e.g. loosening of core laminations or insulation parts. In
absence of well-established design limits for vibrations, the recommendation is to take a safe approach. These safe
precautions could be (among others) to hold the lamination in place by a sound mechanical way, fix small insulations
details by strap bands – small wooden pegs – glue – or by geometry.
The transformer design review is important and this activity should include all aspects related to the transformer
transportation. This should include any usual and unusual aspects related to the transport and the transport-route
including the transport mode(s). Identification of the manufacturers design rules and the applicability to the actual
transformer and the transport mode(s) including how these design-rules are related to past experience. During the
design review the applicable limits for transport loads in each main direction of the transformer must be stated by the
manufacturer in terms of maximum velocity change caused by mechanical loads or maximum energy contend of
these mechanical loads. The manufacturer must also show how these design limits correspond to the expected
transport mechanical loads related to the actual transport mode(s). Important is also that manufacturer and
transformer purchaser discuss the impact levels or occurrences that will initiate an investigation with a potential
internal inspection of the transformer. In addition, the type of shock recorders and the setting of these are important
to agree upon.
Shock recorders should be used for monitoring the transport mechanical impacts above a certain level during the
transformer transport. Only electronic shock recorders should be and the important specifications of a modern shock
recorder are - measuring range, frequency range, sampling rate, battery life, presentation type, and operating
temperature range. It is considered good practice to use two shock recorders, positioned on opposite ends of the
longitudinal centre line. Placing shock recorders near diagonally opposite corners is a good alternative, especially if
the footprint of the transformer is square rather than rectangular. Also a third shock recorder fixed to the active part
would be ideal, but is considered optional due to the less practicality and the limitation of possible mounting locations.
The shock recorder mounting location should be rigid and preferably near the corner of three intersecting surfaces.
The right setting of the shock recorder are of importance for it to be able to read real impacts that can cause damage
to the transformer and not to measure many impacts (noise) that do not cause any damage. The programming/setting
should only be performed by authorized/trained personnel.
As described in the part “Design Requirements from Standards” there are weaknesses in current standards and
generally, they do not give sufficient information. Updating of these are recommended and would help. Giving a
maximum g-value is not enough to allow detailed design for transport or to interpret measurement results of a shock
recorder. It is therefore, strongly recommended that future revisions define occurring mechanical conditions with the
required detail. The different standards should give limits for maximal energy content or maximal velocity change of
an event. This can be given, for example, by defining both the maximal g-value and the shape of the shock in the
time domain.
There are in use several symbols for the indication of Centre of Gravity (CoG) related to different standards, e.g. IEC
60417 and ISO 7000. In addition, there are in use for transformer transport a variety of other symbols. Such a variety
can be confusing and lead to wrong understanding. The WG have specified characteristics of suitable CoG-symbols
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and proposed a set of new CoG-symbols especially for use for transformer transportation and operation. It is the
WG’s recommendation that these are considered to be taken into transformer standards like IEC 60076-1 etc. The
proposed symbols shows necessary information in both graphical way to avoid language issues and in English
language. The set of symbols shows these situations:
a) CoG for Transport without Oil

b) CoG for Transport with Oil
c) CoG for Transport Assembled without Oil
d) CoG when in Operation
The transformer transport process is of great importance and consists of several activities like transportation system
capability and access assessment, pre - transport planning, choice of transport mode(s), final transport planning by
the purchaser of transport and final transport planning by the forwarder and evaluation of transport. It is
recommended to read the comprehensive overview of all steps in the guide. Important in this relation is also to
understand the different Incoterms rules in relation to costs, risks and responsibilities for both purchaser and seller.
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ANNEXES
Annex 1 – Derivation of Shock Limiting Curves
FIGURE 47 - PROPOSED SHAPE OF INDICATIVE CURVE FOR MAXIMAL ALLOWED ENERGY CONTENT OF TRANSPORT SHOCKS
1) Maximum Energy Content (Angled Line)

The energy content of the shock is one of the most important aspects that define whether a shock can cause damage
or not. This energy content of a shock can be written as the integral of the applied force times the travelled distance:
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐸(𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = ∫ 𝐹(𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑠
0
With: 𝐸(𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥 ) = the energy at time tMax in Joules
𝐹(𝑡) = the force acting on the transformer at time t in Newton
𝑑𝑠 = the travelled distance in m
This energy needs to be defined based upon the data measured by a shock recorder (acceleration in time). Therefore
the following replacements need to be done:
1) The force F on the transformer can be defined as: 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝑀𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑜 ∙ 𝑎(𝑡).
a. 𝑀𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑜 = Mass of the transformer in kg
𝑚
b. 𝑎(𝑡) = acceleration of the transformer as a whole in
𝑠2
𝑑𝑠
2) The travelled distance ds can be calculated as: 𝑑𝑠 = ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣(𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑡.
𝑑𝑡
𝑡
3) The velocity 𝑣(𝑡)can be calculated as the integral in time of the acceleration 𝑎(𝑡): 𝑣(𝑡) = ∫0 𝑎(𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑡 . To
calculate this integral, the initial velocity must be known. This initial velocity however can’t be derived from
the measurement data of the shock recorder. Therefore the calculation must be done in a co-ordinate system
that moves (and continues to move) at the same initial velocity as the transformer. This reduces the initial
velocity to a known value of zero. The calculated integral thus becomes the change in velocity ∆𝑣(𝑡) with
respect to the start of the shock.
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The resulting equation then becomes:

𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐸(𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
𝑒(𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = = ∫ 𝑎(𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑎(𝑡) ∙ 𝑣(𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑡 < 𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥
𝑀𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑜
0 0
By changing the reference system to a co-ordinate system which moves at the initial velocity of the transformer, the
calculated energy becomes the energy which is added to the transformer, or in other words the energy of the shock.
The energy content of each shock needs to be smaller than the allowed limit E Max. When this limit is plotted on a
shock-duration/acceleration graph with double logarithmic scales it becomes an angled sloped line. Unfortunately,
an acceleration-time plot does not retain the information of the shape of the shock. Considering a square shaped
shock in the mentioned formula to define this limit will yield the lowest curve as this shock contains the most energy
for a given shock duration and maximum acceleration. Considering a triangular shaped shock will yield the highest
limit, as it will contain less energy. A sinusoidal shaped shock will be somewhere in the middle. These limits for
different shock shapes are illustrated in Figure 56. Derivation of the energy limit for a square shock is given as
example in Annex 3.
FIGURE 48 - ILLUSTRATION OF THEORETICAL LIMITS CORRESPONDING TO DIFFERENT SHOCK SHAPES
This means that above the limit of the square shock, there is a considerable grey zone. Shocks measured in this
region could be sustained by the transformer if the shape of the shock was more favourable than the worst case of
a square shock. In Figure 56 only the theoretical limit corresponding to a sinusoidal shock is shown to simplify the
graph. However, in real applications the curve corresponding to the worst occurring shock shape should be used.
The mentioned energy limit EMax is defined by the weakest material that is used in the support structure of the active
part in the considered direction. The maximum impact energy that a material can sustain can be calculated by
approximation, starting from a compressive force/deformation curve or from a tensile force/deformation curve. The
maximum energy per unit of volume will be corresponding to the surface below the curve
𝑙𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑙) ∙ 𝑑𝑙
0
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FIGURE 49 – DEFINITION OF MAXIMUM ENERGY PER UNIT VOLUME WHICH CAN BE SUSTAINED BY A MATERIAL BASED ON THE MATERIAL’S FORCE-
DEFORMATION (ELASTICITY) CURVE
The selected theoretical curve to define this limit must be matching with the load condition of the material of the
weakest component in the weakest system in the support structure. This theoretical limit does not reflect the
variations which can be observed in reality due to small changes in environmental conditions. Therefore, this
maximum energy limit should be validated by conducting real impact tests on the involved materials.
Furthermore it should be kept in mind that not all energy of the impact will be transformed in deformation energy of
this weakest material. Therefore, this theoretical limit can be regarded as a worst case limit and therefore based on
real impact tests or experience energy values could be adapted accordingly.
A shock measured on the tank will have to pass through the support structure to reach the active part. In case of a
perfectly stiff support structure, the shock will be transferred completely to the active part. However, in case the
support structure deforms (elastically), an amount of the shock energy will not have an impact on the active part.
Therefore, the defined energy limit could be corrected by taking this damping into account when the limit is defined
for shocks measured on the tank as is shown in Figure 56. However, this damping effect in normal circumstances is
relatively small compared to the total shock energy; this damping will be different for each shock’s duration. Therefore,
it is advised to keep the minimum limit for both measurements on the tank and on the active part.
For derivation of the maximal allowed energy content an important assumption has been made. This limit is only valid
if the active part will become damaged by crushing one of the components of the support structure. Dislocations of a
given element of the active part, like spacers in the winding, must be prevented. These components must be
designed in such a way to ensure they will stay in place during shocks of at least the energy content given by the
calculated limit. In other words, the support is the weakest part of the structure, which will preferably deform
plastically. In this process it will reduce the peak acceleration for the active part (and its components).
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Annex 2 - Maximum Static Acceleration (Horizontal Line)

The support structure of the active part will be able to sustain shocks with a certain maximal acceleration regardless
of the shock duration. This is understood by remembering that this support structure will be able to sustain a defined
continuous acceleration. All shocks with a maximum acceleration below this defined value will cause no problems
for the transformer.
Care must however be taken that in case of a completely dampened support structure, the maximum acceleration
experienced by the active part can be twice the maximal acceleration of the shock.
The exact value of this acceleration that can be carried by the active part needs to be defined based upon the
mechanical design of the support structure of the active part in the transformer tank.
A static mechanical calculation must be made of the active part and its support structure. The highest acceleration
which does not cause stresses above the allowed static limit is the maximal continuous acceleration to which the
transformer can be subjected.
A static calculation does however not completely reflect the effect of a shock load. The influence of damping
properties of the support structure is not yet taken in account. In worst case, this means the found value from the
static calculation must be divided by the safe value of 2 to get the appropriate maximal acceleration, which can be
sustained regardless of the shock duration. In case the dampening is known or calculated, this value could be
reduced accordingly.
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Annex 3 - Defining Indicative Energy Curve for a Square Shock, based on

Maximal Allowed Energy Content.
The acceleration in function of time is defined as:
𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑀𝑎𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥

The change of velocity is defined as the integral of the acceleration. The assumption is made that the initial velocity
is 0 m/s or that the calculation is done in co-ordinate system which moves at the initial velocity. In that case initial
velocity v0 = 0 m/s
𝑡 𝑡
∆𝑣(𝑡) = ∫0 𝑎(𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝑎𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑡 + 𝑣0 |𝑡0 = 𝑎𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑡 for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥
𝑡 𝑡
∆𝑣(𝑡) = ∫𝑡 𝑎(𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑡 0 ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣0 |𝑡𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 0 for 𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥 < 𝑡
𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑀𝑎𝑥
The change in energy per kilogram is defined as (Initial change of energy 𝑒0 = 0):
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑠
𝑒(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑎(𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑎(𝑡) ∙ ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑎(𝑡) ∙ ∆𝑣(𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑎𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑎𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑡 ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = ⋯
𝑑𝑡
0 0 0 0
𝑡
2 𝑡2 2 𝑡2
… = 𝑎𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∙ + 𝑒0 | = 𝑎𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∙ for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥
2 0 2
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑒(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑎(𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑎(𝑡) ∙ ∆𝑣(𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 0 ∙ 0 ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = ⋯

𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥
𝑡
… = 𝑒𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥 | = 0 for 𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥 < 𝑡
𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥
So the total change in energy per kilogram at the moment tMax, or the energy in the shock, equals:
2
2
𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥
𝑒(𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∙
2
This energy should be lower than EMax, thus:
2
2
𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥
𝑎𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∙ ≤ 𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥
2
𝑎𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥 ≤ √2 ∙ 𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥
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Annex 4 - Convert Maximal Velocity Change to Maximal Energy Content

The same assumption made for deriving the limiting curves shown in Annex 1: “Derivation of Limiting Curves”, will
be applied. The assumption is the initial velocity 0 m/s or that the calculation is done in co-ordinate system which
moves at the initial velocity. In that case initial velocity v0 = 0 m/s.
In this case, the relation between the limit of maximal change of velocity and maximal energy content can be derived
easily. The change in velocity can be written as:
𝑡
∆𝑣(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑎(𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = ∆𝑣𝐶𝑡𝑒

0
This relation can directly be used to rewrite the energy per kilogram as defined in Annex 1, resulting in the direct
connection between energy and velocity change:
𝑡 𝑡
2
𝑒(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑎(𝑡) ∙ ∆𝑣(𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = ∆𝑣𝐶𝑡𝑒 ∙ ∫ 𝑎(𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = ∆𝑣𝐶𝑡𝑒 = 𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥
0 0
Thus for square shocks with the same maximal velocity change the energy curve becomes
2
2
𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥 2
𝑎𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∙ ≤ 𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥 = ∆𝑣𝐶𝑡𝑒
2
2
𝑎𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑡𝑀𝑎𝑥 ≤ √2 ∙ ∆𝑣𝐶𝑡𝑒
Page 144
Annex 5 – Transformer Tests and Operations Flowchart after Transportation
Page 145
Annex 6 - Catalogue of operations and tests after transformer transportation

No. Operations Procedures
1 Transformer delivery and storage Visual inspection on Carrier
Shock recorder data analysis
Pressure /leakage test
Dry gas /fluids test
Handling
Preliminary oil filling/maintaining positive pressure
of nitrogen
2 Internal Inspection (if it is needed) Core earthing (when external not available)
Tests for bolted and connections
Look for displaced or loose windings
Look for displaced core laminations
3 Preservation of insulation integrity during Evacuation of the dry gas
installation Heating
Dry air technique
4 Assembly Preparation of components
Installation of Current Transformers, Bushings, Heat
Exchange System, Conservator, Accessories
Final Internal Inspection
5 Oil processing outside the transformer Drying
Degassing
Filtering
6 Insulation dry out Vacuum drying/Cold trap technique
Heat-Vacuum technique
Hot Oil Technique
7 Vacuum treatment and oil filling Pressure and vacuum leakage tests
Pressurising dry gas to assess humidity level
Determination of insulation moisture content
Vacuum treatment
Oil filling
Impregnation, residual air evacuation/ dissolving
Oil recirculation settling
8 Standard tests prior energisation Insulation resistance
Transformer Turns Ratio (TTR)
Polarity and phase relations
Winding resistance
Insulation power-factor test and capacitance
Core earthing (if available outside tank)
Functional checks of auxiliary equipment
Sweep Frequency Response Analysis
Oil moisture and DGA
9 Online final tests after energisation Sound level measurement(if it is required)
Partial Discharge(if it is required)
Infrared scan (if it is required)
Oil moisture and DGA
Page 146
Annex 7 - Measuring Results

Master and Follower shock recorders
The WG have tested Master and Follower impact recorder system that could be connected together to synchronize
the recorders.
When selecting impact recorders for the measuring investigations, the possibility of connecting the outside (Master)
shock recorder to the inside (Follower, or Slave) impact recorder to get simultaneous recordings should give better
information about the attenuation of the shock from the tank to the active part. Figure 58 gives the outline of a system.
FIGURE 50 – THE MASTER AND FOLLOWER CONNECTED IMPACT RECORDERS
Page 147
Installation experience
To protect the outside located Master impact recorder (hereafter called the Master) from salt and dust/dirt, it was
located in a suitable Al-box where the cable went through a cable gland and the lid prevented ingress of water by a
rubber gasket.
PHOTO 60 - SHOCK RECORDER BOX PHOTO 61 – MASTER IN BOX
The Master was bolted to a heavy duty Aluminium plate

which was bolted to the fastening bars located under
the box. Hence, all impacts to the tank should be
transmitted directly through to the Master unit.
A dampening device for fastening the Master was not

considered necessary as the (final) standard settings
of the unit excluded vibrations from being recorded.
The Follower unit was (finally) fastened directly to the
active part supporting steel members, at the top of the
active part or at the side of the upper steel core press
plate.
PHOTO 62 –FOLLOWER ON ACTIVE PART
Hence, the complete alignment of the axis X, Y and Z on both Master and Follower was not always possible; due to
the fact a horizontal location of the box for the Master would exceed the maximum transport profile with the desired
location near the bottom plate at the short end. However, this is situation is assumed special for the transport profile
and the girder hangers used in Norway.
As a minimum, one axis on the Master and the Follower was always aligned. By taking photos of the installation of
the impact recorders it was easy to correlate the axis during evaluation of the impacts recorded.
The Follower unit is fastened without using the aluminium-plate shown to the left of photo 62 (marked "Follower
mounting plate"), but with the three M5x50 bolts with washers. Special care must be taken to prevent these bolts
from falling into the transformer during installation.
Page 148
PHOTO 63 – TRANSPORT LID FOR ACCESS HOLE TO SLAVE PHOTO 64 – PROTECTION OF OUTSIDE CABLE TO MASTER
For the same reason the device used to start the Follower was secured with a white string. This grey clamp, which
halted the impact recorder from recording by short circuiting two of the three fastening bolts, had to be removed to
start the Follower. If the transformer had to be stored in the factory before transport commenced, a delayed start
was set both for the Master and the Follower and both "grey clamps" were removed at installation.
The cable gas tight "bushing" was connected to the transport lid through an access hole as shown in Photo 63 and
Photo 64.
The cable lead over the tank cover and down the outside wall to the Master unit was protected. This was done by
an "anti-stepping device" and a covered cable tray (or by a "panzer-plastic tubing"), see Photo 66.
Logistics during use

The Norwegian TSO Statnett bought first one set, later bought another set because the logistics were far more
challenging than at first anticipated. When a transformer is moved for weeks on waterways or on ocean-going
vessels, the period between installation after factory acceptance test (FAT) and removal on site during installation,
may be two months or more. Hence, only a few transports have been monitored. In one instance the Master had
registered several impacts, but the Follower registered none as the cable on the tank cover had been damaged by
stepping on the "bushing". This resulted in the improved protection of the bushing and the cable on the tank cover.
Experience shows not all transports register any impacts of interest, especially after the standard settings proposed
by the WG were used which eliminates the high-frequency impacts of little interest. The number of transports may
have to be quite large to get relevant measurements as the severe impacts of course are not desired incidents. This
was not achieved.
Attenuation between tank and active part

The hypothesis of the Working Group was a substantial attenuation between the impact on the tank and the active
part existed. When the Master unit registered an impact larger than minimum pre-set value of 0.5 g, the Master sends
a triggering signal to the Follower who started to register its impact after 1.5 msec. If the recorders were set to register
every 0.5 msec, the three first recordings in the Follower had to correlate three registrations in the Master (1.5 msec)
after the first registration in the Master.
The Photos 65, 66 and 67 show it is possible to fit impact-recorders to an old transformer which is not prepared for
this.
Page 149
PHOTO 65 - 120 MVA 132/50 KV PHOTO 66 – LOCATION OF IMPACT PHOTO 57 – FOLLOWER UNIT ATTACHED TO
TRANSFORMER DURING DISMANTLING RECORDERS ON THE OUTSIDE STEEL PRESS PLATE
The impact-recorder was fastened to a 10 mm steel

plate. This steel plate was secured to the steel member
with two clamps for woodworking as this was found to
be easy to use. The two clamps were secured by using
a thread locking compound on the threads and tool
ends. This worked well during two transports.
The settings of the units were as in Figure 59:
Observe the high cut-off frequency of 1 kHz and the

minimum shock duration for registration of 1 msec. This
was done to safeguard some shocks were measured
and that the attenuation of higher frequencies also was
recorded.
FIGURE 59 IMPACT RECORDER SETTINGS
Several impacts were recorded, but only one set of Master and Follower recordings are shown. Figure 60 shows
Master curve and Figure 61 shows Follower curve.
FIGURE 51 - MASTER CURVE REGISTRATIONS
Page 150
FIGURE 52 - FOLLOWER CURVE REGISTRATIONS
Please note these figures are in the time-domain. An analysis in the frequency-domain were not performed
at the time and is necessary as only impacts from the Master and the Follower recorders with the same
frequency may be correlated.
Page 151
Annex 8 - Data Analysis of Real World Incident (Detailed Example of Shock

Recorder Data Analysis)
Description
Real world incidents provide a lot of information about how shock recorders function and what they will measure
during such incidents. One such incident occurred when a 112 MVA 90 ton transformer was being transferred to a
rail car when being unloaded in port. The text below is the description of the incident as written down by marine
surveyors when surveying the reported incident.
“…
The rail mounted gantry crane maneuvered the sling attached transformer over the rail car.
As dunnage was being slid underneath and onto the floor of the car, the terminal’s Container
Crane No. 6 moved down the adjacent pier apron. That crane was working a vessel moored
to the pier. During this move the inshore end of the container crane’s boom that overhung the
apron, struck the lifting wires and sheaves on the top of the gantry crane causing the
transformer to lower.
…”
The transformer was suspended above the rail car about 75-100 mm (3-4”) before it dropped. The transformer
subsequently slid off the rail car onto the asphalt. One corner of the transformer slid 330 mm (13”) over the surface
asphalt finally embedding itself approximately 19 mm (¾”) into the asphalt. The transformer came to rest partially on
the rail car and partially on the asphalt with the railcar leaning over heavily. Photo 68 shows the final position of the
transformer.
The transformer was fitted with two shock recorders, which were operational at the time of the incident. One shock
recorder was fitted high up the tank wall above the point of impact on the asphalt. The other shock recorder was
fitted low on the tank wall above the corner which landed on the railcar. The axes of the shock recorders were not
aligned. Figure 62 shows the position of the shock recorder, its orientation and the direction of the impact.
Page 152
PHOTO 58 – FINAL POSISTION OF THE TRANSFORMER AFTER THE INCIDENT. THE RED ARROW INDICATES THE LOCATION OF THE SHOCK RECORDER
ABOVE THE POINT OF IMPACT. THE GREEN ARROW INDICATES THE LOCATION OF THE SHOCK RECORDER ON THE OPPOSITE CORNER
Z Position and
orientation of
Y shock recorder
Position and
X
orientation of
shock recorder Y
Transverse
impact
Vertical
impact
FIGURE 53 - POSITION AND ORIENTATION OF THE SHOCK RECORDERS
Page 153
Event data
The data from the shock recorders was examined after the incident. Both shock recorders had registered an event
at the approximate time of the incident (about one minute apart). The events were found to represent the same
incident. The internal clocks of the shock recorders are known to deviate even when synchronized before
transport.
Figure 63 shows the acceleration in three directions as recorded by the shock recorder above the point of impact.
This graph makes it evident that the raw data is difficult to interpret and analyse from the graph alone. Further
analysis of the raw data is required.
FIGURE 54 - ACCELERATIONS REGISTERED ABOVE THE POINT OF IMPACT
The raw data can be filtered by using the Fast Fourier transformation (FFT). The accelerations shown in Figure 64
are the result of filtering the recorded accelerations in Figure 63 in which shocks can be recognized. The shock
recorder experienced a 2 g shock in the Z (vertical) direction and a 1.5 g shock in the Y (transverse) direction.
Page 154
FIGURE 55 - FILTERED ACCELERATIONS ABOVE THE POINT OF IMPACT
FIGURE 56 - VELOCITY CHANGE CALCULATED ABOVE THE POINT OF IMPACT
Page 155
Derived data
The data can be further analysed by integrating the acceleration over time. This gives the change in velocity over
time which is shown in Figure 65. Significant changes of velocity within a short period of time are found in the Y
and Z direction. For each direction, two points are marked to indicate the start and end of the change in speed.
From the change in velocity and the difference in time between the two points, we can calculate the peak
acceleration of a half-cycle sinusoidal acceleration, which produces the same change in velocity in the same period
of time. The result of this analysis is shown in the table below. Note that this analysis combines the two peak
accelerations in the Z direction into one shock which results in a peak acceleration much less than 2 g.
TABLE 7 - RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS OF THE SHOCK RECORDED ABOVE THE POINT OF IMPACT ON THE ASPHALT
Direction Period Change in velocity Peak acceleration

Y 90 ms 0.82 m/s 14.3 m/s2 or 1.46 g
Z 72 ms 0.56 m/s 12.2 m/s2 or 1.25 g
The analysis is repeated for the data of the other shock recorder and the results show the impact severity.
The severity of the shock at corner above the railcar is significantly less than above the point of impact. This is to
be expected as the railcar is more likely to cushion the impact of the transformer than the surface of the asphalt. It
should also be expected that the impact at the base of the transformer is more severe than high up on the tank wall
where the shock recorder is located. This is due to the rotational inertia of the transformer tank.
The derived shock presented in Table 7 can be plotted in a separate graph and compared with the boundary of
acceptable shocks. This is shown in Figure 66 with some example boundaries. These boundaries are based on a
half-cycle sinusoidal shaped shock producing a change in velocity of 0.5 m/s and 1.0 m/s.
FIGURE 57 - COMPARISON OF THE DERIVED SHOCKS (IN TABLE 1) WITH EXAMPLES BOUNDARIES
Lessons learned
This incident provides insight in the operation of shock recorders when faced with real case incidents. The
following lessons were learned:
Page 156
1) It is not possible to interpret recorded shock events solely from the graph(s) of acceleration versus time.
Detailed automated analysis is required especially when facing tens or even hundreds of events.
2) Internal clocks of shock recorders do not run synchronously. The same shock event may be minutes apart
on different recorders even when the shock recorders are synchronized before transport.
3) The same impact produces different recordings at different locations of the transformer tank. This may
explain why some events are not matched by an event recorded on two shock recorders fitted to the same
transformer.
4) It is preferred to mount the shock recorders low on the tank wall due to the likelihood that an impact will
occur at the base of the transformer.
5) The nature of this specific event will require a thorough investigation of the transformer for signs of
damage, including an internal inspection. This event suggests that the threshold for initiating such an
investigation may lie between 0.5 m/s and 1.0 m/s.
Page 157
Annex 9 - Examples - Transport Drawings (-plans)

Example 1- Transformer main tank
Page 158
Example 2 – Cooler bank
Page 159
Example 3 – Transportation Profile - Offset CoG
Identify the several carrier(s) and ability to load dimensionally in centre of transformer (some road carriers) or load
on transport centre of gravity (rail)
Identify the CoG effect on transportation profile (effective transportation profile for rail is centred about the centre of
gravity)
Page 160
Annex 10 - Not recommended Examples to Indicate a CoG

This symbol from existing standards is a good indication for the CoG. However it
does not allow distinction of the different CoG’s the transformer can have when in
its different assembly states.
This symbol is also a reasonable indication for one of the CoG’s during transport.
However, it can only easily be interpreted by people speaking a language where
the word for transport starts with a ‘T’. Also it does not allow distinction between
the CoG’s of transport with oil and transport without oil.
This symbol is the symbol to indicate a bore hole in mining industry. This symbol
should not be used to indicate a CoG.
Decals can loosen if adhesive is not suitable for hot temperature and
resistant against ultraviolet light.
Two CoG’s are clearly marked in a weatherproof The vertical axes for two CoG’s are clearly
manner. However, it is not possible to know for which marked in a weatherproof manner. However, it
configuration each CoG’s is valid without additional is not possible to identify configuration for each
documentation. CoG’s or the distinction between CoG and
centreline.
Page 161
The likely meaning of this symbol is “CoG for These symbols are only understandable by an English
Shipping”. This symbol only indicates CoG speaking person indicating the CoG vertical axis in for:
vertical axis and is only understandable by an 1) Transformer shipping
English speaking person. 2) Transformer assembled with oil
3) Transformer assembled without oil (possible
requirement to move fully assembled transformer
without oil)
This symbol indicates clearly the “CoG for transport”; This symbol indicates clearly the “CoG for In-Service
however, only to an English speaking person. Condition”; however, only to an English speaking person.
Page 162
Annex 11 - Not recommended Examples to indicate a Centre Line
Difficult to view Transformer Centre-Line. Example of Transformer Centre-Line. This

Repainting of the transformer tank can indication is applied in a clearly visible, durable and
easily obscure these markings. This weather proof label. However, the symbol is only
indication is also only understandable for understandable for English speaking people.
English speaking people.
Page 163
Annex 12 - Transformer Standards and Guides –(Informative)
Transformer Standards and guides

International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
 “IEC 60076-1: 2011: Power Transformers - Part 1: General”

 “IEC 60076-8: 1997: Power Transformers – Part 8: Application Guide”
 “IEC 60076-18 2012: Power Transformers – Part 18: Measurement of frequency response”
 “IEC 60417: 1999 / ISO 7000: 2014 Graphical Symbols for Use on Equipment
 “IEC 60721-3-2: 1997: Classification of Environmental Conditions – Part 3: Classification of Environmental
Parameters and their Severities – Section 2: Transportation”
 “IEC 60721-3-3: 2002: Classification of Groups of Environmental Parameters and their Severities - Stationary
use at Weatherprotected Locations”
 “IEC 60721-3-4: 1995: Classification of Environmental Conditions - Part 3: Classification of Groups of
Environmental Parameters and their Severities - Section 4: Stationary use at Non-Weatherprotected
Locations”
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
 IEEE C57.12.00: IEEE Standard for General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and
Regulating Transformers
 IEEE C57.12.10: IEEE Standard Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Power Transformers
 IEEE C57.12.90: IEEE Standard Test Code for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating
Transformers
 IEEE C57.93: IEEE Guide for Installation and Maintenance of Liquid-Immersed Power Transformers
 IEEE C57.106: IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Insulating Oil Equipment
 IEEE C57.149: IEEE Guide for the Application and Interpretation of Frequency Response Analysis for Oil-
Immersed Transformers
 IEEE C57.152: IEEE Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Fluid-Filled Power Transformers, Regulators, and
Reactors
 IEEE C57.150: IEEE Guide for the Transportation of Transformers and Reactors Rated 10 000 kVA or
Higher
International Standards Organization (ISO)
 ISO 7000: 2014 / IEC 60417: 1999 Graphical Symbols for Use on Equipment
Transformer Transportation Related guides:

Council on Large Electric Systems (CIGRE)
 Technical Brochure 227: Guide for Life Management Techniques For Power Transformers, CIGRE WG
A2.18, 2003
 Technical Brochure 528: Guide for Preparation of Specifications for Power Transformers, CIGRE WG A2.36,
2013
 Technical Brochure 529: Guidelines for Conducting Design Reviews for Power Transformers, CIGRE WG
A2.36, 2013
 Technical Brochure 530: Guide for Conducting Factory Capability Assessment for Power Transformers,
CIGRE WG A2.36, 2013
Page 164
REFERENCES, PHOTOS, FIGURES AND TABLES

References
[1] IEC 60076-1: 2011: Power Transformers - Part 1: General”, IEC, 2011.
[2] IEC 60721-3-4: 1995: Classification of Environmental Conditions - Part 3: Classification of Groups of
Environmental Parameters and their Severities - Section 4: Stationary use at Non-Weatherprotected
Locations, IEC, 1995.
[3] IEC 60721-3-3: 2002-10: Classification of Groups of Environmental Parameters and their Severities -
Stationary use at Weatherprotected Locations, IEC, 2002.
[4] IEC 60721-3-2: 1997-03: Classification of Environmental Conditions – Part 3: Classification of Environmental
Parameters and their Severities – Section 2: Transportation, IEC, 1997.
[5] CHB Container Handbook.
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[6] IEEE, “Std C57.150-2012: IEEE Guide for the Transportation of Transformers and Reactors Rated 10
000kVA or Higher", IEEE, 2013.
[7] EC Energy and transport; European best practice guideline for abnormal transport.
[8] HLI Rail & Rigging, North American transformer logistics, 2009, presentation.
[9] Collet D., Permit's nightmare.
[10] Vestas, Transport manual V90 3.0MW, 2005.
[11] Masplantiz, Power transformer monitoring; transportation guide, 2008.
[12] EN12195-1, Load restraint assemblies on road vehicles, 2010.
[13] VDI2700, Securing of loads on road vehicles, 2004.
[14] GDV, Container Handbuch.
[15] DB, Richtlinie 934.9001 Allgemeine Transportbedingungen, 2010.
[16] VDI2700 Part 13, Großraum- und Schwertransporte, 2008.
[17] SMT&Hybrid, A guide to the application of electronic transport monitoring, 2006.
[18] Nooteboom, MCO-PX Semi low-loader, brochure.
[19] Roger Brown, Government raises speed limits for abnormal loads, 2010
[20] Operation and Maintenance Department, "Shock and Vibration in the Railroad Transportation of
Electric Substation Type Transformers.", U.S.A.: Association of American Railroads, 1995.
[21] V. E. Gadrix, W. G. Patton, J. G. Stephenson en D. White, "The Railroad Shipping Environment of
Power Transformers", San Diego, California: Edison Electric Institute, 13/04/1979.
[22] Wikipedia, "Flatcar" - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatcar, 05/05/2011.
[23] Wikipedia, "Schnabel car" - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schnabel_car, 05/05/2011.
[24] F. E. Ostrem and W. D. Godshall, "An Assessment of the Common Carrier Shipping Environment" -
General Technical Report FPL 22, Madison, Wis.: Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, 1979.
[25] Wabtec Corporation, “TP2009 Freight Car Draft Arrangements – Student Workbook” -
http://techinfo.wabtec.com/DataFiles/Leaflets/TP-2009.pdf, 02/2003.
[26] “Sketch of tapered railway wheels”, http://www.railway-technical.com, 01/2013.
[27] International Union of Railways, “Railway Noise in Europe – A 2010 Report on the State of the Art”,
UIC, 2010.
[28] International Union of Railways, “Focus: Freight Noise”, October 2009 – No. 4, International Union of
Railways, 2009.
[29] H. Goossens, “Maintenance of High Speed Lines – Report 2010”, International Union of Railways,
2010.
[30] N. Yanase, “Necessities for future high speed rolling stock – Report January 2010", International
Union of Railways, 2010.
[31] “Block Train/Full Train”, http://www.railfreightportal.com/Block-Train-Full-Train, 01/11/2012.
[32] J. R. Loumiet, W. G. Ungbauer en B. S. Abrams, “Train Accident Reconstruction and FELA & Railroad
Litigation”, 30/04/2005.
[33] K. Koch en B. Madrill, “Comparison of Coupler Forces – Cushion Units versus Standard Draft Gear
Using the TOESTM Model”, Technology Digest TD-12-023, Transportation Technology Centre,
11/2012.
[34] Association of American Railroads, "AAR Open Top Loading Rules Manual - Section No.1 (General
Rules), Part 1", Association of American Railroads, 01/03/2003.
Page 165
[35] Systemverbund Bahn and M. Grieb, "DB Richtlinie 934.9001 – Tiefladewagen – Allgemeine
Transportbedingungen", Deutsche Bahn, 01/07/2010.
[36] International Union of Railways, “RIV Appendix II – Section 1: Principles (Supplement nº 7 of 1.7.2005)”,
UIC, 2004.
[37] Wikipedia, “Grade (slope)” - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_(slope)#Railways, 01/09/2010.
[38] Wikipedia, “Loading gauge” -
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loading_gauge#Standard_loading_gauges_for_standard_gauge_lines,
06/05/2011.
[39] UIC, “RIV Appendix II Section 1 Principles – List of Loading Gauges”, UIC, 2005.
[40] “Guide to Railcars” - http://worldtraderef.com/WTR_site/Rail_Cars/Guide_to_Rail_Cars.asp#flat,
05/05/2011.
[41] Wikipedia, "Coupling (Railway)" - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupling_(railway), 31/10/2011.
[42] “The Railroad Shipping Environment of Power Transformers”, Pacific Coast Shippers Advisory Board,
13/4/1979.
[43] Wikipedia, “Railway Coupling” - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_coupling, 09/02/2014.
[44] DIN, "DIN EN 15433-6:2008-02: Transportation loads - Measurement and evaluation of dynamic mechanical
loads - Part 6: Automatic recording systems for measuring randomly occurring shock during monitoring of
transports", DIN, 2008.
[45] SMT&Hybrid, "Moni Log® ShockDisplay Curve – User Manual", SMT&Hybrid, 2008.
[46] Approved code of practice for load-lifting Rigging. (2012, 12). Wellington, New Zealand.
[47] IEEE, T.I. (2010), American National Standards for Transformers. ANSI C57.12.10.
[48] IEEE Std C57.12.00, General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating
Transformers, 2010.
[49] IEEE Std C57.12.90, Test Code for Liquid-immersed Transformers, 1999
[50] IS 2026, Specification for power transformer.
[51] CIGRE Brochure # 227, Guide for Life Management Techniques for Power Transformer, WG A2.18, 2003
[52] IEC 60076-18 Measurement of Frequency Response, 2012.
[53] IEEE Std C57.149, IEEE Guide for the Application and Interpretation of Frequency Response Analysis for
Oil-Immersed Transformers, 2012.
[54] DL/T 911-2004, Frequency Response Analysis on Winding Deformation of Power Transformers, The Electric
Power Industry Standard of People’s Republic of China.
[55] Acceptance Testing Specifications (ATS) for Electrical Power Equipment and Systems, Inter National
Electrical Testing Association ANSI/NETA, 2009.
[56] IEEE Std C57.93, Guide for Installation and Maintenance of Liquid Immersed Power Transformers, 2007
[57] IS 10028, Code of Practice for Selection, Installation, and Maintenance of Transformers, Part II,
Installation.
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Page 166
Table of Photos
Photo 1 - Tilted reactor at the Anzac bridge in Sydney ................................................................................................. 12
Photo 5 - Rail car derailing in Sweden ............................................................................................................................... 17
Photo 6 - Lifting of derailed car in Sweden ....................................................................................................................... 17
Photo 7 - Damage to transformer blocking (Photo courtesy W. Bergman).................................................................. 19
Photo 8 - Oil leakage from transport damage (Photo courtesy W. Bergman) ........................................................... 19
Photo 9 – The transformer loaded before transport. Only low chains securing transformer on depressed centre
trailer.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Photo 10 - Transformer and truck after black ice accident in North America (Photo courtesy ENMAX) ................ 20
Photo 11 - Offset CoG transformer loaded on trailer (Photo courtesy W. Bergman) .............................................. 20
Photo 12 - Transformer falling off barge (Photo Courtesy Southern Company) ........................................................ 21
Photo 13 - Trailer went into the ditch (Photo courtesy Southern Co.) ............................................................................ 21
PHoto 14 - Transformer bushing hit bridge (Photo courtesy VTCU) .............................................................................. 22
Photo 15 - Transformer sliding off multi-wheel (Photo courtesy Southern Co.) ........................................................... 22
Photo 16 - Transformer submerged after barge broke during loading (Photo courtesy of TransAlta) ................. 23
Photo 17 - Trailer used at Hixon disaster (© Crown Copyright) .................................................................................. 24
Photo 18 - Hixon site after the collision (© Crown copyright) ................................................................. 25
Photo 19 – Example of displaced core laminations ......................................................................................................... 28
Photo 20 - Transformer moved by highway trailer (Photo courtesy W. Bergman) .................................................... 37
Photo 21 - Girder Hanger type trailer (Photo courtesy VTCU)...................................................................................... 37
Photo 22 - Transformer being loaded onto a girder trailer (Photo courtesy ALE) ..................................................... 38
Photo 23 - Transformer moved by a modular trailer (Photo courtesy Magazine ExceptionNel) ............................ 38
Photo 24 – Transformer crossing various obstacles (photo courtesy Joop van Houdt) .............................................. 39
Photo 25 - Transformer transport in mountainous terrain (Photo courtesy Statnett Transport, Norway)................ 41
Photo 26 – Pictorial summery of accelerations during road transport (Photo courtesy Royal SMIT Transformers)
..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Photo 27 - Transformer on a heavy duty flat car (four truck). Concrete ballast is used due to offset loading on
rail car (HV bushing pockets) (Photo courtesy W. Bergman) .......................................................................................... 43
Photo 28 - Depressed centre flatbed rail car in action (Photo courtesy W. Bergman) ............................................. 44
Photo 29 – Details of a schnabel railcar while carrying a transformeR (Photo courtesy Bill Darovny).................. 44
Photo 30 – Transformer on a schnabel rail car with deck insert (Photo coutesy Bill Darovny) ................................ 45
Photo 31 – Girder rail car in action (Photo courtesy Kjetil Ryen) .................................................................................. 45
Photo 32 – Example of E-type couplers (Photo courtesy W. Bergman) ....................................................................... 47
Photo 33 – Example of buffers and chain couplers (Photo courtesy W. Bergman) ................................................... 47
Photo 34 - Example of blocking and lashing (Photo Courtesy W. Bergman) .............................................................. 48
Photo 35 - Example bolted and welded fixation (Photo Courtesy W. Bergman) ...................................................... 48
Photo 36 – Rail car “truck” composed of wheels, axle, bearings, side frames, springs, bolster and brake rigging
(Photo courtesy W. Bergman) ................................................................................................................................................ 50
Photo 37 - Spalling on a rail wheel on an in-service depressed centre rail car transporting a transformer (Photo
courtesy W. Bergman) ............................................................................................................................................................ 50
Photo 38 – Example of non-welded rail joints causing vertical shocks to the rail car passing over them (Photos
courtesy W. Bergman) ............................................................................................................................................................ 51
Photo 39 - Railway switch 'frog' (Photo courtesy W. Bergman) ..................................................................................... 51
Photo 40 – Heavy duty Flatbed car with considerable weld remainders on the deck. (Photo courtesy W.
Bergman) ................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Photo 41 - Wood placed between a transformer and the flat car to protect the transformer from weld
remainders on the deck of the car and to increase friction between the deck and underside of the transformer.
(Photo courtesy W. Bergman) ................................................................................................................................................ 57
Photo 42 – Example of use of concrete ballast to shift the COG to the middle of the rail car (Photo courtesy W.
Bergman) ................................................................................................................................................................................... 58
Page 167
Photo 43 - Left: Steel bracket welded to a rail car to prevent longitudinal movement. The bracket is located
next to a towing eye to prevent lateral movement as well.- Centre: Formed clip welded to the rail car and
fitting over the base of the transformer. This clip prevents vertical movem ent and movement in lateral or
longitudinal direction – Right: Braces welded to rail car to prevent lateral and longitudinal movement of
transformer. Transformer bolted to railcar to prevent vertical movement (Photo courtesy W. Bergman)............. 59
Photo 44 – Direct lashing ....................................................................................................................................................... 68
Photo 45 - On board shoring ................................................................................................................................................ 69
Photo 46 - Wooden dunnage for impact cushionin .......................................................................................................... 69
Photo 47 - Cargo aircraft Antonov AN-225 (Photo courtesy Siemens) ........................................................................ 71
Photo 48 - Cargo aircraft Antonov AN-225 (Photo courtesy Siemens) ........................................................................ 71
Photo 49 - Transformer support structure for aircraft transport (Photo courtesy Siemens) ....................................... 73
Photo 50 - Good example of indication of a centreline ................................................................................................. 93
Photo 51 - Transformer (fully assembled) moved by multi-wheel trailer (Photo courtesy Southwest Industrial
Rigging)................................................................................................................................................................................... 119
Photo 52 - Transformer supported on four relatively small-area roller-pads during sliding movement (Photo
courtesy W. Bergman) ......................................................................................................................................................... 120
Photo 53 - Transformer being prepared for moving in the longitudinal and lateral directions (Photo courtesy W.
Bergman) ................................................................................................................................................................................ 120
Photo 54 - Transformer blocking not under structural base. (Photo courtesy W. Bergman) .................................. 121
Photo 55 - Transformer prepared to slide along long axis (Photo courtesy W. Bergman) ................................... 121
Photo 56 - Transformer steel base loaded on steel beams on a steel multi wheel trailer (Photo courtesy
Southern Company) .............................................................................................................................................................. 125
Photo 57 - Transformer slides off the steel trailer with no friction enhancement (Photo courtesy Southern
Company) ............................................................................................................................................................................... 125
Photo 58 - Transformer that remains on trailer despite angle of slope (Photo courtesy Southern Company) ... 125
Photo 59 – Load cells........................................................................................................................................................... 132
Photo 60 – Follower unit attached to steel press plate ................................................................................................ 150
Photo 61 – Final posistion of the transformer after the incident. The red arrow indicates the location of the
shock recorder above the point of impact. The green arrow indicates the location of the shock recorder on the
opposite corner ..................................................................................................................................................................... 153
Table of Figures
Figure 1 – Illustration of core sheet creeping upwards due to long lasting vibrations 28
Figure 2 - centre of gravity and transportation profile for rail and road transport 35
Figure 3 - Tapered railway wheels allow the rail wheel set to ride in the centre of the track and to travel
around curves where the outside rail has a longer circumference than the inside rail. [26] 50
Figure 4 - Illustration of transport forces applicable for a power transformer as given by AAR Open Top
Loading Rules [34] 53
Figure 5 - Graphical representation of transport forces given by Left: DB934.9001 [35]– Right: UIC [36] 54
Figure 6 – Loading profile - lost space due to off-centre distance of centre of gravity of transformer 57
Figure 7 - Left: example of how a railroad loading profile can look, with dimensions in mm. – Right: The long
length of a transformer railroad transport can cause the transformer to shift outside the railroad loading
profile to the inside of a corner in the railroad 58
Figure 8 - ship movements 61
Figure 9 - Illustration of hogging (2) and sagging (1) of a ship 62
Figure 10 – Transformer stowed transversely 64
Figure 11 – Transformer stowed longitudnally 64
Figure 12 - Ship Stability diagram showing centre of gravity (G), centre of buoyancy (B), and metacentre (M)
with ship upright and heeled over to one side 65
Page 168
Figure 13 - Tipping phenomenon 67

Figure 14 - Lashing and shoring 67
Figure 15 - cross lashing demonstration 67
Figure 16 - Direct lashing combined with shoring 68
Figure 17 – Lashing and shoring for compact unit 68
Figure 18 - types of accelerations associate with transport by aircrafts 70
Figure 19 - Dynamic stresses associated with transport by aircrafts [g values] 70
Figure 20 – Dimensions of Antonov AN-225 72
Figure 21 - Theoretical accelerations during transport and the effect of structural resonance on the recording of
the event 76
Figure 22 - Theoretical accelerations during transport and the effect of the accelerometer resonance on the
recording of the event 77
Figure 23 - transport Theoretical accelerations - effect of the peak value on the event’s recordings 79
Figure 24 - Transport theoretical accelerationa-effect of the frequency on the event’s recordings 80
Figure 25 - Recommended and alternative mounting locations for two shock recorders on transformer tank 81
Figure 26 - Connection Details of shock recorder to transformer tank 81
Figure 27 - Recommended mounting location (in green) for shock recorder (at intersection of three planes and
proximate of the transformercentre line) 82
Figure 28: Left: Illustration of separate supports in longitudinal and lateral direction, resulting in three main
directions – Right: Illustration of pinned support working equally well in each horizontal direction, resulting in
two main directions 84
Figure 29 – Boundries of acceptable shockc durings transport as given by different transformer
manufactureres. Limits are shown separately for a) Transport direction, b) Vertical direction and c) Lateral
direction 86
Figure 30: Illustration of registration window of a typical shock recorder with settings as described in Section
9.2.2 ”Settings of the shock recorder”. Left: The registration window is plotted for reference on top of the
supplier boundaries of acceptable shocks during transport in transport direction. Right: The registration window
with indication of the reason why regions outside the window are ignored 87
Figure 31: Proposed shape of indicative curve for maximal allowed energy content of transport shocks 87
Figure 32 – Illustration of the neglected part of the shock energy contend 89
Figure 33: Time – acceleration curve of a measured shock. The duration of the shock is truncated at 10% of the
peak value 90
Figure 34 - CoG as per ISO 7000:2012. 93
Figure 35 - CoG as per IEC 60417 94
Figure 36 - COG while transformer is transported without oil. Left: Symbol placed on two axis of COG -
Centre: Symbol placed on horizontal axis of COG only - Right: Symbol placed on vertical AXIS of COG only94
Figure 37 - CoG while transformer is transported while already filled with oil. Left: Symbol placed on two axes
of CoG - Centre: Symbol placed on horizontal axis of CoG only - Right: Symbol placed on vertical axis of CoG
only 95
Figure 38 - CoG while transformer is fully assembled but not (yet) filled with oil. Left: Symbol placed on two
axes of CoG - Centre: Symbol placed on horizontal axis of CoG only - Right: Symbol placed on vertical axis of
CoG only 95
Figure 39 - CoG while transformer is in operation. Left: Symbol placed on two axes of CoG - Centre: Symbol
placed on horizontal axis of CoG only - Right: Symbol placed on vertical axis of CoG only 96
Figure 40 Incoterms® 2010 rules - their borderlines and limitations 98
Figure 41 – Indirect securement 124
Figure 42 – Direct securement 124
Figure 43 - Lashing on Road Transport (longitudial and lateral view) 126
Figure 44 - Load cell location on wheel sets 132
Figure 45 – Principal of centre of gravity determination 133
Figure 46 – Measurement of centre of gravity 133
Page 169
Figure 47 - Proposed shape of indicative curve for maximal allowed energy content of transport shocks 139
Figure 48 - Illustration of theoretical limits corresponding to different shock shapes 140
Figure 49 – Definition of maximum energy per unit volume which can be sustained by a material based on the
material’s force-deformation (elasticity) curve 141
Figure 50 – The Master and Follower connected impact recorders 147
Figure 51 - Master curve Registrations 150
Figure 52 - Follower curve Registrations 151
Figure 53 - Position and orientation of the shock recorders 153
Figure 54 - Accelerations registered above the point of impact 154
Figure 55 - Filtered accelerations above the point of impact 155
Figure 56 - Velocity change calculated above the point of impact 155
Figure 57 - Comparison of the derived shocks (in Table 1) with examples boundaries 156
Table of Tables
Table 1 - Design limits for supports of loads on railway according to AAR [34] ....................................................... 53
Table 2 - Mechanical load limits for freight on railway according to UIC [36] ......................................................... 54
Table 3 - acceleration comparison for different regulations .......................................................................................... 63
Table 4 – Basic data of accelerations................................................................................................................................. 65
Table 5 - correction factors for length and speed ............................................................................................................ 66
Table 6 - correction factor for B/GM<13 ......................................................................................................................... 66
Table 7 - Results of the analysis of the shock recorded above the point of impact on the asphalt .................... 156
Page 170

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Guide on transformer transportation

Disclaimer notice ISBN : 978-2-85873-376-7

11.3 Indication of the Centre Line............................................................................................93

Table of Figures ................................................................................................................................... 168

2 Objectives of the Guide

AAR: Association of American Railways

CoG: Centre of Gravity – The mass centre of a given component or assembly.

DB: Deutsche Bahn

g (static): A continuous acceleration in a certain direction

IMO: International Maritime Organisation

Originating carrier: The carrier on which the shipment originates.

Shock load: A dynamic load - in this guide on the transformer.

Shock recorder: See Impact recorder

Trans loading: See Load Break

UIC: Union Internationale des Chemins de Fer (International Union of Railways).

4 Transport Incidents – Case Studies

4.2 Australian Incidents

8) Transformer rolled over while negotiating a round-about on a flatbed trailer.

More general issues are;

The semi-trailer tipped over on the approach to a major

Indications are that as the semi-trailer entered the bend,

Some of the issues confronted so far are:

a) Full route survey, do not trust previous experience.

An example is shown in the photo to the side. The wrong trailer

PHOTO 2 – UNSAFE EXAMPLE OF ATTEMPT TO TRANSPORT

Other known incidents:

4.3 Norwegian Incidents

PHOTO 3 - TRANSFORMER CRUSHING CAR IN NORWAY (PHOTO COURTESY HAFSLUND NETT)

Hence, the transformer arrived the wrong way in to the

However, this crossing is in a hillside with the Y-crossing having

Two mobile cranes could be located at either side of the

PHOTO 4 - TRANSFORMER TILTING 40 DEGREES IN NORWAY

4.4 Swedish Incidents

In the actual incident the 182 tonnes heavy transformer

One Sunday in February 2008 the heavy transport derailed

It was discovered the salvage work would be extensive,

Hence, in the period from the next Monday to Friday, 2 500

According to the following investigations, the transformer

4.5 North American Incidents

North America Incident # 2

North America Incident # 3

PHOTO 4 - DAMAGE TO TRANSFORMER BLOCKING

North America Incident # 4

Transporting transformers with the removable radiators

PHOTO 5 - OIL LEAKAGE FROM TRANSPORT DAMAGE

North America Incident # 5

The transformer was secured to the trailer by means of four

PHOTO 6 – THE TRANSFORMER LOADED BEFORE TRANSPORT.

North America Incident # 6

North America Incident # 7

PHOTO 8 - OFFSET COG TRANSFORMER

North America Incident # 8

PHOTO 9 - TRANSFORMER FALLING OFF BARGE (PHOTO COURTESY SOUTHERN COMPANY)

North America Incident # 9

The self-steering booster on the trailer “steered” into the ditch.

North America Incident # 10

PHOTO 11 - TRANSFORMER BUSHING HIT BRIDGE

North America Incident # 11

PHOTO 12 - TRANSFORMER SLIDING OFF MULTI-WHEEL (PHOTO COURTESY SOUTHERN CO.)

North America Incident # 12

The transformers were returned to the factory. No internal

North America Incident # 13