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DETECTION OF TRANSFORMER WINDING DISPLACEMENT

BY THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF STRAY LOSSES (FRSL)

L. BOLDUC * P. PICHER G. PARÉ R.J. DEMERS J. BÉLANGER

HYDRO-QUÉBEC HYDRO-QUÉBEC HYDRO-QUÉBEC HYDRO-QUÉBEC HYDRO-QUÉBEC
IREQ IREQ IREQ TRANSÉNERGIE TRANSÉNERGIE
CANADA CANADA CANADA CANADA CANADA

1. INTRODUCTION This paper reviews the principles underlying the FRSL

method and the experience acquired by Hydro-Québec’s
maintenance crews in using it.
Increased competition makes it imperative that electric
utilities maximize the useful life of their existing
systems in order to defer replacement costs. Power 2. OVERVIEW OF THE FRSL METHOD
system planners require advanced techniques to assess
the risks and benefits associated with these actions.
2.1 Test circuit
The methods used to detect transformer winding
As shown in Figure 1, the test circuit required for the
displacement help assess the transformer’s condition and
FRSL measurement is the same as for the impedance
its capacity to operate without costly equipment failures.
measurement and consists in supplying low voltage to
Several methods are used to detect winding distortion
one winding of the transformer and in short-circuiting
including impedance variation measurement [1], low-
another one.
voltage impulse testing (LVI) [2], frequency response
analysis (FRA) [3], and frequency response of stray
Unlike the conventional impedance measurement
losses (FRSL) [4].
method, the FRSL method is applied on a range of
frequencies from 20 to 600 Hz, including industrial
The method used for the diagnosis of winding
frequency. This frequency range is given as a reference
displacement based on the frequency response of stray
only and can be adjusted based on the capacities of the
losses was developed at IREQ in the late 70’s. Over the
source and/or wattmeter used.
last 20 years, the method was used for the diagnosis of
winding displacement on some 40 of Hydro-Québec’s
power transformers. For the past three years, the
method has been part of the ISO procedure used for
short-circuit withstand tests at IREQ’s high-power
laboratory.
1000 VA
20-600 Hz FRSL
The method, which can be easily applied in a high-
voltage substation environment, confirms the condition volts
of the transformer windings either for purposes of amperes
watts
commissioning, after being exposed to a short-circuit, or
as part of the monitoring of the equipment’s aging.
Figure 1 : Test circuit for the FRSL measurement.
Recently, the FRSL measuring equipment was upgraded
in order to automate the testing procedure.

* 1800 boul. Lionel-Boulet, Varennes (Québec), J3X 1S1, bolduc.leonard@ireq.ca, tel.: 450-652-8287
2.2 Measured parameters
The rms current (Irms), rms voltage (Erms) and active
power (P) are measured for each frequency in order to
plot the equivalent resistance and impedance curves as a
function of frequency. The FRSL method covers the
diagnosis based on the conventional impedance
variation measurement since this parameter is measured
for each frequency, including industrial frequency.
Equations (1) and (2) show the calculation of equivalent
resistance and impedance.
P 3.3 Inductance measurement
R= 2 (1)
I rms
E rms
Z=
I rms
3. CONCEPTUAL BASIS FOR THE METHOD
3.1 Impedance measurement
The impedance measurement is done with the low-
voltage winding short-circuited such that the current is
limited by the transformer’s leakage reactance. The
reluctance seen by the leakage flux is largely determined
by the leakage channel located between the inside of the
inner winding, the outside of the outer winding, and the
top and bottom yokes. When a winding becomes
distorted, the reluctance of the magnetic path is
modified, which leads to a change in the impedance
measurement.
3.2 Equivalent resistance measurement
Given the thickness of the actual winding, part of the
leakage flux crosses the conductors along the windings
and at the ends, as shown in Figure 2.
Top yoke
Inner winding Outer winding
Wound leg
leakage flux
Short-circuit Bottom yoke
Figure 2 : Leakage flux in transformer windings.
This flux produces eddy currents in the conductors
which grow as the cross section that they present to the
flux lines is greater and the frequency is higher. Losses
also occur where the flux lines penetrate into the core
perpendicularly to the laminations. The same situation
applies in the tank, which is not laminated and made of
magnetic material. If one of the windings is displaced,
the configuration of the flux lines is changed and the
stray losses are modified, resulting in a modification of
the equivalent resistance as a function of frequency.
Section 4 shows a typical curve representing the
equivalent resistance as a function of frequency.
The source should provide a sinusoidal voltage with
minimal harmonic distortion. Under sine-wave
conditions, formula (3) can be used to calculate the
(2)
inductance based on the impedance and the equivalent
resistance.
Z 2 − R2 (3)
L=
2πf
The value of the inductance, which must remain
constant or with a slight decrease in frequency, is a good
indication of whether the current test is proceeding
correctly.
3.4 FRSL method versus impedance measurement
The diagnosis of both methods is based on the flow of
leakage flux through the windings, but the FRSL method
has the advantage of being sensitive to variations in
eddy current losses in the windings. The method is
capable of detecting the disappearance of the insulation,
which causes several parallel conductors to be short-
circuited in one area of the winding, with the result that
the conductor is made larger and consequently the eddy
current losses are increased. This kind of fault cannot
be identified by impedance measurement since the
leakage channel remains virtually unchanged.
Tests involving controlled displacement of the windings
revealed that the FRSL method is more sensitive than
the impedance variation measurement for detecting axial
displacement in the winding assembly. Neither method,
however, is capable of detecting minor axial
displacement. The detection threshold requires that the
winding displacement be of the same magnitude as the
space between the windings.
Other results from a series of short-circuit tests have
Power supply
demonstrated the sensitivity of the FRSL method for
detecting winding displacement [5].
3.5 Interpretation of the results
The FRSL diagnosis is not based on the absolute value
of the resistance as a function of frequency but rather on
a comparison of curves. The comparison can be
established with a similar transformer or with a previous
test performed on the same transformer.
In the case of a three-phase transformer, the results can
be interpreted based on a comparison between the three
phases of the transformer. There is usually a slight
difference between the central leg’s windings and the
end legs windings, and sometimes also between the end
legs windings. These differences in the stray losses can
be attributed to the effect of the proximity of the tank,
which is not the same on all three phases. Not all of the
additional losses occur in the tank, but the deformation
of the leakage flux created by the tank generates higher
eddy current losses in the conductors or other structures.
In such cases, a comparison with a similar transformer
or with a previous test performed on the same unit will
be the best way of detecting displacement in the
windings.
Once field experience has been acquired and a database
containing tests results has been created, an
interpretation guide of the FRSL results can be produced
in order to simplify the diagnosis of transformer winding
displacement.
3.6 Three-phase transformers tests
It is preferable to use a three-phase source to test three-
phase transformers in order to reproduce the leakage
flux created in the windings during normal transformer
operation. However, if only a single-phase source is
available, it is possible to perform three tests using a
connection depending on the winding configuration, as
in the case of the impedance measurement. In each
case, the flow of the leakage flux must be analyzed
based on the windings configuration so that the
correlation can be established with the resulting losses
and the best diagnosis obtained.
For instance, for a three-phase three-legged transformer
with a wye-connected winding on the high-voltage side
and a delta-connected winding on the low-voltage side,
it is preferable to perform the measurement from the
high-voltage side since the equivalent resistance is then
higher and easier to measure.
It is usually impossible to open the delta winding to
allow each phase to be measured separately when
measurements are being done on a faulty transformer in
a high-voltage substation. In such a case, in order to
reproduce a flow of leakage flux between two phases, a
single-phase excitation can be successively applied
between two terminals of the wye-connected winding
with the three terminals of the delta winding short-
circuited together. Using the three resulting curves, it is
then possible to calculate the resistance associated with
each leg’s windings.
It is also possible to proceed with successive excitation
between each end of the wye-connected winding and the
neutral point. The results obtained with this circuit
configuration are slightly higher. The difference is
understandable since the leakage flux is then forced out
of the core, completing its circuit either through the tank
or other structures and, in so doing, crossing the top of
the windings where it produces additional eddy current
losses.
3.7 Measurement accuracy
3.7.1 Active power measurement
Wattmeter manufacturers specify the limits of error for
active power versus frequency and power factor. It is
recommended to use a wattmeter with the highest
accuracy at a low power factor (cosΦ=0.01) over the
entire desired frequency range.
Voltage must be measured at the transformer’s
terminals. If the current is measured with a shunt
located inside the wattmeter, the time required by the
voltage signal to propagate in the measurement cable
(about 3 ns/m) must be taken into account, since this can
add an error to the active power measurement, thus
creating a delay in the voltage signal in relation to the
current signal. This phenomenon is even more
important for a high signal frequency and a low power
factor.
For instance, for a 600-Hz test using a 10-m
measurement cable, an error of about 1.1% is added
given a power factor of 1%, while the error for 5 kHz is
about 9.4%. To counter this phenomenon and ensure
optimal repeatability of results, it is preferable to use
cables that are as short as possible when measuring the
voltage at the transformer terminals. To obtain
comparative test results, ideally the same cables should
be used, or at least ones that are of the same length.
The quality of the short-circuit cable is important when
assessing the equivalent resistance as seen from the
primary side. Equation (4) shows the contribution of the
short-circuit cable resistance to the total equivalent
resistance seen from the primary side :
Rtot = R primary + n 2 ( Rsec ondary + Rshort −circuit ) , (4)
where n is the turn ratio between the primary and
secondary.
It should be noted that the size of the conductor must be
chosen based on the secondary current, which is n times
greater than the primary current.
The short-circuit cables must therefore be very good
conductors of the same length for each phase in the case
of a three-phase test, with very low resistance in relation
to the resistance of each winding.
isolate the resistance due to the eddy current losses, a
good approximation consists in subtracting from the
value measured for the different frequencies the value of
the direct-current resistance obtained by extrapolation.
Thus, once the temperature of the winding at the time of
the test is known, the results can be adjusted as required
in order to compare them with a test conducted at a
different temperature.

Prior to each test, the current transformers must be

short-circuited, as they can adversely affect the
impedance measurement if they are left open-circuited.
3.7.2 Effect of temperature
The value of a conductor’s resistance varies as a
function of temperature in accordance with the
following equations :
R = R0 [1 + α ⋅ ∆T ] ,
4. CASE STUDIES
4.1 33.33 MVA, 121 kV/12.85 kV, Y∆ transformer
Poor contact in the no-load tap changer has degenerated,
with the creation of carbon, into a short-circuit at the
voltage-regulating winding terminals. Tripping
occurred through the gas relay. Figure 3 shows the
distortion of the phase B primary winding with radial
( 5) displacement of some winding components.

ρ0 l ( 6)
with ∆T = T − T0 and R0 = ,
S

where R0 is the resistance of the winding at temperature

T0 , α the thermal coefficient of the conductor
-1
(0.00393°C for copper), T0 the reference temperature
(usually 20°C), ρ0 the resistivity of the conductor at
-8
temperature T0 (for copper 1.72⋅10 Ω⋅m at 20°C),
and l and S the length and cross section of the
conductor, respectively.

In the case of eddy currents induced in the conductors,

the resistance corresponding to the stray losses
decreases with temperature as in (7) :
Figure 3 : Winding deformation resulting from a short-circuit.
Rstray 0 (7)
Rstray = Even if the displacement and failures are very evident,
(1 + α ⋅ ∆T ) the standard measurements do not reveal any fault :

In fact, additional losses are basically caused by the • the transformer ratio is maintained ;
voltages induced by the leakage flux which appears • the direct-current resistance is not modified ;
inside the conductors. These voltages lead to induced • the excitation current is not affected ;
currents with an amplitude limited by the resistivity of • the impedance measurements do not reveal anything
the material. The induced voltages depend only on the in relation to the other phases, whereas the variation
load current, which generates the leakage flux. If, remains under 1%.
following an increase in temperature, the material’s
Figure 4 indicates that the stray losses are translated by a
resistivity increases, the induced currents and,
resistance on phase B of about 15% higher than on
consequently, the losses, decrease. This is the opposite
phases A and C. The figure shows the resistance
of what occurs in the case of resistive losses which have
representing the stray losses and the direct-current
not been caused by induced voltages but rather by the
resistance.
current whose amplitude is set by the actual load. In
fact, in such a case, if the temperature increases, the
current remains the same and the losses increase.

The total resistance thus comprises the effect of the

resistive losses and the eddy current losses. In order to
 12
the different frequencies in relation to the direct-current
losses :
10

kf α (9)
∆P (%) = × 100
8 Rdc
B
resistance (ohms)

6 In the case of the damaged transformer shown in

C
Figure 3, the additional losses reach 47% at 60 Hz.
4
Equation (9) can also be used to validate the quality of
the transposition inside a winding since the circulating
R stray
2 currents flowing between parallel strands cause an
increase in industrial-frequency losses in relation to
R dc
0
direct-current losses. The measurement is usually
0 100 200 300 400 capable of detecting any other fault or design flaw which
frequency (Hz) has an effect on stray losses.
Figure 4 : Variation of the resistance as a function of frequency
showing an increase in phase B resistance. 4.2 40 MVA, 121 kV/12.85 kV, Y∆ transformer

If, as indicated in Figure 5, the resistance values are
transferred to a logarithmic scale, a simple empirical
relationship is determined between the resistance
representing the stray losses and the frequency :
Rstray = kf
In this instance, the coefficient α is 1.5. This empirical
model is also observed and published in reference [6].
An analysis of the FRSL test results reveals that the
equivalent resistance representing stray losses usually
increases as the frequency rises at a power ranging from
1.4 to 1.8. This value is lower than the value of 2
proposed in the literature, as stated in reference [7].
10
α (8)
This transformer was withdrawn from service since it
produced gas which, when analyzed, indicated a hot spot
involving paper. Laboratory tests revealed :
• the transformer ratio is adequate ;
• the excitation current is normal ;
• an impedance measurement on all three-phases does
not reveal any significant variation.
However, the FRSL test shows a difference in eddy
current losses of 40% between phases.
After the tests were completed, the windings were
removed. No deformation was observed. However,
Figure 6 shows a large burn on the varnish at one
location of the phase A secondary winding where 8 of
the 13 parallel strands forming the conductor are short-
circuited.

5
resistance (ohms)

B C
A
Figure 6 : Major burn on the varnish detected by FRSL.

This type of fault most likely is due to a flaw in the

1 varnish or from metal dust which short-circuited two
parallel strands. Afterwards, when the eddy currents
were generated between these two conductors, the spot
became increasingly hotter until it resulted in a
0,5
50 100 200 500 degradation of the varnish, thus increasing the hot spot
frequency (Hz) and the losses.
Figure 5 : Variation of the resistance representing the stray losses as a 5. CONCLUSION
function of frequency.

Equation (9), which uses the expression indicated in (8), Field experience shows that the FRSL method is an
provides a way of determining the additional losses at effective preventive and maintenance tool that is
compatible with the environment of a high-voltage
substation. The method is obviously not a unique tool
which replaces all other methods. However, when used
jointly with other methods, it can lead to a more
accurate diagnosis of the actual condition of transformer
windings.
The following points summarize the method :
1. The FRSL method mainly consists in measuring
stray losses over a certain range of frequencies,
including the industrial frequency. The method covers
the diagnosis based on the conventional measurement of
impedance variation, since this parameter is also
measured.
2. The curve of the resistance representing stray losses
in the windings as a function of frequency is close to kf α
where α is usually a value ranging from 1.4 to 1.8.
3. The transformer inductance is virtually not affected
by the variation in frequency, in the frequency range
used.
4. Regarding the detection of axial displacement of the
entire winding, tests have shown that the measurement
of variation of the stray losses is more accurate than
impedance variation measurement. The detection
threshold for both methods requires that the winding
displacement be the same as the spacing between
windings.
5. The measurement of stray losses has led to the
detection of a short-circuit between parallel strands in a
winding. It also allows the verification of the quality of
the transposition on a winding made up of several
parallel strands. In general, the measurement is capable
of detecting any fault or design flaw which has an effect
on stray losses.
6. The FRSL diagnosis is not based on the absolute
value of the resistance as a function of frequency but
rather on a comparison of curves. The comparison can
be established with a similar transformer or with a
previous test performed on the same transformer. In the
case of a three-phase transformer, the results can also be
interpreted based on a comparison between the three
phases of the transformer.
7. For three-phase transformers, it is preferable to
perform the test using a three-phase source so that the
leakage flux under normal operating conditions can be
reproduced. If this is not possible, three successive tests
can be carried out with a single-phase source.
8. The presence of the tank causes an increase in stray
losses mainly in the windings. This increase is not
uniform over the three phases of a three-phase
transformer, but the two end phases usually show a
similar increase.
9. In order to obtain repeatability in the results, it is
preferable to always use the same cables or cables of the
same length and a wattmeter with good accuracy at a
low power factor.
6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge Jacques Aubin for
his support in the development of the FRSL method,
Claude Rajotte for his support and contribution to the
method’s fine-tuning and application, and Claude
Jasmin and his team for automating the test procedure.
7. REFERENCES
[1] M.F. Lachman, Y.N. Shafir, Influence of Single-
Phase Excitation and Magnetizing Reactance on
Transformer Leakage Reactance Measurement
(IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 12,
No. 4, Oct 1997, pp. 1538-1546).
[2] E.J. Rogers, L.E. Humbard, D.A. Gillies,
Instrumentation Techniques for Low Voltage
Impulse Testing of Power Transformers (IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Vol. PAS-91, No. 3, May/June 1972, pp. 1281-
1293).
[3] E.P. Dick, C.C. Erven, Transformer Diagnostic
Testing by Frequency Response Analysis (IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Vol. PAS-97, No. 6, Nov/Dec 1978, pp. 2144-
2153).
[4] L. Bolduc, J. Aubin, Detection of Transformer
Winding Displacement by the FRSL Diagnosis
Method (Rapport ACE RP 77-47, Mars 1981).
[5] N. Giao Trinh, J. Aubin, L. Bolduc, Evaluation
of the Dielectric and Short-Circuit Capabilities of
Naturally Aged Power Transformers (IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Vol. PAS-103, No. 1, Jan 1984, pp. 109-120).
[6] G. Olivier, C. Paun, Échauffement des
transformateurs en régime non sinusoïdal (Revue
Internationale de Génie Électrique, Volume 1,
No. 2, 1998, pp. 203-224).
[7] IEEE Std. 519-1992, IEEE Recommended
Practices and Requirements for Harmonic
Control in Electrical Power Systems, April 1993.