7 a gL PO UL HANS TEN KATEAuthors: Klaas van Dokkum Hans ten Katen Kees Koomen Jakob Pinkster Lay-out: R. Mazereeuw, Ermelo The Netherlands Cover: Peter Schorvanger peterschotvanger@gmail Printed by: Gicthoorn Ten Brink by, Meppel, The Netherlands Published by: DOKMAR, Maritime Publishees P.O.Box 360 1600 AJ Enkhuizen, The Netherlands, © Copyyight 2008, 3" edition DOKMAR, Enkhuizen, The Netherlands ISBN.978-90-7 1500-07-7 Alf rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitced in any form or by any means, in- cluding electronic, mechanical, by photocopy, through recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher. Great care has been taken with the investiga- tion of prior copyright. In case of omission the rightful claimant is requested to inform che publishers. Great care has been taken on the compilationShip Stability Klaas van Dokkum Hans ten Katen Kees Koomen Jakob Pinkster Third edition san Atta Pn | — a Dy I ili Enkhuizen ~ 2008Introduction Jusc as “Ship Knowledge” was presented in a whole new manner, so too is “Ship Seability” Due co the advances in computer power and software, the authors are able to present the material in a drastically dif- ferent form from thac of other stabiliy textbooks, includ ing the order and approach of topics. The subject should interest college and university seu- lors. Lack of knowledge dents, as well as fishermen and about stabilicy means greac risk for the ship, crew, passen- gets and environment. Thus, chis comprehensive book suits all levels of naviga- sional and shipbuilding schools All required topics are addressed and can be easily under- scood with help from the many illustrations, The terminology and abbreviations conform to interna- ning that tional usage as much as possible, m Maritime English is used FOr a specie concept, onc term and one abbreviation 15, provided, despite the face chat in practice more words are sometimes used. ‘This provides clarity as soon as the terms become familias Hydrostatic data for 6 ships are given in the accompany- ing CD, For 3 of the ships, an abbreviated version of this data is included in the back of the book. Each author has practical experience and specialized knowledge, and the fusion of their experience and know! edge has resulted in thisbook, “Ship Stability”. Functions ofthe authors: Kas van Dold Navigating officer / inser nautical college / publicist / publisher Hans cen Katen: Naval Atchitec / Senior Surveyor Lloyds Register Consultan for maritime technical matters Kees Koomen: Marine yachtsman / captain / piles / instructor nautical college / publicise. sb Pinkster: Naval architect / instructor Maritime Technology TU -Ddf/ publicist Editor-in-chief Klaas van Dokkum Enkhuizen, March 2008 uthorities cach in their field, supplied ving chapter Hoofistuk 6, deel 2, 3, 4.en 5 Hoofidstuk 9 De. Ir Frans van Walree De. lr, Herbert Koelman, Photosand other material A number of phocogeaphers and shipping concerns have provided photographs for dhs book. These photos illustrate various topics or have some other weationship to stabil ‘The following have my heartfelt thanks for photos and other material: Danny Cornelissen (www,portpictures.nl) Jan van der Klooscer {www:scheepvaarthoek.nl) Klaas Stor (wwwslotmaritimephoto.com) Martijn van Engeland, Delfiship BV (wwwfreeship.ong) Lwould also like to express my appreciation to the following shipping concerns and businesses: Anthony Veder Rotterdam The Netherlands Rederij Drenth Delfuijl The Netherlands ife Amsterdam The Netherlands Gefonzo BV Veere The Netherlands IR Shipping Harlingen The Netherlands Jumbo Shipping Rotterdam The Netherlands SARC Bussunn (wwvwsare.nl) The Neth Seatrade Groningen The Netherlands Sviezer Wijsmuller Imuiden. The Netherlands Corrections to text and proof readings: Harry Gale Technical Manager Nautical Insticute (wwwenantinst org), London, UK SARC, Bussum, The Netherlands Lecturer Enkhuizen Nautical College Noordhroek, The Netherlands Retired Senior leeruter Nautical English M.LWCB, The Netherlands Retired professor University of Michigan, USA Marion Godin Marijkede Jong Carmen Koenen-Loos Mimi Kuijper-Heetes Thomas Lamb ‘Translation: Carol Conover Amersfoort The NetherlandsTable of contents: L Ll 12 13 14 15 16 17 a 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 2.10 2 212 213 214 3. 3 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 3.0 aul 4. 41 42 43 44 45 General Stability Definition of stability Examples of stability Why define stability? ‘The important of Stability Important factors for stability ‘Who is responsible for stability Principal Dimensions Definitions Dimensions Positions ofthe schip Proportions Volumes and weights ‘The shape of the ship General arrangement Derivative quantities Cargo capacity relative ro density / stowage factor Relation herween the weight of the ship and the displaced water Reserve buoyancy Relationship between buoyancy and gravity Relationship between the observed draft and displacement Corrections to the draft readings ‘Transverse stability General Sut of form and weight Location of point B Location of the Metacenter, M Model data Centerof gravity Level ofcapaciey Curve of statical stability Lise momentum Various topics Longitudinal stability ‘The importance of longitudinal stability ‘The waterline’s Center Of Floatation (COF) Momene to change trim per unit Calculation of trim Distribution of crim forward and aft 30 5. 5.1 52 53 54 6. 61 62 63 64 65 66 7 71 72 8. 81 82 83 84 85 86 &7 88 oe a1 92 93 94 25 10. 10.1 102 10.3 Damage Stabi Ship stability in damaged condicions Evolving points of view regarding damage stability Calculation methods for sinking and trim duc to damage Determining damage stability Stability while underway Ship stability while underway Dynamic stability while underway Loss of quasi-static stabi Loss of dynamic stabilicy Broaching Heavy weather guidance Docking, running aground Ship stabiliey while docking Runningaground Special types of ships Sailing vessels Catamarans / swath Crane ships Fishing vessels Supply ships Dredging vessels Submersible pontoon Submarines Loading and stability software Introduction and history Arithmetic functions “Taols for loading sofeware Seandards and requirements Examples of loading software Hydrostatic particulars MN. Enforcer ‘MLV. Morgenstond MN. Pride of Braila Credits: photographs and illustrations Index Abbreviations 82 84 84 86 89 52. 95 95 95 96 9 100 102 106 108 10 105 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 128 128 130 131 131 132 134 144 161 1741.1 Stability Stability isa word regularly heard and used. in daily life. Examples, among othess, are: the weatheris stable ~ the patient is stable ~ astable chanseter ~ the stock exchange is stable. Inall the above-mentioned sicuations the word unstable, which isthe opposite ofsta- ble, can also be inserted. What is meant by che word stable? In populae speech: ‘the person or situation can stand rough handling Or in other words, ‘when a person or sieu- ation in a sable situation experiences a shorclived disturbance the original state will prevail sooner or later: How do the words stable or unseable apply. to afloating object? ‘The concept ofstable also applies toa floar- ing object, Irean stand rough treatment. Afloacing objec (in astable state), through incernal and/or external forees, can be out of balance for atime when: — a ship is thrusc to one side by a wave, as soon as the wave is gone, it rights ieself — asailboar tips on its side ina strong gust of wind and assoon asthe wind dies, the boat returnsto its original position = a rowboat tips when one of ewo people agers our. When the person gets back in, the boar balances itself again, fone of the above-mentioned floating ob- jects was unstable ic would not right itself and would probably capsize, 1.2. Definition seabilicy ‘The stability of floacing objece (for exam- ple, a ship) ean be defined in various ways: ~ Al churacceristies that a ship exhibits in a state of equilibrium, = The ability of a ship to resist capsizing, That is, che ability to righe iself when these forces no longer exist. 1.3, Examples of stability Stability has 3 kinds of distinctions: ~ stable = unstable ~ indifferent In chapter 3.6.1, three kinds of stability are farther explained, ‘What could be said about thebook in front of you? Without more information it cannot be said whether ie is stable or not. The book lies flat on the rable in a stable stae. Ifthe circumstances are changed, for example, if we stand the same book up, then the book bbecomes less stable. A suall push is all ie takes to knock ic over. ‘The book doesn't change, bur it can be- come stable or unstable {See drawings 1-8) stable return 0 equilibrium stable snstable and will sec its equilibrium stable in the new cequilibrian stable neutral ‘gui briumLi Why define stability? ‘Why s important cha the shipbuilder be concerned with stability before and during constuction and why muse the officers be dhucaughly conscious of the degree of sta- bay during che voyage? Ths fact of the macter is, an unstable ship havdisatrous consequences. ic cannot be expected that each ship has a fix valve. Fven for one specific ship in aiffrene situations, is greater or lesser sta- ity advantageous. Aamtages of increased stabiiey: ~ the ship is better able to resist negative intemal and / or external forces Adanages of lesser seabiliey: ~ the ship rol more calmly on waves ve: salting in: + favorable conditions for passengars + lesswear and tear on cargo lashings 15 Theimportance of stability Ship vabiliey isan integral parc of seawor: thins Ships mus have suficéene stabiliey tosuecesflly complete their voyage inthe vortexpected weather conditions. Ac the Iesnning of che 18th century scientists vw already smdying this maever, and they 10 «0 determine the stability: of ships aurhemaically, Shipy abo can have too much stability Some experts even go so far as co say that sinc ships founder asa resule of coo much srblity than too litte stability. “The ac- tekracion thae occurs when the ship re- {uns its equilibrium is then so large thae the bsings of the cargo become severely Xtsined and the construction of the ship cavalo be damaged too site stability leads co accidents as ‘elThus, ships sill founder because lrge anon office fleating liquids ae present onboard, Ships ean eapsize when they are pulle of after grounding The couble-borcom tanks are emptied of ballt to lighten the ship. Once itis atl, there istoo lite stability to remain aprighe trom all chese examples, it appears chat trom one occurrence to the next, stabiicy must be considered. 1.6 Important factors for stabiliey ‘The distribution of weight on theship iso great importance. ‘Another important factor i the form oF the submerged part ofthe hull, For example, if the ship lists due to a gust of wind, ie will Fighe ic This is legely duc tothe ob- lique displacement of the upward pressure caused by thedisplaced water (upthrase). The magnitude of che obl iment ofthe waters upchrust is in wen, de- termined by che shape of the submerged part of che hull. Thais, icis much larger on theside of che ship than the other, and is, in conjunction vith other variables, sufficient co-ensure stability. ue displace ‘The distribution of the upehrust force and also the extent of thar pressure on each part is dependent upon the form of the under- wwacer hull. The form thus plays a very im- porcant role in stabiliey. ‘The face that the distribution of upward force around che ship changes continually, is also important to stability, Examples of sich changes are found: = when theaft ship has more daft (due to a load placed aft) ~ ridingon thecrest ofawaveasaresule of which the distribution of upward force on the submerged part of the hull causes the ship to-capsize ‘To prevent problems with the previous the center of che combined weight of the ship and its ciggo muse nor be too high. This also has limitations, bur will be explained later in the book. Stability may meet all Iegal requirements bbuc there may still be circumstances where the stability ofthe ship isin dinger. Sce IMO resolution A.749(18) (Amended by MSC75 (69)). The ship i preset one side by a wave During this peviod, the upward forces greater onthe starboard than on the port vide 1.7 Who is responsible for stability: Based on che forgoing it appears that the following factors have a large bearing on the ship’ stabiliey: — the shape of the underwater hull, also called caréne, ~ thedistribucion of weight (longitudinal. thwartships and aspecially vertically). The shipbuilder/designer dewrmines the shape of the hull. This is because the ship, under normal operation must always have positive stabilicy and has to fulfil ll inter- national requirements, In shore, the shipbuilder has to deliver a safe ship. The ship’ officer cannot change the hull form of the ship, only che distribution of weight (cargo, uel, ballast, et) ‘The officers required to comply wich legal seabiliey regulations chat apply co she pare ticular ship,2? Principal Dimensions2.1 Definitions 2.1.1 Perpendiculars Imagi line or plane fand the waterline), lines, perpendicular to the base ~ Forward Perpendicular (Fp or F,) This line crosses the intersection of the waterline at the front of the stem. ~ Afi Perpendicular (App or Ay) This line usually aligns with the center stock. Thisis the im- line of the add aginary line around which che rudder The perpendiculars are used when che lines plan is made, They are the ends of che block’ on the submerged part of the hull (sce definitions block coefficient) Moulded dimensions, The distance between the inner sides ‘of the shell Summer treebonrd 2.1.2 Waterlines The above-mentioned watertines apply 10 an upright ship. There are differene wa lines (ie. loadlines) for different loading tions, such as uewaterline The waterline of aship carrying only her ily loaded waterline The waterline of maximum load draft in oon (qu) RT une cei which sion (Scantling) waterline the various structutal components are designed 2.1.3 Plimsoll Mark The Plimsoll mark or freeboard mark is a symbol indicating the maximal immersion of the ship in the water, leaving a minimal freeboard for safety. Freeboard deck Explanation of abbreviatios The mark consists of a circle with a dia meter of 300 mm, through which a hot- zontal line is drawn with its upper edge going through the center of the circle This level indicates the minimal freeboard in sale water summer conditions. Beside this circle the loadline matk consists of number of horizontal lines indicating the minimal freeboard required for other than summer conditions, All freeboard lines are25 mm wide and are connected by a vertieal line, The abbreviations used in the marked load lines muse be in the language of the vessels fag stare. Should the crew consist of more than one nationality the langauge used is generally English. This isto ensure the safety of che people on board. The ship may load cargo until the upper edge of the water level of the relevant load line is reached T Topical Wo Winter WNA. Winter North artic (for water witha densiey of 1000 e/m) TE: Tropical Fre F: Fresh (diteo) T: Tropical (for water with a densiey of 1025 ¢/m?) S: Summer freeboard (dievo) W: Winter (ditto) WNA: Winter Norch Adantic (ditto), only for ships. less chan 100 meters GL/LR: Germanischer Lloyd / Lloyds Register Plinnsoli mark (1) with normal allowance (2)and with The d circle ‘The date snacks and Pino mate have to be marked permanently on the shell plating. Usoally chis means that they are outlined on. the plating by bead welding or by welded plate.The Plimsoll mark is placed at half lenght seach side ofthe ship. The freeboard lines are the direct eesule of the freeboard calculation, where the sum- snes feeboard in sale water i established. The main parameters of the calculation are length wideh (beam), sheer, lengeh of su- petsructue, ength/depth ratio, etc, ‘Theminimal operating fecboard dependson: ~ Ship’ position s sea = Thetime of year (summer, winter). 214 Deck ine In general this isthe extended line fiom the upperside of the freeboard deck at the ships side. ‘The deck line is placed above the Plimsoll mark so that the freeboard ean be easily monitored by the ships erew or other in- terested parties Normally chedeck line isa che level of the ‘weather deck, bue in case the weather deck does not correspond with the feeboard deck (eg, RoRo, passenger ships), chen itis placed at the evel of thar deck, When the distance between the deck line and che mark is impracticaly lage, or the connection deck shell plate is rounded off {tankers bulk carvers), the reference line is positioned at lower level, o 60 2.1.5 Deck cargo of timber ‘When aship carries deck cargo of timber, and certain requirements aremet, this ship is allowed to have more draft (ess free- board). Thisisdueto theadditional reserve buoyaney caused by the caego. To indicate is, the ship has a special freeboard mark for carrying deck cargo of timber, the so- called timber mark, 2.1.6 ‘Tankers and bulk carriers Tankers carrying liquid cargoes and being completely watertight, also have allowance for less frecboard compared with other cargo ships of the same length. tant tet en Satan: Seat rene a - ny ‘Ch ove sd Seasonal ves or ‘cone age ition af this mapt is portrayed ale Hind ok fadicates the mnasinnion lita lined fon given devel The mash “ie cxnple. 1S ar T) ean be de sic bp ofthe map. During sr comage the dee dato aay the must inngertant, Bor esanmple, af ship leaves in ted o 60" ‘he winter from Northern Spain in a south erly direction, itis possible to reach the sum will ust be loaded as fit were in the winter Or, if'a spevifc HS or T cone is applicable, shen itis whally based on the average expected winds and height ofthe waves in the area 120" The eyefone regions ave clearly marked bn bine with the times they are likely to acu: Note the WNA mark as the bottom of the ‘map for ships of les thas 100 meters.7 Permanent marks on the ship's shell Ieis very importane that draft marks ean be accu rately read as easily as possible. Some experienc. isalso imporcancas the visibility ofthe marks and ‘movement of water often makes an ing difficul rate read Several examples with explanations are provided con these pages 1. Drafé to portside fore: 53.8 dm Drafé to portside fore: 5.17 meters Drafé on the stern is given in mecers and feee: 9.36 m.= 307" Drafé to searboard aft: 9.35 meter Deafe midships: 7.00 meters Deck line Plimsoll mark The waver level does not reach the draft marks clow the stern under the ransom. ‘These marks mst be read on the stern co port or star board. (9) This will accually not be easy due to the seen’ shape The draft is visible on the aft perpendicular to port. From above to the rudder stack. In prac tice, dificult co read2.2. Dimensions Length between perpendiculars (Lp) Distance between the Fore and the Aft Perpendicular Length overall (L,) ‘The horizontal distance over the extremi- ties, from stem to ster. Length waterline (Ly) Horizontal distance between fore and aft when the ship is loaded at the summer smark, less the shell Draft Forward (Tyyp) Vertical distance between the waterline and the underside of the keel, as measured a the forwaed perpendicular. Draft aethe stera (T y,) ‘The vertical distance between the warer- line and the underside of the keel as meas- ured atthe aft perpendicular. Breadth or beam (Byy,p) “The greatest molded breadth, measured from side to side at the outside of the frames, but inside the shel. Breadth overall (B,,) "The maximal breadth of the ship as meas- tured from the outer hull on starboard t0 the outer hull on port side, including rub- bing bars, permanent fenders ete. Depth (D) The vertical distance beeween chebase line and the upper continuous deck. The depth is measured at half Lyp at che side of the ship. 1. Length overall (L,) 2. Length berween the perpendicular (pp) 3. Length waterline (L..) Freeboard “The distance between the waterline and the top of the deck at the side (at the deck line). ‘The term summer freeboard means the distance from the top of the summer loadline and the upper edge of the deck line. Air draft Thev | distance between the waterline ind the highest poine of the ship. The air draft is measured from the summer mark. Ifthe ship has less draft one can ballase un- al i reaches the summer draft and so ob- tain its minimal air draft, 4, Breadth overall (By,) 5. Depth 6. Draft Sheer This is the upwaed rise of a shipys deck fron mid length cowards the bow and stern. Th sheer gives che vessel ext reserve buoyan cy atthe stem and the ster. Camber ‘The transverse curvature of the weathe deck. The curvature helps to ensure sufi cient drainage of any water on deck. ‘Top of the flat keelplate Keel (K) Inter section of the base line and the cente line plane, 7, Freeboard 8, Overall height of vese (air draft)The bel (K) isthe intersection ofthe base line (purple) and cemer line Riseoffloor Common to some eypes of vessels ike tug- boats and Ashing bots. This is the upward deviation ftom the baseline of the lower edges of the floors from the keel towards the bilge. Bilge Radius Givesthe bilge radius ofthe ship. 3. bilge radius 4.tise of floor 2.3. Positions of the ship Lise Heeling to one side about the fore and aft Tim (0) ‘The difference between the draft at the stern and the draft at the stem. the trim fore (c,) + the trim af (t,) ‘Onan even keel, in proper trim ‘The draft of the stern equals the draft of the stem, 2.4 Proportions ‘The ratios of some of the dimensions can be used to obtain information on resist- ance, stability and maneuverability of the ship. Some commonly used ratios are: L/B The ratio of lengeh and breadth: L/B can differ quite significantly depending on the type of vessel. Common values: Passenger ships 6-8 Freighters 5-7 Tug boats 3-5 ‘A larger L/B value is favorable for speed, but unfavorsble for maneuverability L/D The length/depth-ratio. The customary values for L/D vary between 10 and 15. ‘This relation plays a role in ehe decermina- tion of the ficeboard and the longitudinal serengeh, BT ‘The breadth/drafe-ratio, varies between 2 and 4.5. ‘A larger breadth in relation co the draft (a larger B/T-ralue) provides greater initial stability B/D ‘The breadth/depth-ratio, varies between 1 and 2. I this value increases ie will have an unfavorable effect on stability (the deck will be submerged when the vessel heels) and strengeh. Down by the stern: T, more then Ty2.5 Volumes and weights “The size of aship can be expressed by usin terms which deseribe the characteristics of the ship. Each cerm has a specific abbre- viation, ‘The type of ship determines the term to be used. For instance, the size of a container vessel is expressed in the number ‘of containers (TEU) it can carry: a Ro- Re carriers size is given by the toal deck surface (lanes) and a passenger ship in the inuinber of passengers it ean carry At the IMO-conference in 1969 the ne measurements for the “Gross. Tonnage and "Net Tonnage” were introduced, to establish a world-wide standard in caleulat- ing the size ofa ship. In many countries the Gross Tonnage is used to calculate harbor dues and pilorage, or v0 determine the umber of crew members sister ton (RT) “To determine the size of a ship the RT is used, Iris based on volume where one rei tercon equals 100 cubic feet, or 2.83 m Gross Register Tonnage “The Gross Register Tonnage (GRT or GT), usually ealled Gross Tonnage, is calculated. using a formula thac takes into account the ships volume in cubic meters below the main deck and the enclosed spaces above the main deck. “This volume is chen muliplied by a eoek ficient, which results in a non-dimensional number (this means no values of T or m> should be placed after the number), All measurements used in the calculation are moulded dimensions. In order to minimize the daily expenses of a ship, the ship owner will keep the GT as low as possible. One way of doing this is by keeping the depth small, so more cargo will be placed on deck. This strategy is in particular used in small container ships (feeders). As a consequence, dangerous situations ean occur as the lesser reserve buoyancy can resule in a lesser stability and more ‘water on det "The Net Register Tonnage ivalsoa non-di- mensional number that describes the vol ume of the cargo space. The NT is derived. from the GT by subteacting the volume of space occupied by = navigation equipment = the propulsion equipment ~ work stations ~ ballast ZA = Gross Tonnage (GT: [J = Nett Tonnage (Nn) ‘The NT may not be less than 30% of the ‘Underwater volume (carene) (m*) ‘The moulded underwater volume ofa ship isthe displacement in m minus the conti tion of the shell, propeller and rudder. Or: the calculated volume of che pare of the hull which is immersed in the water, on the outside of the frames without extensions. The influence of che shell in weigh, is compensated by the extra displ acement V (m3) ‘The displacement isthe volume ofthe part ofthe ship below the wacedine including th shell plating, propeller and rudder and other appendages. Displacement D or A (con) The displacement is che weight of the volume of water displaced by the ship. One cou also say: the displacement equals the total mass ofthe ship. Displacement (ton) = water displacement (am) x density of water (e/m) Lightship weight (ton) “This isthe weight of che ship including the regular inventory, bue without any cargo fi or crew. The regular inventory includes: anchors, lifesaving equipment, lubricating paint, ec Deadweight (ton) “This is the weight a ship can cake on until che maximal allowable immersion is reached hiss ixed value, unique to each ship. Through the years, there is wsually a build-upaf ud in che ballase ranks, additional lubricating oll is taken on board, and less is removed “There isalso water, which cannot be pumped out, The toral weight o called the ship-constant or dead load, and has to be subtracted from the deadweight. Cargo Capacity (c) This is che total weight of cargo a ship is designed to carry at a given time, The act ‘eargo loaded (in tons) is nora fixed amount. Ie depends on the ship's maximum allowabh immersion ar the relevant season, which will inckide the capacity (in tons) of fuel, lube cating ol, provisions and drinking water. Fr a long voyage a large quantity of fuels hast be taken on, which reduces the eargo capacity. If,on the other hand, the ship refuels (bun kers) underway, the eargo capacity is larger upon departure. The amount of fuel on boat and thelocation for refueling depend on many factors, ut in the end the caprain has ind responsbility for the decision, The cargo capacity sets mainly che income ofa ship. ‘Cargo capacity (ron) = deadweight (ton) ~ ballast, fuel, provisions (ton).26 The shape of the ship Av omated catlier, che shape of the ship is ‘er tuportat for stability Ta form coefficients discussed bere ste re lated tothe under water forin of the ship to the sammer loadline, Tex does not alter the fact thae the part of the ship above water is also important co sabi {ci imporcant co know which upward fince can effect the pare of the ship scil above water. Jn ether words: how lage is the reserve buoraney and how is this distributed throughout the ship? (See chapter 2.11) «ship. Note the Large BUT rat Jr iveleae that the amount of buoyancy {vith an equal angle of heel) ofa passenger ship willbe completely diferent than that 1 wupply ship. For example on a passen: eli, this much larger than on a sup. pl ship duet» the higher superstruesure of the passenger ship. Even so, this does not catsea problem forthe supply ship as long as che weight distribution and the shape below the waterline is sufficiene 2.6.1 Hull form coeticiems Line coefficients define the characteristies of the vessels shape at and below the waterline. This makes it posible to ger an impression of the shape of che undervsater body ofa ship without extensive use of any dara, However, the line coefficients do noe contain any information aboue the dimensions ofthe ship and are chus, non-dimensional figures ~ Waterline coefficient, Cy (a) The waterline coefficient gives the ratio of the area of the waterline (Ay) and the rectangular plane bounded by Ly, and molded breadth (By) A large waterline coefficient in combination with a small block coefficient (or coefficient of fineness) is favorable to stability in both transverse and longitu- inal dircetion ‘Waterline coefficient (Cy) = Ay = Lp Buy Midship Section coeffi Cy (8) The midship (main frame) coefcie section (A,,) and the area bounded by By and T The influence of the midship section coefficient is variable. igives the ratio of the area of the midship Aw = Midship coefficient (Cy) = 7M y y most~ Block coefficient, coefficient of fineness, Cy (8) The block coefficient gives the ratio of the volume of the underwater body (V) and the rectangular block bounded by Lp. Byj,y and draft (TT). A vessel with a small block cocf- Ficienc is referred to as fine’ In general, fast ships have sina block coefficients. Customary values for the block coefficient of several types of vessels: kee Barge 0.90 Bulk cartier 080-085 Tanker 080-085 General eargo 053-075 Container ship 050-070 Ferryboat 050-070 ~ Prismatic coefficient, C, (®) The Prismatic Coefficient gives the ratio of the volume of the underwater body and the block formed by the area of che Midships Section (A,,) and Ly. The C, is important for resistance and hence, for the necessary power of propulsion (if the Cy decreases, the nec essary propulsion power also becomes smaller). ‘The maximal value of all chese coefficients (also for a rectangular block) equals 1. The minimal value is theoretically 0 Reefer with a somall black ce Gono ship with an average block coffciss 2.6.2. Hull-form (Lines plan) When the principal dimensions, displace mentand hull-form coefficients are knows fone has an impressive amount of desig formation, but not yer a clear im: exact geometrical shape of the ship. The shape is given by the lines pla. The shape of a ship can vary in heigh. length and breadth. In order to represent this complex shape on paper, transvene sections of the hull are combined with twe longitudinal sees of parallel planes, e:ch arto the others. one perpendi Waterlines Horizontal sections of the hull are calla waterlines. One of these is the design ws: tetline, which i the waterline of the ship the level of immersion wich a full cargo. When the wared drawn into one view from above, the ret is called a waterline model es ate projected ard;Stations Evenly spaced vertical cross-sections in transverse direction are ealled sections (or dinates). Usually the ship is divided inco 20 ordinates, From the center of the rudder sxock (ordinate 0) t the intersection ofthe construction waterline and the mould-side ofthe stem (ordinate 20), ‘The boundaries ofthese distances are num- bered 0 to 20, called che section numbers. A projection of all ordinates into one view iscalled a body plan, Verticals / Bow and Buttocks Lengthwise sections are called verticals or bow and buccock lines. These longieudinal sections are paralle tothe plane of symme- utyofthe ship. Verticals projected and drawn in one view result ina so-called longitudinal plan, Diagonals Apart from the rectangular sections, some- times planes running lengehwise are used, bue at an angle from the midships plane. They are called diagonals, or sent-lines The diagonals are longitudinal sections that intersect with the hull surfacs tain angle. On the longieudinal plan they show up as curves, ‘The curvature of the frames (ordinates), eater lines and buttocks are compared toeach other and modified until they are Consncent, and develop smoothly in all directions. When this procedure is exceu ted, the results can be checked using the diagonals. ‘The most commonly used dia: onal called the bilge diagonal. Waterlines Staton Buttock lines Dinxyonat NT agesaccommodation / deck house 2.7 General Arrangement sar cargo space blkhead bulkhead berween hold t Now that the overall dimensions and form of the ship are under stood attention will be di 5 space bulkhead aca number rents and spa s double bottom indirect relationship to stability. 8, stern dare frequently referred to in hell this book room: khead (portable)28 Derivative quanti ‘The location of these variables is depend- cent upon ln addition co che fixed components and — the distribution of weight* on the ship * The ships weight, among other factors, includes: ~ the weight of the ship when itis empey spaces refered co in 2.7, there are also a — the distribution of upward force(buoy- cargo runber of variablesimportant to stability. ancy) on the submerged part of the — fuel, lubrication oi, drinking water, ete. Theseare further explained in thischapeer. ull, added cargo) ~ balla. “Thevariabes are bbreviation| Term Explanation HHA GorCOG | Centre of Grav mean mass or center of gravity (oF ship, cargo and added cargo) gorCOg | Centeofgavity | _mean mass oF space or object BorCOB | Centre of Buoyancy (volume)| volumetric center ofthe submerged part ofthe ha M Meracenter Meracenter | Ket Keel COF Centre of Floatation | geometrical center of the water plane area, or tipping center axisaround which the ship trims COF = center of floatationFurther explanation 2.8.1 PoineG All the ship's mass is concencrazed in one place, G (=center of gravity). G isthe point where the ships total weight is thought to be concentrated (weight of the empry shi + cargo + added weight). As soon as ‘weight is added, removed ar shifzed, point G changes. Note: normally, n a moving ship, point G will not change. 2.8.2 Point B All upward force on the underwater hull can be concentrated ar one point, B (=eene er of buoyancy). Point B is the volumetric center of gravity of the submerged part of the hull and also where the resuleant up. ward force is centered. The position of B in che ship is subsequent ly determined by the form of the hull Nore: Point B will move as longs the ship is in motion. This motion can be very slow (for example when loading and / or dis charging) or fast (in the event of storm) septbution of up rd pressure per section 0 | Longitudinal Center of G Transverse Center of G the length. B indicates the total ‘The position of B is determined relative to 3 points of reference: TEE “Area of reference Base line it perpen Centerline 7 [iisplanation| The resuleane (lor example, G) i peers: replaces all other (gravity) “Gai is produced by the influence ofthe center of gi E the weight oF an objeer divided Re _ Note: Wher we speak aboue VOG, G. This alsa applies co VCB, on TCB in relation to B, Allabbreviaions used in the book are | the English abbreviations used inter E Notes: ~ When the ship is in a state of equilib rium, poine B isdireeely under poine G. Theline of acrien of che resultant buoy- ancy then coincides with the loadline of the resuleane yrvity ~ Fauilbyium can be interrupted, among ocher things: + During loading or discharging; hen the ship immediately repositions ic self + When external circumstances (a wave or gust of wind, for example} disturb its equilibrium, ‘The duration of this disturbance can vary from afew seconds to a continuously change- able loss of equilibrium during bad weather, During loading and/or discharging bbuoyaney also cha when itis being loaded anid decrease upon discharge. During bad weather bbuoyaney daesn' increase or decrease Only the distribution of upward force ‘on the hull changes continuously ges. This inereases 28.3 Poine COF The position of COF is determined relative to one point of reference Abbreviation | Area of reference LCF [af peqgentostr The axes (longicudinal and main trans. verse) run through this poine on which the ship rolls and surns The correct dratt is the distance between COF and kee. There can be other drate particulars if weight and point B are speci fied, The sb During bad weather she position of COF and B, of he moving sbip will dhange eons4 Point Mand N ‘With a heeling angle up to about 5°, ic is assumed thae point M lies at the in tion of the veetor of buoyancy and the cen: terline. The line ofthe upward buoyant force inter sects the centerline at M. This applies to lists to about S' With larger lists, poine Mis defined as follows: ‘The intersection of 2 successive lines of buoyancy with a very small increase of angle of inclination Forexample, 05° 10 0,6°(@ +(9+ 0,1") Mis chen found outsidethe vertical plane For calculation purposes, we cannot work with M outside the vertical plane of sym- metry. Thus, a false metacenter, N, is used for calculations. ‘Thisalso applies to the angles of heel larger than ca.5* Point N is on the centerline at the intersection of the buoyancy loadline and the centerline, In transverse direction: the distance be- coween Band M relates to the width of the waterline. As soon as the ship lists (to a certain angle of heel) che width of the wa- terline increases, along with the distance from M to B. From 0° to an angle of heel of about 5*it appears that with typical ship forms, point M is near the vertical plane of symetry while atthe same time, che dis tance between Band M remainsalmost the With an upright ship, the distance between B and M varies (for most ships) from 04x beam to 1x beam of the ship. Nore: In contrast to Gand B, point M (be- cause ies an imaginary point) lies abeam instead of from fore to aft Ar angle of heel up to about 5°, point M (abeam) can be seen as the reference point in order to determine whether the ship is stable, As long as G is beneath M, we talk about positive (initial) stability The distance between G and Mis called main transverse (initial) stability. In longitudinal direction: in this I case the distance of M over Bis } ‘much larger than in thwartshipd i direction, and is about the same i or larger than the ship’ lengch, ' This is because the length is ; responsible for the movement ' of Bin a longitudinal direction { while trimming ' ‘With changes in erim, the waterline length will ' hardly change, so M, can be considered a xed poinc 4 The postion ofthe false metacenter, N Location of the center of buoyancy in carious gradients. Position ofthe center of buoyancy in various gradients of trims29 Cargo capacity relative to density/stowage factor ‘The amount of cargo and added cargo de- pends on, among other things: ~ the capacity of the space reserved for cargo (mm) ~ the maximum cargo capacity (tonnage) of the trade roure ~ the travel time relative to the amount of fuel, te = the maximal pormissable draft during the voyage ~ the maximum tanktop load (t/m?) ‘Which of the firscewo points is important (tonnage or m'), is dependent upon the ‘cargo’ weight relative to the space required forthe cargo. This lationship (weight/eapaciey, capac ity/weight) can beexpressed in two ways (e) indicates how many cons one m ofthe contents weighs (p = t/m') ~ Stowage fuetor (sf) indicates how many m' one ton occu: n/t) Both variables (sgand sf) indicate the sme thing about the contents. ‘They have the following correlation Ley af 7 ‘Thisisthe same assaying the specific mass {isthe reciprocal value of the stowage factor ‘ofahomogenows cargo or liquid, fi 1, orp = 6.00 the atom ship loaded with ears Om or p= 0.167 t/m?. Aship with dy 2.10 Relation between the weight of the ship and the displaced warer Archimedes’ principle: A body immersed ina liquid will be subject co an upward thrust equal co the weight of the liquid the body displaces. ‘The weight of the water a floating object displaces is equal to the weight of this ob- ject. ‘The ship's weight is called displacement. ‘When the ship is being loaded, displace- ment increases and thus, also, the weight of the amoune of displaced water. In Face, che weight of the increased dis- placed water, isthe same as the weight of the added cargo ‘The above principle docs noe mean chac with a particalar draft the ship aways has the same displacement. With the same draft and trims, the ship al- ways displaces the same amount of m? of water Nore: the displaced water does not always have the same weight Take a ship displacement ae a draft of 2.44 meters 11649 m water, If this ship. lies im fresh water (p = 1,000 c/m) it chan 1164.9 m* «1.000 —"; = 1164.9 ton Draft — | Displacement bottom keel | seawater 240 n72A 242 1183.1 24 11940 246 1205.0 248 12160 11863 250 22 1197.0 The sable tsam extract of hydrostatic data, available un every ship, The data are abo incarpusated in the deadweight table, “Take the same ship in saltwater (sg = 1.025 t/a?) again wich a draft of 244 meters. ‘The ship still displaces 1164.9 m3 water. However, the weight ofthe displaced water and chus, the weight of the ship will shen be: 11649! 1.025 = 11940100 “The formula is expressed as: Vxp displacement, thar is, the weight of the ship in tons 4 1000 kg V_ = volume ofthe underwater hull (vol ume of displacement) in m’, p= density ofthe water in s/m, From the above formula, ie abo follows that with a similar displacement, the draft can change ifthe densicy of the water changes. ‘Take a ship passing through a lock, that moves from fresh water to sale water. Asa result of the change to the density of the sea water the draft decreases ame draft can havea different displacement, depending an the specific (ae Pa a Be i Te2.11 Reserve buoyancy In spite of the face chac a watertight (steel) ship is very heavy; it doesn’esink. The reason is that the hull is hollow. Because of the forn afloat. This buoyancy is equivalent roe the hull basenough buoyancy that ic remains ship weight excepe in reverse direction, Example: A ship weighs 10,000 rons, directed downwards. The buoyancy, according to the Archimede® Principle, then also amounts to 10,000 rons bur in opposice direction. Both forces are perpendicular to the waterline and keep each other in balance (thus, new talizing each other). Therefore, the resulting nec force is nil and the ship isin a state of equilibrium (vertical). Conclusion: the ship main ies draft {eno vertical movement. Distrdntion of upward force on the ship The drafe ofthe ship will increas if 1. the weight of the ship is increased due 2. buoyancy decreases. ‘The draft of heship will decrease if 1. the weight isremoved from the ship 2. buoyancy increases. to cargo, ballist, fuel, ete. As explained eatlier, buoyaney depends on the volume of water displaced by che hull and the density of the water. ‘The portion of In gen Conditions If che space satisies the requirements r included along with che reserve buoyancy. Examples of watertight spaces are: losed volume of the ship above the waterline is called teserve buoy- the larger the reserve buoyancy, the greater the seaworthiness of the ship, rset regarding the degree of impermeability of the space abo averline ding impermeability, then these cin be — enclosed volume of the hull above water (freeboard) ~ enclosed volume of the coaming, forecastle and poop (superstructures) ~ enclosed volume of the deekhouse(s) See: ~ Loadline convention, regulation 3(10)(b) ~ IMO resolution A.749(18) roy Z@ + | = reserve buoyancy (ifimpermeable) 2.12 Relationship between buoyancy and gravity 2.12.1 Ship in equilibrium in calm water Inchis section, itis assumed thae: ~ the ship has a positive initial seabil- ity — the distribution of weight is sym- metric relative co the vertical plane of symetry IF the ship lies in calm water (no waves or tide), equilibrium exists, The center of buoyancy (B) lies on the centerline and in line with G. The upthrust has the same force as the ships weight, These forces originate from hydrostatic pressure. “These work in an upright ship: — Perpendicular to the sides (pore and starboard) and counterbalance each other. — Perpendicular to the bottom of the ship. HEBER che diseribution of pressure on the! mm che resultane Poine B then is located on the centerline, If che ship, chrough external force lists, for example to port, then he distribution of pressure to port and starboard is unequal. The center of buoyaney (B) is then erans- ferred to pore, Ship listed under external pressure‘The resul is that = the buoyancy force acts through 2 new center of buoyancy (B') ~ displacement remains at G. ‘The forces respectively act chrough points Bland G now thar this: ~ remains perpendicular to he surface of the water, ~ no longer act in the centerline plane. ‘The buoyancy force with weight, in chis Because the resulting pressure moves to the cencer of gravity G, there is no rotation, only situation has a positive correlation. ‘There motion from riding the waves, There is no equilibrium, is (temporarily) no equilibrium. If we eransfer the line of pressureto G, then buoyancy and gravicy work together 2.122°The ship on a sloping water sur- face the ship sails across che swells, i will sway, There is a dynamic interaction, If wwe freeze the motion of the ship halfway between crest and trough ie will have che same lst asthe gradient of the water, the ‘consequence of the interplay of forces. ‘The hydrostatic pressure to port and star- board is again equal bue in reverse ditce- tion. The resulting buoyancy moves per pendicular co che ship bottom, “The center of buoyaney moves to the cen- tetlie, Buoyaney always occurs perpen- diculat to the wawr surface or table, the ‘waterline ofthe ship. 2.12.3 Surfing of the ship The resulting force also causes the ship to surf if is moves with the waves ahead of the The line of the upward force now runs cress. through the ship’ center of geavity G and there is no positive corselation as in the ‘brevious figure “The same interaction occurs if the ship rides before tidal wave or travels from the source ofa river to its mouth. In that case, the drop in the surf's momentum must be heeded. ‘The power of the surf ensured thae the ship hhad just as much power as if ic were pro- pelled. A similar method of propulsion was called sucfing.2.13 Relationship between the observed draft and displacement Draft has a direct correlation to the dis: placement of the ship. Therefore, it is mportane that the drafe is accurately read since each incorrect centimecer readingean mean a displacement difference of several tons, Below are the data of a large tanker about 320 metets in length and about 54 293310 318 293628 318 293946 318 2413.1 Tons/em As shown in the table above, the displace- mene can be determined as well as the umber of tons per cm. This figure in dicates che number of tons that muse be loaded or discharged in order to obrain a difference of 1 cm draft Example: Note the displacement in sea wa- ter with a draft of 18.40 meters. Add up the number of tons per cm (318) ‘The stim of these figares must be the same as the displacement in sea water with a draft of 18.40.m + lcm = 1841 meters, IF the ship is sailing in water with a differ ent densiey from sea water (1.025 t/m’) the ‘/cm must be corrected accordingly “The number of rons per em can be caleu- laced if the surface area of the waterline is known, tharis: am? x 0.01 m. x 1.025 t/m 2.13.2 Hydrometer “The density (p) of che water in which the ship floats must be determined accurately This is necsssary in order to calculate the displacement correctly, Keep in mind that the sg of a specific location is noc always the same, This can vary as with a heavy rain within a certain period of time, The sow can be determined with the help of the hydrometer or acrometer 2.14 Corrections to the draft readings “The drawing shows chae che mean draft (as in the hydrostatic table) is located at the halfway mark of he ship’ length (%1,,) 1. draft aft 2. mean draft (T mean) 3, draft forward This mean draft is the same as the sum of the drafis found in the fore and aft perpen- diculars divided by ewo. These drafe marks have to be clearly visible on the shell plating ~ an area perpendicular to the centerline atthe fore and aft perpendiculars ~ midships (on large ships) However, ie is nor always possible to place the drafe marks on che perpendiculars nor on thecenterline Subsequen correcrians based on the fie that: a the drafe marks are noc on the vertical plane of sym b. the draft marks are nor on the perpen- dicolars €. thecenter of floatation of the waterline isnot inaccordance with the 4), (im jon) and the ship trims around F and not midships a. I the shell, located on the Fyp atid Apy is curved than the distance between the different drafe marks on the shell ean so- mewhae differ from each other, Therefore no correction is necessary because the pro- jection on the centerline gives the correct value, Correction is, nevertheless, necessary ifthe ship has a list. Then the draft to pore as well as starboard must be red and the mean draft determined, would the area by the Fyp and / or the App appear in an impractical place (for example, ac che cop of the bull or stern frame) then the draft marks have to be ap- plied to another location. The value read- ing then has 0 be corrected in order to find the value a the peependiculars. How this correction should be calculated is coneained in the hydrostatic data of the shij If che trim should be nil, then no adjust- mentis required, , there have to be a number of 4. perpendicular lines 5. drafe marks 6. centerline ofthe keel and stem 1. Drafe marks on the afe perpendieul Wieh an increase in draft, diffcale read. 2. Draft marks more highly visible. Mak ‘correction with rim necessary (seeb,) «. The correct draft isthe vertical distan from the underside of the keel ro the wate line at the COF, IF che shape of the waterplane area in feo of 4L,. isnot the same asthe part behie 4 Ly the COF will at be on Ly. Consequently, an adjustment to the dr reading is necessary since the draft readi only applies t0 4 Lye This is called trim correction, This mast be applied ifthe Following f torsare applicable: ~ COF does not correlate 00 % Lip ~ the ship has erim After the adjusted draft has been cal lated, the correct displacement can be d‘Trim adjustment is determined as follows: COF: in forrn, thus: C-(itp-IC =i stp — |) S@__—@ c vim LCF em j_—_ck LCE) Lp _—————J s diy The draft correction in em derives from this formula. ‘Thisadhustmenc eo the draft Inonder ro determine the in incm has tobe mulsiplied with the total t/em for this draft: Adifezence in tons = c (in em) xr/em =... ton. the sboveisenteed in the formula: c= ap then the A difference isin cons: lef ELpp rim x{ } Lpp~ LCF) xe/em swill also have a bearing on displacement. ase or decrease of displacenvent, the difference stim »(JL-LCF) negative adjustment lef 2 Lop positive adjustment negative adjustment sition of the indication ofthe trim adjustment positive adjustment Correct drat Mean of draft reading foreand at. Correction (C) to draft, (Positive in the above drawing) “Trim }Lyp-LOF Notes: ~ In the formula, trim is expressed in em ‘because the e/cm also applies per cm. ~ The waterline changes if ehe ship trims orlists. The value of t/em will no longer agree then with the value provided in the hydrostatic daca. Adjustments to this are, nevertheless, marginal and are purely applied toa draft survey. ~ IFche sim adjastanent is greater than 2 cm then preferably the draftis corrected and with the correct deaf, the dis de- termined. ~ Trim adjasemene must only be applied if a hydrostatic table wich trim of nil isused. “The mark (pasitiee or negative) is determined by twa factors: ~ the location of COF in relation to 8 Ly ~ or the ship bas. trim by the bow or sternity 3 Transverse Stabil3. General ‘Transverse sabilicy largely determines the ship’ seaworthiness. Among other things, the location of points G, Band M can de: termine if a ship, for example, will expe ence problems in bad weather. ‘The shipbuilder can influence che lo: of ~ ‘BY chrough the shape and volume of the hull ~ 'M; by the area and shape of the water- plane area For every ship Band M are in a fixed posi- tion for each particular draft ‘The erew only has control of G by loading, discharging or transferring weight, ‘Transverse stabiliey can be divided in ~ initial stability (angles upto about 5°) — stability with angles of heel greater chan 3 Important for transverse stabiliey are the distances: = KM (and if given, BM) indicative for form stability (see table below). = KG is indicative for weight stabiliey. (must be calculated) 3.2 Stability of form and weight 3.2.1 Form stabi Tf you have a canoe and a rowboat sieting next to each other, the rowboat will appear more stable in the transverse direction than the canoe because the rowboat is beamicr. Justifiable, because the widerthe vessel, the ‘more stable itis asa rule. Why? As soon as a boat lists slightly, buoyancy shifts to the lower side. 9576 8200 | 14179.19 | 1453.67 17233 | 66.824 | 63.129 300 | 1440781 | 1476801 | 2353 | 17589 | 66.764 | 62922 | 9.605 ago | 1463809 | 1500405 | 2370 | 17925 | 66.702 | 62740 | 9.635 8500 | 1487001 | 1524176 | 2386 | 18251 | 66.639 | 62588 | 9.667 1435843 8200 1471739 | 2390 | 18473 | 64870 | 61171 | 9.712 8300 | 1459218 | 1495698 | 2404 | 18718 | 64s10 | 61.039 | 9.741 sao | 1482724 | ist9792 | 2417 | reer | 64749 | 60.925 | 9.771 tn extract frum the hydrostatic dats of refer: This clearly shows that with the same diaf the trim eas greatly influence the diferent wales such asf, displacement, LCB, LCB, LCE: This isdue tothe change ofthe surface area and form ofthe waterline, Actually, for ‘every trina table should be made. bn general, however, only «complete tables repro- duced fora tra of 0.00, 050, 1.00 and 1.50 meters ‘Trim correction (seep. 33) doesnot have ta be applied if the relevant table i ho use with ‘the existing sro. The difference wih drafis 8.20 me (1435843 — 14179.19) cin fact, the ‘trim correction i tons with a tim of $0 meters ‘The more beam a vessel has, the more the buoyancy (located at B) will shift. The dis tance over which B moves to the lower side is proportionate to the square of the beam of the ship (see sections 3.3 and 3.4). “Transverse stability is largely dependane upon: = beam, ~ draft (prevents the bilge rising our of the water), ~ freeboard (prevents the deck edge from going under water). ‘This is directly related to the shape of the hull, Here, we are referring to the influence of form on stability Definition of form seabil Fora given angle of hedl, point B changes position such thac a moment (= force x distance) is created. This moment is equal to the upchrust x che disance between the sworklines of the buoyancy and displace- iment force. This moment is called the st bility momenc and works against the angle of heel ic tries to return the vessel ro her inival position of equilibrium. Examples: rocking chair, rumbles, floating cork Pontoon 3.2.2. Weight stability How can a relatively narrow ship stil be stable? As soon as the ship lists, the center of graviey G, also moves to the lower side from is original vertieal position, As long as Bat the same angle of heel, moves more to the lower side than G moves from is vereical positon, chen the upehrust returns the ship back to her original stare of equi- libriam, With a relatively narrow ship, B closer ro G than with a beamy si ill beWith a float, in which there is almost no sebilty of form, G lies under B. With a smal ist, G moves from he vertical to che higher side. We are referring now to weight sei, Definition of weight stability With regard to weight stabiliey, only the cemer of gravity moves from the vertical position, Depending on the location of support (location ofthe responding force), the body is then in table, unstable or neu- tel equilibeium, Example: pendulum / Eston i 8 | é Summary Tn practic, a ships seaworthiness is based fon both principles of stability, whereby both extremes re lso reached. ‘An ofthore pontoon thar caries its cargo solely on deck, depends mainly on its form seabily, while a submarine depends on its 3 stability co remain upright. The submarine and the empry pontoon will experience an anpleasant shore rolling effeecand move stil. With other ships, a combination of weight and form stability submerged submarine 3.3, Location of point B B (Center Of Buoyancy = COB) indicates the location of the resulting buoyancy of the displaced seawater. The location of B is dependant upon the hulls form. B is the volumacric center of the hull and eonse- quently, the center of buoyaney. Buoyancy is equal co the weight (displacement) of the ship. Without the equilibrium of these forces, the ship would capsize. The resultant (vector) of all upward pres- sure isalways perpendicular co the momen- rary waterline This means cha the alignment of this vee~ ror in calm water is different from that in waves and thus, changes continuously. The results of the forces char move to G and B position chemselves in a line. The ship must, therefore, lie neutral in che wa- ter and not move around one of its axes (rolling or pitching, ‘The resultanc of G is downward and is per- pendicular to the horizontal surface area. “The resultant of B is upward and isperpen- dicolar to the ransitory waterline. Both results are equal When a ship is sailing in waves, point B continuously changes its location. The re- sulting moment will therefore, consinue to actempt co line up B with G. Note: point G remains (with an equivalent weight distribution) a fixed point. If ic is tunstable the ship will capsize. IF the ship loses its equilibrium dve to an external force [for example a gust of wind), the dstsibusion of upward force onthe hull changes. The outcome i chat the esulting bbuoyancy (B) will move inthe ditection of the largese upward force. ‘The movement of B with an increased lise. If the ship’ lise continues to increase, for ‘whatever reason, then B will also move sill further from the vertical plane of symme~ uy. Depending on the shape of the hull, B will continue to return to the vertical plane of symmetry asthe ship continues to move. Depending on the shape of the superstruc- ture, this will occur as soon as the ship turns 180° (up side down). The location of B with a rectangular and trtanguler-snaped vend, rapecivey With most ships, KB ic situated between both values (43 T and +6 T) 3.4 Location ofthe Metacenter, M ‘The importance of M> location to trans: verse (initial) stability is great. The loca- tion of M depends on the location of B. ‘The location of G in relation to M is main- > Iy decisive forthe stability. Stability can be: — positive (G under M) ~ neutral (G at M) = unstable (G above M). Up to about 5° lise and/or erm, ie can be assumed thar B forms a circle with Mas center point. BM is, therefore, a fixed dis- “The drawings demonstrate chac wich an ine crease in heel, the location of M depends on: ~ the shape of the submerged pare of the ship (chereby, the location of B, which changes continuously in a moving ship) ~ the surface area of the waterline where by the width ofthe waterline ic the most important factor (this also changes con- simously in a moving ship)The ship hes 0° list. The alignment BM, is langely determined by the breadth of the waterline i The ship with a list of 20°. The breadth of the waterline becomes barger: here fore, BM becomes er The ship with a list of 40° Becnse the submerged and the ep; the breach of the waterline decreases: herefare, ByM etumnes onaler: Nis defined as follows: (in physical terms) the interscetion of the buoyancy vector and the center line (plane). The ship with a list of 60°. The breadth of the lecreases ted thus, the distance BM natler The ship with 90° list. Ae 60 M isdefined as follows: (in physical terms) the intersection of 2 consecutive buoyancy vectors with a slight inerease in angle of heel (forcxample from 0,5° 00,6" {eHe+ 0,0"). ‘The length of the waterplane area will be fairly constant with an increasing lst. ‘The width of the waterplane area will in crease initially and decrease thereafter. Consequently, the BM becomes larger initially with an inereasing list, IF the lise farther increases, the waterline surface area decreases along with the BM distance (de- pendingon the draft). The distance of BM is decisive for the amount of righting moment. See section 3.6 Wich larger lise, chere isa alse metacenter 0). (A ship with an even transverse trivation has no lst. eight dis “The value BM for transverse angles is sig nificantly different from M for longicud nally angles with BM, being much larger. 5 Model data The lines plan accurately represents the hulls form. Amongse other fines the water lines are drawn at eonstane distances from base line to the design water Between the base and waterline 1a water: line is marked in order to make adjust iments for ieregulariies caused by the rise of oor (deadrise) and curve ofthe bilge. ‘With che Simpson Rules (ee chapeer 3.11.2), the area of the waterplane as well asthe area of the ordinates (sections) can be cak culated. ‘The following can also be derived from these rule ~ the statcal moment ofthe waterlines in relation to the keel ~ the ordinates in relation to the aft per pendicular so thar the volume of the hull can be determined K Band LCB can be found in this way. Bonjean curves A line representing the area below the wi terlines at each ordinate gives the possibil ity to caleulate displacements coefficiens fora given trim ar each ordinate (section).ssss=92 Bonjean curve ordinate 10 Bonjean eurve m 5m 3 Bm ordinate 18 50 100 150m? owl i M5 : 4 i wt Section areaatadratT] 5 400 | 150m? Tone Example: Ordinates 10 and 18 of a ship are reproduced ‘The waterlines are marked in interval (1) of in the drawings. 41.5 meters, The distance between the base and WL is 0.75 meter. The widest pare of che ship is 19.20 merets, Focondnate 10, the following are the waterline half bread: ‘Mb (Y), 4: 7.8m, 1: 9.0m, 2 £0 6: 9.6m. Safce area to WL 1 Simpson’ Ist Rule: Ara =2x%x'%lx (¥p +4¥,, +¥,) Dx MAURIS x(0+4% 78499) |Sarface area to WL. 2 > Simpson's 1se Rule: [ea = 26 xLx (Yq + 4Y, + ¥5 [Surface area to WL. 3 > Simpson's 2nd Rule: hea =2 x % x1 x (Yo +3Y; +3Y,+Y5) Aguph is drawn, whereby the drafecan be read on che vertical axisand the area of the Fame on the horizontal axis. The 6 ealeu- lad areas are then given and combined in the graph, Nalues in between can be found by ince polio, KM X1S (044% 9.0+9.6)= 45.6 m? S2XMXLSX (O43 9.043 x 9.6 +9.6)= 736m" “This graph forall the sections is called the "Bonjean Curves! With the Bonjean curve of each ordinate and the Simpson’ Rules: the volume of the hull at each draft and trim can be calculated “The so ealeulated displacemers represents the submerged part ofthe ship without the shell plating, rudder, propellar ete “The displacement has to be adjusted sc- cordingly The buoyancy at WL 4 can be found by measuring horizontally che Bonjean curves at the level of waterline 4 foreach section. By combining the areas formed below the waterline drawn on these section values In the thitd figure, the draft is7 meters, the resulting value for an area of 120, The Bonjean daca appear in table form in the ships specific stability booklet (hydro- static particulars), The following is given for each ordinate and watesine: ~ The dis basis to waterline for cach ordinate (section), For each water line, the arca of the submerged part of the ordinate. ~ The distance from cach ordinate to oF. dinate 0 (isafe perpendicular). ~ The statical moment of arca in relation to the baseline, ~ The statieal moment of area in relation roordinate 0. Each arbitary drafe and erim as well asthe volume of the hull, LCB and KB can be calculated from these data. Many more sections can be used to deter- rmine not only the ship's displaced volume with each trim but also with each list, pref erable wieh a computer’ assistance. At the same time, its possible vo ealeulare B for the ship on.a series of waves The accuracy of the calculations rely on the accuracy of the Bonjean curves. New methods of calculation ‘The newest methods involve dividing the shell sueface in small elements, Foreach cles ‘men the hydrostatic pressure iscalculated, “To find the sum, by means of the direetion and strength of the hydrostatic force on all calculated surface elements, the position of Bis determined. The position of B can, in this manner, be ealeulared for each transi tory waterline, as well as in complicated ‘wave systems3.6. Center of gravity “The assumption i that che coral weight of the ship (weight of structural parts, ma- chinery, oust, eargo, fuel, ee) is concen trated at a poine G (Center of Gravity = COG) The summation and alignment of which, are represented by a vector, the so-called resultant of ll weights for the ship. Examples of extreme distribution of weight Gis the only point that can be directly in- flucnced by the ships erew. The crew deter- mines where she different weights (cargo, ballas, fuel, supplies) are placed onboard. Vector: Quantity thae indicates magnitude ay well as direction, With regard to stabil: ~ aforce in cons, = the working direction ofthis orce Resultant ‘One vector that replaces 4 number of functioning vectors on the same body withour changing the result ig. =center of grvity of eomponent G =center of gravity of the entice ship. ‘Amongs: other things, che crew decides: — the amount and sequence in which the loaded /discharged goods are placed — where they are placed = whick fuel, ballast and drinking wacer tanksare filled or emptied G is chus, dependent on the magnitude of the ships weight and where itis located. 3.6.1 Determination of the location of ‘The shipyard estimates the location of G for the ‘empty ship The ‘light ship weight is he weight of the ship with only the compulsory in ventory onboard. ‘compulsory equipment’: equipment thar is part of the completed ship, such as anchors, life-saving apparatus, et tion of weight on the ship, this is not necessarily 2 problem ‘The shipyard can fairly accurately deter: mine the light weight of the empty ship based on the materials used. Above the calculations for G (light ship) compulsory inclining experiment has to be performed. (sce 3.6.1.) Thelocation of Gis found from the inclin ing experiment and adjusted for possible known weights to be added or removed. ‘This is the starting point for the calcula: tion of G for any other leading condition, Additionally, the “lightship weight" is decermined at the same time as the in- clining experimene as the first step, using Archimedes lav. The location of G ean be calculated: — by the summation of ll weight , mul tiplied by theie relative distance from cach weight co baseline or aft perpen- dicular divided by the total weight (G.6.1a) ~ by moving of substantial weights (in clining experiment) (3.6.1.5) Ship loading deck carga. C will move higher as rewlt, Depending upon the sotal distrib3.6.1 Law of Moment Equilibrium The location of G above the keel is deter- ined by all weights of ship and eargo, but ao on the position of these weights above thekeel (VC,). In order to calculate the VG the follow- inginformation is necessary: ~ displacement and VCG of the empry ship ~ the weight of each added load or cargo ~ the distance from each additional weight roa point of reference, usually the ket Formula Momeet Fora simple explanation of ‘moment, con: sidera seesaw. parent exertsa moment in relation to the pivor poine of 80x 4 = 320 kilogran andthe child: 20 x 4 = 80 kgm Outcome: equilibrium one end of the see- sawvis suspended and cannot be moved. The moments are noc equal. or ‘What can be done to bring che seesaw in balance: the momenc that parent and child sett must be equal relative to the pivor print (point of reference), but in the op- posite direction aig @ 0kg 4 Tm “The moment that both now exert relative to the pivot point, is the same and equilib- rium is achieved ‘The parent exerts a moment relative to the pivot point at 80 x 1 = 80 kgm and the child, the same moment, namely 20 x 4 = 80 kgm. In principle, the same occurs on a ship. IF there is equilibrium between all mo- ‘ments to portand starboard there sno is. The axis of rocation is located in the cen- cerline plane This also applies in the longitudinal sense. The ship then turns on the laceral axis Law of Moment equilibrium: ‘Toral_ moment of a numbe: of forces (weight) xlevers in relation toa fixed (cho- sen) point or area is equal to the summa tion ofall che individual moments in rela- tion to the same point orarea. ‘The magnitude of moment exerted on the ship hus dependant upon the: — magnitude of weight (in tons) — lever distance (in meters) Explanation of different - moments that ‘weight (g) exerts on a ship with the points of reference, distances and abbreviations through the waterplane Center Of used: Floatation (COF). tion] Abbreviation] Poincof | Distaned Exphined Vertical My Vertical Keel Vg | Vertical C.Og. Moment Transverse | MI, ‘Transverse | Centerline| TCg | Transverse Moment COg Longitidunal M, Longitudinal | Aft perpen] LCg | Longitudinal Moment — | dicular COg. A Points of reference can be: 1, af perpendicular 2. foce perpendicular amidships 4. centerline keel (base line) With a fev illustrations and sim- ple calculations, the concept of Moment is furcher explained on the following page. NB: for clarification, longitudinal stability is also indicated heres thisis explained later in chapter 466 Wage) [VOG [Momentum © EEE - | le init station ooo | 700 | 42000 | initial situation 6000 30,000 containers discharged | —100 12.00 20 | concinevaschanged | 200 [1200 | 2400 cones sioo | 400 [+ a0 VCG new = new = 41200 6.86m From the above lustracions tions it appears that a large weighe moved a short distance has the same effect asa small weight moved a long distance. The mo- ment for both is equal ‘Ona ship, the location of G is determined by dividing the total moment by the toral 6000 Weight [LCG [Momentum [containers dicharged | —100 [3000 | - 3000 cnninewkadd | 100 [asoo | + as00 rea oun [5525 | sons00 Weight [LEG [Momencam nv scwation 6000 [sc00_| +300,000 containers dicharged | - 20 [2400 | - 480 eaneinerstoaied +20 [oxo0 | + 1980 result 000 [5025 | 301.500 ‘The computer calculates eich mew change The exact location of G is important for in weight during loading (after input) so — stabilicy the position of Gisknown immediately. trim “The computer calculates the location of | — list G vertically (VCG) as well as horizontally (LCG) and transverse (TCG), weight, Space Weighe | vee MARV. LeG Mo Example 1000 (ton) | 5.00 (mercer) | 5000 (ronmeter) | 6.00 (meter) | 6000 (tonmeter) |70 (meter) | 70,000 (ronmecer Above, i.tn ple whereby the momentum f ds stipudaterd in relation to three reference port3.6.1.6 Movement of center of gravity ‘The movement of G ean be quickly made clear ifonly one (large) weight is relocated on board or loaded. G then moves: ~ in the movement direction of the weight = scros.aditance of GG, = —P—"— forthe wansferof one of che weights A onboard (p) PO fo adding weight (p) (atph Sn Changing the location of G by ransferring 8 (25 cons) coneainers 75 meters forward on a ship of 6000 ton displacen xa _ _8x25ton x75 meters a 6000 GG, 2,5 meter noves 2.5 meters forward. caused by placing a load above G. 12 meters Conclusion: Ayertcal rise of 5 mecers, Ky 6000 + 200 200 con x (1 6000 + 200 Conclusion: G then moves 0.23 me cersupwards KG,=5.00-+ 0,23 =523 meters ‘The formulais: GG, Gmoves when a weightis transferred or loaded / discharged istherransferred, loaded or discharged weight the daplaceiment of the ship before loading weight |. The distance by which the weight is moved relative to G Loading of weight: obviously the weight is louced a G, chen moved co its definitive position is then the distance heeween Gand the definitive postion, 3.6.1 Inclining test “The shipbuilder can estimace the displace- ment, KG and GM based on the materials (mostly steel) used in building, In order co ealculace the correct GM of the empty ship, che ship must undergo an inclining experiment (stability test) to de- termine KG. ‘The results ofthe est serve as the bass for all sabiliy ealculeions. Should the resules of the stability test deviate from the ship- builder’ calculations, then it could be that the weights ofthe used building materials were incorrectly calculated ‘The weight ofthe ‘empty ship’ must be as accurate as possible. During the test: = the ship nmust be free to roll (mooring wites slack, ete) ~ ir muse be calm wich no wind = no disturbancy from waves. ‘The rest musche conducted mulkiple cimes both starboard and portside with consist- an outcome to ensure an accurate result. A known weight (1) is moved eransversally across a known distance (2) asa resule of which the ship lst. (1) the weight muse be so large chat: the ship remains within an initial range ofsabiliey (max. lise 5°) # equal toabout 2% displacement (2) approximately % che breadth. Gs change of location is indicated in the Figure. ‘The ship’ lise due to relocating the weight is accurately measured. This can be done by means of a plumb line. Ifa plumb lines used, it is usually suspend- ced in a hold where che weight hangs in a tank of water stabilize the plumbline, ‘The result is determined by measuring the distance the pendulum moves on a tape line (QR). In practice also a special inseru- ‘mene is used thae registers the lise in frae- sons of degrees. ‘After a number of weight moves GM van be calculated After a substantial conversion, anew in- clining experiment can be requested by Clas, usually when editor removed weight is more thas 2% of the light weight.rang ped In the drawingis: GyG, = a - Alva: tan p= ag QR = plumb line movemene at rapeline PQ = length of pendulum “The next step isto determine KG, In the hydrostatic tables of the ship, oF from the drawing with the hydrostatic ‘curves, for the specific draughe T, KM ean be found, KG is then KM-GM 3.6.tad Osilation test By making the ship roll when in pore a rough estimate of GM can be achieved with the formula below: iB G\My= ~ the factor Flies beeween 0.5 and 0.7. ‘This Factor is equal co (2k,)* in which kis the radius of gyration (see box) of the ship, while rolling ~ B represents the breadth of the ship in ~ T, is che oscillation period (cime) Oscillation period: the time, measured inseconds fora complece rolling from pore to starboard and back again to eee (ie vec). Note: the rolling action (‘T) can be achiev using the ship's erane, by lifting som thing heavy from shore and afterwards putting ie quickly down again as a resule of which the ship will roll ~ conditions: calm water, slack mooring wires, no wind, no waves stan Radius of gyration Every ship has az — mass gyration counter co each mo- tion ~ an apparent mass gyration momen- tum (I,) agains rolling (2 rotating motion‘ on the x-axis) “This moment consists of a total of all ‘mass gyration moments af cach individ- tual mass (Igy) and the additional mass ‘gytation moment resulting from the wa- ters motion during rolling (my )- The following formulation’ is often used: ~ ke che radius of gyration of che ship, Se rolling a ~ theremaining symbols introduce the specific mass ofthe sea water (kg/m') and the displacement (en) respec tively, ‘The exact formula for the rolling period (inseconds) is indicated by: fg the acceleration geavity in m/s?. If che ship’ rolling period is measured and — the value of GM is known (for ex ample from the seabiliy caleulation) then the radius of gyration while r ing can be determined, or = the value of k, is known, thew the GM can be determined (often used as a means to monitor GM of a ship).3.6.2. Stiffand tender ship ‘The formula used with the oscillation test syssomethingimportant about the rolling pstiod (T) namely: that a relationship ex- iss beoween the rolling period and GMy, IFT’ is shore, (the rolling period short) GM, (Inieial subility) is large as is the righting arm (sce chapter 3.8). This is re ferred to as stiff ship. This usually concerns ships with a heavy sargo (steel oF ore) in the lower hold. A Ship tha is too stiff ean be dangerous. ‘The cargo may shift and forces on the ship structure ean be too high. NB: Possibly more ships have been lost by two great a GM chan ships with a GM to. small, (Sec IMO recommendations: GM ‘maximum 3% of che breadth), Besides the difficulties indicated above, rapid rollingin bad weather is alo unpleas anefor the people on board. Preventing a ship from being woo stiff: = the shipbuilder can design a ship for heavy cargo where the center of gravity ofthe cargo is relatively high by + ahigh double bottom # fortified eweendecks (where part of the eargo ean be placed) TForifed rweendeck cargo batch with cargo ~ the crew can: «fil high tanks with their center of gravity sbove G and ifthe maximum displacement is nor yee exceeded «the crew ean partly fill ranks in or- der to create free surface effect. Asa result of which G will increase vireu- ally and the ship willbe less stiff (see chapter3.10 also. Feoon deck thatthe ill. IFT’ is long, (che rolling period long and GM small), the ship is referred co as ten- det. An increasingly longer roll could indicate chat the situation onboard is becomming unsafe and the ship could even capsize period A rypical example of thisis che phenomena of icing, freezing of spray in arctic waters Dueto the increase of ce on deck and mast G moves upward and the ship can evente- ally capsize. Several advantages of atender ship: — Ie is more pleasant for the passengers therefore, passenger ships are usually tender. ~ The load on the structure of a slow-rol ing ship is less. ~ The cargo will shift less quickly, the forces on any lashings will be lower. ‘The condition of a vesel which is too tex der, can beimproved by discharging weight located above G oF loading weight below G. Most ships are generally referred to as ten- der’ or ‘stiff This does not necessarily in- dicate an unsafe situation, “The terms'too tender of ‘too sti” are de- pendant upon so many Factors, thae they are not represented by figures. cane the ship ta be tow teader The ship will list afer which there ica chance Too much eight at the botom ofthe ship ie hip st weic can cae she rl 10 bedangerouy brief3.7 Level of eapacity Abbreviations: ‘The distancebetween Band M can be calculated wich the formula B,M = — Area triangle= 4 xxx 4 b= 14x (4b x tang) x 4b y v=area triangle x lengeh of the ship = 14 x (Mb x tan g) x 4b x L b xbxangxsbxL)x%b _ Lxb'x d v Rv i ! tn For a box-shaped body isequal to I, Lxtang mg and the following applies: ByB, = re zg i b= Bab the following applies: ByM BM A thus, ByM= v For a receangular pontoon the BME Aelb2 bx ‘TheLand theb fall way from, each other, thus, in the case of a ‘pontoon: volume of the wedge of water that moves from port to starboard (or vice versa) with a lise volume of the hull, thats, displacement breadth ofthe ship discance ovee which ‘isis: placed, namely, length of the ship relation of angle berween the ‘opposite side and the adjacent right side x/ 4b, hb xeang lateral moment of inertia ofthe ‘waterplane area in relation to the longitudinal symmetry axis of the ship scientific notation of moment of inertia area draft area element number coral area38. ‘The righting arm As sen in the illustration, the moment consists of = two equal forees (vectors): gravity, located ae G + buoyancy, located at B ~ thelever ortherightingarm isthe shore- est distance (perpendiculae) herween both vectors. ‘The magnitude of the righeing arm (mo: ‘mentum isthe product of: © exerted pressure (displacement = A) = GL (lever of satical seability) ‘The magnitude of the righting momenc moment = A x GZ. {Wehis Formula i further divided, then (see illustration above): righting moment = A x GZ. AxGNsing x (KN ~ KG) sing x (KN sin §~ KGsin 4) From the righting moment it appears that only the erew has infloence over the loc tion of G. Namely the crew can decide (up ro a es ‘ain evel) how much weight can be loaded ‘rdischarged and where it will be locate. “Thecrew can change the remaining factors {3)M, KNsin 4) aliede or nora all aie, che location of G is de- upon the distribution of weight ‘an the ship. In each of the illustrations the added weight (green sectangle) i placed 4 somewhat exaggerated position, The re- sult is that G also shifes to a few extreme positions Icisclearco see that the righting arm chang- esin direction aswell as magnitude ‘The ship in che drawings lists, duet ternal force (a wave, for example). From the illustrations, it appears that G's position is determined to a large extent: ~ by the direction of the moment's rora- tion and thus, che ship. ~ the magnitude of the righting arm (GZ) and thus, the degree of form stability. Ie can be seen in the drawings that as the (vertical) distance berween G and M be- comes greater, the righting arm is also igreater and thus, che righting moment, KM is always larger than KG with a posi- tive righting momene The ship has a negative righting moment and is unstable, The list will nerease =cargo weight3.8.2. Horizontal displacementof G G can move horizontally during loading, discharge or transfer of weight. This causes a short-term (a few seconds) listing mo- ment because the buoyancy and gravit vectors no longer line up. Asa result, che ship has alist and/or trim, Point B (buoy- Assoon as the vectors line up again, the le- ver of the righting moment becomes 2er0, and the ship temainsin that position. Ifthe horizontal displacement of G is so great that the buoyancy vector does not come in alignment with the vector of G, chen the ship will capsize I iveight is moved to port, G moves to port. The same inthe drawing tothe left. The die 3.8.3. Consequences of incorrect nares so fir-to fort neat the bnoganey is now greater: Subsequent loading tor abins with the sevultng G ‘afar to pore tha the buo In figures 1 up co 4isshown anormal stable sector cannot reach that of Gs nega position, as well as an unstable position: righting moment results, and the ship. ‘moored (hawsers / mooring lines firm) a — unmoored (hawsers loose) Figures 1 and 2 is normal. G is at an ad equate distance below M, The situation in figures 3 and 4 is danger: ‘ous. G lies above M. ‘The ship is now al: lowed to go to sea since Gy must lie a mini- mal 0.15 meter under My, As long, as the ship is moored, with the hhawsers tightitee ean happen. but as soon s her mooring lines she as the ship relea will ist. How far will ic list? The breadth of the verline will increase duc to the list. Subsequently, M. rises (sce chapter 3.4). When M liesat G, there is no longer a list- Mooved sip « uffident ing moment and the ship will reach maxi- distance below Md fas, the rig smal ist f The only solution isto lower poine G. [Ac sea, itis normal to fill ehe (lower posi- tioned) ballae ranks with seawater. Please nore: first All canks on che Tow side, which increases the list, ‘Afterwards fll canks ac the high side. ‘This prevent the ship falling over the opposite (wrong) side during the ppeviodl thae the stability i seill inva ficient cena upright As son as the hawesers are loose, the ship lists psibly sapsives3.9. Curve of statical stability In order to illustrate the extension of the fighting arms accach angle, chese levers ace displayed asa curve, the stability curve (see 393). ‘The curve shows the stability ofthe ship ar all beeing angles (usually up co 60"). The specific drafeand weight distribution. Another condition gives an other curve. ‘The righting arm muse be sufficiently lange at each angle forthe ship to righe itself during various conditions such as bad weather. The curve muse be derived and evaluated: — during loading or discharging and be fore sailing ~ changes of weight distribution during the voyage due to use of fuel and/or drinking water have to be considered before leaving pore. ‘The calculacion and appraisal of the curve can be produced by computer. With each, new entry the ships loading eompurerim- mediately recalculaces the righting arms and thus, the curve, Suability booklet ate nor legally required to provide valies above 60%, ‘Therclore, @ curve with values above 60° is usually nor used. Fighting arm G2 (rn) Heeling angle (Degr,) Bo 30.0 40.0 Angle Draft Bia [oo | 38s | 0.48 | [too [3.925 | -os0s | s2e14 | oot | 0.050 | Lz0.0 | 3796 | 0.766 | soai4 | i057 | 0178 | L400 | 3672 | -0275 | s2ai4 | a6ri | 056 | [so | 3376) 037 | s2414 | 4308 | 0550 | [roo +802 | 1.170 | s2a14 | 4.060 | 0260 eo | 5564 | 8265 | a2414 | 4076 | 0.003 | 500 600 = 70.0800 90.0 onan) : ‘The responsible officer mustbe thoroughly soware of the basis of cis calculation. He/she rmust know which cules to apply, if the ship’ seability is decweasing to such extent that action is required, Remarks about the stability curve: = As long as the gravity of the ship does not change, the shape of the eurve is de- termined by the ship’ form and the wa- teeplane area, For example with a small freeboard or small draft che waterplane area can change considerably = The curve is only applicable if che ship lies in calm water, IE the ship sails in calmwater or waves, the waterplane area changes and thus, a continuously chang- ing carve results. See also, chapter 6, ~ Thecurve shows: 4 the righting momenc or the righting am at each angle of lit «+ the energy produced by che righting momentum co resist alist from "ro any chosen angle. = The magnicude of the levers and chus, the area under the curve, will decrease it: «weight (cargo, ballast, ete) is placed above G + weight is discharged under G = Changes in the direction in the GZ curve are caused by the following rea- + thedeck is submerged + the coaming is submerged «the bilge rises above water All due to the waterline breadth changes, positively or negatively, ~ The horizontal seale isthe distance cal- calated from 0° to the point where the righting arm is negative (more chan 83°), That is, at which point che ship will dynamically overturn, ~ The ship will overturn at the top of the curve with a statical load. Crosscurves of stability (Stability curves) For every ship or barge the resules of thevalies of KNsing (see table page 49, KQ) as funecion of the dsplacemenc, ‘an begiven in table or graph form. Lateral curves of stability are ceferred to in ageaph. These values ply an im- portane role in determining GZ.Statieal and Dynamical ~ “Statial” refers tothe forceexerted on an object thac is immediately absorbed by thar object. = “Dynamical” refers to che force exersed on an object chat is absorbed gradually hy that object. catical examples: = A child on a swing that is pushed slowly high- ex. This is-a statical motion because the swing immediacely absorbs the pressure exerted on = A crane loads a heavy weight on a ship from the quay. While the cargo runner (cable) takes weight. the ship experienees a slowly incteasing list. This isa statical motion because the force necessary to hoist the weight isditectly absorbed by the ship, Dynamical examples: = ‘The same swings pushed higher with consider: able force. The swing’s geaviy eannor absorb the sudden forceand shoots upwards. The swing has aadynamie motion jn this case ip has hoisted a heavy weight a snunnber of meters, The weight suddenly falls back to the quay and the ship lists co the other side, The ship is in no position to absorb the sudden change in gravity and undergoes 4 dy- namic motion, Explanation of why a list affeces the draft as well as the trim ‘Take a ship that lies in equilibrium in calm water without list and trim. IF the ship lists to starboard, che momentary wateeline WL, changes. ‘With a very small list, che warerlines WL) and WL intersect each o¢h- cf at centerline. Because the ship's form is symmetric in relation co the longicudinal median plane, the increase in displacement to starboard is equal to the decrease in displacement to port. ‘The mean draft remains unchanged, There is, however, in comparison with alse oF O", another is of displacement over the ship's length. The volume, which results in the foreship:asa resule ofthe list, is noralwaysas greatas the volume aft. This, is due to the difference in the form of the frame above the waterline fore and afe. Throagh this new distribution of displacemenc over the ship’ length, there is new mean draft (which deviates litle however, from the initial draft), At che same cime, the initial center of buoyancy °B’ shifts similarly r0 a lise oF", A tvim moment develops because B and G are no longer lined-up vertically. The ship will rim unt this occurs (see chapeet 4, also), A new equilibrium is found whereby the ship has trim. Wl, the COR, wich ‘Asa resule of thelist, the ship has a different: ~ mean draft (however slight) — tim (Fore and aft draft) Using the sume arguments, a ship in a state of equilibrium in calm water ‘without lst and trim will encounter a change of trim if he mean drafe changes and G remains unchanged. Because of the difference in shape ofthe fore and after bodies the longitu inal position of B will change, causing a srimming moment. 3.9.2. Determining the righting arm GZ. The righting arm (GZ) can be calculated for a specific heeling angle as explained below. GZ. ean be calculated for different hecling angles from which che GZ-curve ean be drawn. Determining GZ (drawing below left): ~ GZisequal ro PQ = PQ=KQ-KP ~ KQ is equal to KNsing. ~ KPisequal to KGsing Abbreviacions: ~ G= Center of Gravity: point of application of the results of the toca weight angle of list — sing relationship beeween the opposite side and she oblique side — KNsing is calculated by the shipbuilder and ean be found in the hy drostatic particulars with the draft amplieude (T) or displacement ~ KG is known; thus KGsing ean be ealeulaced. Ifche righting rms (GZ) are known, a vector is drawn in which: az are given in centimeters or meters ~ horizomally: the lise angle of the ship = for example, from 0° until 60"‘Cross Curves of Stability (KN) 343 The designof'ehe eurve ‘Theda ofthe sip shown here are: Daalt= 390 meter Kei —49 meters Digplacemern = 3500 cons. KGsisknosn in this example, 4.9 meters hupleofealeolarian KGsing: meters x in 1? = 851 meter, as} meters x sin UP = 1.676 meters, et draw the GZ, curves iniial path acco with the transfer of (A + p) by loadi weight (p) This weight isa force thar causes moment ‘on the ship. ‘This moment can come either From inside the ship or from outside Examples of listing moments — movement of liquids (3.10.1) ~ shifeingof cargo (3.10.2 + 3.10.3) ~ wind moment (3.10.4) — change — rudder moment ~ tugboat (via hawser) ~ collision — paid ou gear (eg. ishing nes) Equilibrium is disturbed in all of the above by transfer or lodding of weight ~ besides gravity and buoyancy, by a third force exerted on the ship. The result is that the righting arm (GZ) can change The above-mentioned situations can be hazardous for the ship. Container (TEU) is loaded on the tanking of a cantainer fader vese For each list moment, it must be ascer: tained whether the moment is statical moment (continuous force) dynamical moment — combination of both, Examples of static and dynamic — A seeady wind is static, a gust of wind, dynamic — slowly shifting yeain gives a seaical me ~oiveighe deapped Bomvarcrane hasady: a slowly turning rudders stati, bu fi runs quill i ean delice Covnbings sion of satial end dynamical momen The examples here show an exaggerated idea of the consequences 10 the stabiliey ‘curve and thus, to scability, when weights, shifted (with loading, for example) Observations regarding these situations: — In practice, # similar asymmetsic dis tribution of weight may not occur and definitely not at sea For clarity’s sake, G moves parallel 10 GZ. G usually moves parallel to the dis- placed weight. Drawings 1, 2nd 3 show respectively — A partially loaded ship (1) ~ The ship takes alist ftom external caus es. (2) = The distribution of weight docste change: Gs position doesn't change. (2) B moves to the low side (2) A righting arm with lever GyZ (2) ~ The list increases (3) Because B moves further towards the low side, the lever of the righting arm becomes considerably larger (3) K Drawings 4, 5 and 6 show respectively A150 con weight is moved horizontal cesulting in an asymmetric distribution of weight (4) ~ The center of gravity. G. moves parallel co the displaced weight, The incerval o G,G; is, for example, 0.10 meters. 4 The ship takes a lise due t0 the asym mete distrib External cause (5) The lever of che righting arm becomes smaller with the interval of GyG,. The lever extent is now G,Z,.(5) ~ The lise increases (6) ~ The lever of the righting arm (G,Z,)s smaller than in Figure 3.3.10.1 Free surface correction Liguid (ora substance that acts like liquid), thar ean freely move on a ship, can be ex- tremely hazardous, Annually, many ships capsize due vo this problem, resulting in many casualti ‘The seriousness of the situation is largely dependant upon: = the area in which the liquid can freely = the amoune of liquid (in relation to the ship’ weight) = the height above the keel where the lig uid is placed (Kg) Liguid in a rank, hold or on deck, isin fit, ‘weight tharcan move freely. As soon as che ship lists and/or trims, the liquid moves to the low side whereby the righting capac- ity decreases or even becomes negative Ifliquid can move over the full beam of the ship, che effect is maximal, In particular, « dangerous situation can ‘quickly develop on the (car) deck of a Ro- so ship. Because water rushes quickly 0 the low side, dynamical effect results, and the ship takes more lst, IF che liquid is confined in a tank which is less in width than che beam of the ship, the liquid can only move over the width of the tank and the effects less serious. ‘This is referred to as the ‘free surface of fect. “This causey ‘list moment’ on the skip, the so-called fiee surface moment. In order to retain equilibrium, the ship must respond with equal stability moment (the kver of the stability moment is equal to the lever of thelist moment) ‘The following terms and abbreviations are used: ~ five surface correction (FSC) ~ five surface moment (FSM), Shifting of Kguid (weight), affees che center of gravity G, which then moves away from the centerline. Subsequently, the righting arm decreases by GyG,- ‘The righting capacity is thus, reduced. ‘As soon as the decline of the lever (G,G,) hhecoaes geester than the maximum right. {ng arm (GZ), che ship will capsize. "The following figures show the cross-section of a ship with an exaggerated large double bottom. In each drawing: ~ the ship’ lic is caused by an external foree, such asa wave ~ the water in which the ship les is Fresh wacer ~ the liquid in che double boxtom tank is abo fiesh water. ‘The double bottom tank in figure 1 is empry. — The center of gravity G, remains in the same phice. ~ The center of buoyancy moves to the low side parallel v0 2,2, ~ The magnitude of the rightingarm = A x GyZ ‘The double bottom tank is completely filled in figure 2 ‘Comparison with figure 1: — Increased draft — The center of gravity G is lower due co the increase in weight under G, The lever ofthe righting arm is now GZ ‘The center of buoyancy moves the same distance “The magnicude of che arm =A GZ‘The double bottom rank is half full in ig- ue, The liquid flows tothe low sie. G moves panel co line Z,Z, due to the transfer of ‘weight, The result is: ~ Themagnitude ofthe righting arm isdi- iminished by approximately G,G, ~ The righting arm is now G,Z;, the re: salting lever. fore can be moved over its own vector Gy istranferred virtually along its own vec- torand is virtually located in poine G’ at theeenterline. The initial stabiliey MG, is ny virtually decreased by GG" ‘Theremaining inital stability is MyG Thedistance GG’ can 2, bye BS beeaeulated a follows: F0°"= yo q Aupresented in chapter 3.7, a box-shaped body: a Uisthe surface moment oF inertia expressed in m' (L, x B,’). Linge lathe hydrostatic deta, GyG is generally noed in my 1, = length of cank ‘Tobe expressed as moment (mt), it must be multiplied by the density (p) of the liquid B = breadth of tank inahetank or divided by the stowage actor VE ship dsplacerenin i? ‘A= displacement in tons Remaks: mS ~ The formula can only be applicd to a rectangular tank. Since most holds ate not rectangular, this formula only gives an approximation. = Density playsa small role, namely: + the contents ofthe ank muse be multiplied by p (¢/'JoFtheranséred liquid kn figure 4, a acral bulkhead has been » ship displacement must be avultiplied by p (c/1) of the seawater placed in the same double bottom rank, éreating 2 sila tanks, in which the breadth is equal to half the width ofthe whole tank. Both tanks are half full, By this intervention, the reduction of MG (G,G') will be considerable, namely, oF the criginal decrease. ‘The evidence of this is as follows: ‘There are now 2 ranks, chus 2 corrections However, the tank is halved in breadeh, thus Bisa 4B. The breadth is caleulated to the 3° power, thus 4B x4 Bx 4B=% BY “The correction per tank is ow 4 smaller. ‘However, there are 2 tanks, thus the coral correctionis2x4= 4 of GG! If 2 partitions are inserted in the double bottom rank, (creating 3 tanks) then the correction is 4th of GG?As should be evident, the effect of free flowing water on decks/holds of a Ro-Ro ship can have serious consequences, This is also because on these ships, liquid is then found aca relatively high level Example: Suppose there is fire on one of the high: est cardecks of a Ro-ro ship. By means of an automatic sprinkler system, water spreads on the aucodeck. Ifthe water isn't drained quictly enough (for exaraple. wieh a clogged drain), it will ultimately flow to cone side. In this case, che heeling moment will be greater than the righting moment (GZ... *4), Aga result, another force caused by water flowing to one side, develops. ‘The solution is co install ransvewse and/or longicudinal bulkheads, However, the plac ing of these can interfere with trucks being, driven on or off the ship. The problem is also applicable to mule purpoxe and heavy load carriers On multi-purpose ships, the lav requires a (minimum) number oF transverse bulk heads in order to, among other things, reduce the ‘ice surface problem: The dis advantage is that these bulkheads impede flexible loading and unloading Freelowing water in the lower hold is not as disastrous as water found in higher holds. Example: The free surface effect in a large hold, is clarified inthe following drawings — drawingsl: 10 em fresh water stands in the hold ~ drawings 2: 125 em fresh wacer stands in the hold drawings 3: idem example 2, the hold is now spin 2 compartments bya longi- rudinal bulkhead. Displacement (hold not yet filled with wa- ter): 1100 cons The illustrations and curves exemplify real A dry cargo ship with measurements af 4300 rons L pp = 85.00 meters B = 11.80 meters , 4.95 meters Displaemene (sum Dimensions of hold 63m. x 9.5m. x 7m, £190 63m, »9.5 m. x 0,10 m, =60 a», equal ro 60 tons. Indrawing 1B, 60 cons of water has moved to port, a distance oF approximately ha of th hold breadth (9.5 /2) ‘The center af gravity G moves parallel co the transferred water ata distance of G,Gy ‘The distance is calculated wich che formula Lxb, 63 x (4.75? 48m 12x(M+p) 12x (1100+ 60) The decreaw in the righting arm is already worked out in curve ID. (Se Conclusion: che ship takes (with 10 em water in the hold) alist of 5.5% chapter 3.8). negative init stability and a smaller area under the curveThe amount am 2Ais: equal 0 7: water in the hold of 3m. 95 mx 125m, =748 m Indrawing 2B 748 tons of' water has moved to port, discance of approximately half of he holds width (9.5 / 2 he center of gravity G will move parallel tothe displaced water, a distance of G,G, This apparent decrease of MyCiy (Gg iscalculaced with the formula 1xb, 748 x (4.75) (1100+ 748) Subsequently: ship 2B takes a lise of 25° to oo The hold is now split in 2 compartments by longitudinal bulkhead. ‘The amount is cf water in both hokls of 3A is 2 63m. «4.751. x 1.25m, In drawing 38, 748 hold has which the width ofthe Thavivs 4x The center 748m! = 748 2 tons of water in each rer has moved is equal eo halfthe gnivity G will move parallel to thedisplaced water, a distance of GG, (1100 + 748) Thedisance G,G' applies to one hold with total correction GG'=2044m.=0. Conclusion: By the installation of one lon: sitdinal bulk 361 m.col 13 a il GG" decreased 4 (from 819). Ship 38 takes listof only he water shifis. See further remarks = 044m 3c3.10.2 Heavy lift ‘The use of heavy lft’ is relative. What is heavy for one rype of ship, may not be for another ship, This chapter deals with ships cha load or unload heavy cargo with their own gear. Heavy cargo can roughly be clasified as follows: ~ ‘easy heavy life’ pieces from 50 to about 250 cons — ‘medium heavy lift: pieces from 250 co, ately 1000 tons y lift’: pieces above 1000 The handling of heavy cargo must always be carried out with the required caution Loading, discharging and the voyage itself, require extensive preparation, especially with regard to ship’ strength and stabiliy Alko securing of the cargo needs co be looked atin advance. ‘Multi-purpose ships, normally have two cranes up to 120 cons per crane lifting completely filed hold as suing thatthe center of gravity sequal tothe volumetiic center of gravity ~ K= 1.06 completely filled hold with bbelow deck holds pacti:ly filled. ~ K=1.12— pardally filled hold After the grain has shifted, a new G is found (G,) and the new lever of the Fight ing aim ean be determined (G,Z,). This can be figured out by redvcing the lever of the original am (G,Z,) with (G,G, x cosine heeling angle). Forrmlaced Gx cosh 3.10.3¢ Testing the conditions ‘The table with the grain daca onboard can quickly indicate whether the ship meets the requirements for the cansport of grain. The tle maximum allowable grain heeling ‘moment, is used to test the maximal allow- able heeling moment against the ealeulated heeling moment. “Arguments: VEG and displacement, Note: this concerns the hecling moment (me) of the cargo. The volumetric heeling ‘moment (m*) must then be divided by the stowage factor (m'/t).ta regarding grain stability {0 Resolution A 264) ssuming that the surface of the cargo has shifted co an aigle23? ucording co the table the stati alheelingangle resulting from the gan’ shifting may not be geater chan 12" the remaining area under the GZ curve, to beat least 0.075 meter rials nal sability GM, at least Hem th ship is not allowed to de- pacwitha ist above requirements are tet than the standard criteria i: Ore, in general, dovs nor faquiekly as grain, meten.if the rop layer or one of inbetween ayers contains too ch moisture, there is 2 change ifing. vreis much heavier than eunsequenees for the ship can more serious.3.10.4 Effect of wind on the ship General ‘Wind force: = causes waves that, depending on cheit size haveeffect on the ship’ motion, ~ causes (extra) hecling depending on: theship’s profile area above water wind direction and velocity ‘These factors have an effect on the stability and are discussed in chis chapeer ‘The following stability calculations are provided by the IMO, among others: ~ Wind pressure coming from abeam. ~ The wind’ effect is determined by the profile area above the waterline, This depends upon: « thedre «if applicable deck cargo such as con- rainers or project cargo. 3.10.40 Statical forces Ifthe ship experiences steady wind pressure such aserade winds, i will rake a small ist. This lise originates trom ehe equilibrium between the lever eaused by wind and righting arm. (See section 3.9.8 also.) 3.104 Dynamical forces ‘The rules contain extra requirements re- garding a rolling ship which undergoes a wind gust of longer duration, The gust of wind is considered a dynamical force since the ship is unable to absorb the force immedtiacely ‘This sicuation has an effece on the magei- cade of the (remaining) lever of the right ingarm and thus, on the eurve (see section 3.9, ‘Satical and Dynamical’), 3.104 Rolling amplitude (,) The rolling ampliude (4,) i 4 eontinw ‘ous motion of the ship as result of waves around a point of equilibrium (6,). The rolling amplitude is, among other things, dependant upon the form af thesubmerged hull, the size of bilge keel(s) and GM. “Two examples where it is assumed thar 4, is 10% ~ IF thereis no tansverse moment (point of equilibrium 6, is 0), the ship will rll in gvels from 10° co port to 10" co star- bose. ~ Ifeansverse momentexistsand the ship cakes sate list (9,), ofabout 5* vo port, the ship will roll from 15" co port 10 3° co sarboard in swells ‘The rolling period/time (also determined for the extent of 6,), isthe time needed for a complete rolling from port to starboard and back to port. ‘This can give an indication of the initial stabilicy (GM,). 3.10ctal Determining masinsunt heel af wind gust 4.) {See deawing on the following page) The curve to port is reversed (rirtor i age) so thatthe heel ge ean be determin ply. This works as follows: a. The ship experiences continues tra verse wind pressure (heel 4, librium), b. The ship rolls in swells &. The ship reaches ies most extreme 10 ing position at a certain moment. Fro 44, the rolling amplicude extends to high side (co port in the illustration) A. In this position, the ship experiences strong gust of wind to scarboard. & Ar the same time; the ship begins to again to starboard. & The forces that make the ship roll ba to starboard are a run-down of the for ces mentioned in a. +d. +e. & The ship is unable co roll Further th 50 in chese ere ew eq 3.10.42 Explanation (for determining, From 10° heel co pore t0.0° the ship expe cnces the following forees to starboard: — ABC: the energy buile up by the sh during rolling from starboard to port ~ BCDE: the stavical wind pressure: t lever of this arm is 0.08 meters = DEFG: wind pressure from gust wind ~ The lever of this arm is 0.08 + (0.08 50%) = 0.12 mecers From 0°, the rolling to starboard exper ences eounter-preste from the excess ter pressure (the area below the curve) starboard. Subsequently: ~ at 12° ($,) the lever of the starieal win pressure equals the righting arm of d ship ~ at 15* the combination of both wind| vers (BD + DF) equals the righting ar (KH) ~ after KH, both wind levers (BD + DI are smaller than the righting arm of d ship = KLM shows the remaining, che di ference between the area HKMN anscl wind ever, torexample: wind lever after gust of wind Os es 1.08 a + (OS % 5%) — 12 mecers A lie lis me and rolling xnplitude (9,) for example lashortcriangle APKC indicates the energy snaking the ship to coll to starboard hears that the remaining righting arms refit, must hesuiciently Large to contain aenangle with the size of AK. tn this example, KLM (energy directed to port) is equal ws APK, ‘The farthest line of gle MIN cannot pass beyond the 50 The ship then satisfies the wind von ditions, Ifthe ship accomplishes this befote 50° is reached, ther this angle is considered the3.10.5 Determining a list caused by shifting moment. Summary 3.10.5..1 A small list (9<5*) “To caleulate a small Ist, che same formula Me, can be applied as for the inclination tes 7 Mo However, nor co calculate GMgy but in } scead to figure ou the expected list caused i by the shifting moment. Similar small iss ate normally neutralized by counter bal hast. Nevertheless, the formula is: an p= or gearctan PS oaxGM, "Pax Herewith: p x a= list moment px a “This can even be ealeulated without a cal culator. For small angles, tang = sin And Gy radials apply. ‘The formula can thenbe easily applied in peaxsr AxGM 66, opxa _ pxax57°3 inctan ——— = arctan —P——— ~ ———_~__ GM, a*xGM, Ax GMo 3.10.5.a.2 Larger lise (9> 5°) Scribane’s formula can be used from 10" 015". (3.10.3) This formula cannot be used with lager lists. “To Find the lis fo larger shifting moments, a geaphic solution ix needed. ‘The stability curve is the accumulation of levers ofthe righting momene (CZ). Inthe line from 0° to 60". ‘To draw the lever ofthe listing moment in the curve, the angle chat the ship takes is Found ac the intersection of che ship's ist, influenced bby an asymmetric distribution of weight or lise moment caused by an external force. A shife moment decreases with the cosine of the hesling angle chrough an asymmetric distribution of weight. [NBs lise moments to starboard move to the top: i lst moments to port, they move below. 310.5.b Determining thelist cansed by th extension of the grain lever shifting of grain The shifting lever is calculated by dividing GZ 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 = 90 the volume of shifting moment (VM by the produce of stowage factor (sf) and displacement (A). That brings the shiftirg lever to ahecling angle of zcro degrees. VKM Formulted Ysa ey a7 “The lever 40" is multiplied by 0.8, hele of cosine 40” Formulated 79 gic =0.8 Yon A straight line is drawn ehrough the tp is "-40° both levers. The intersection of this ie Mersin lever 0°40" yge= 0,8 + ho with the curve muse then be lower dur 1,3.10.5 Heavy load The list caused by a heavy load placed on Z 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 ome sd ofa lal sil The heeling lever é then the product of the cargo’s weight (p) and the horizontal dis- tance between G and the eargo’s eenter of _geavity (a) divided by the disphicement (A) pxa A asymmettic cargo, heavy load Fornaulated y= ‘The curve yjcosp can now be drawn in the stability curve Or in simplified terms, juse as with grain, the lever a 40" bse, namely, 0.8y, The pointof intersection indicates thelist BI) alternative Ayge= 0,8 «Ao wind moment sailing vessel 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 is based on che assumption that P| We held ex eee range mains steady during the wind moment for normal ships, This is done to simplify the calculation and provides extta safety (see 3.10.4d), With sailing vessels, che wind lever de- creases with cos'p (sce section 8.1), The curve-jeop is then drawn in the sta \, bility curve in order to determine the angle with a specific wind force given a certain sail area, With listing forces that tug boats ao HE + cos? can exert on a ship, the lever of dhe listing moment decreases again with cosp.3.11 Various topics 3.11.1 KG max ‘The form, values and range of the stability ‘curve are decermined by formulas GZ(0" - 60") = KNsing ~ KGsing, whereby thevalues for KNsing justasthose of KM, ave determined by the fort of the bull. They aregiven forthe mean drafe and trim or displacement in sea water, For a specific displacement, the maximum KG can be verified so thar the conditions pertaining tostabilicy are satisfied. Particulaely orships havingno loadingand stability computer onboard, the maximum, possible KG is caleulated for each displace- ment. These are then checked agains all requirements, ‘Small drafts are indicated ac the top of che ‘curve (preferably 9 > 30°, buc not smaller shan 25°), KM is large for small drafis, bur the bilge will rise quickly out of the water and the top will be esily reached. “The wind requirement plays a larger role with smaller drafts than wich larger drafts If the drafe increases, the minimal GM (>0.15m) or the area under the curve will play a role. To determine which require- ‘ments indicative for exch drafe, maximal KG ean be caleulated tor each daft (dis- placement). These are placed on achart for small ships. “The displacement is indicated on the hori- zonal axis and the KGmax, on che verti cal axis, Whether the ship meets all che requirements, can now be seen at a glance, However, it does not indicate why a ship doesn’t meet the requirements. tables with accompanying stability data. For each 10 cm difference in dra, the ‘maximum possible KG is indicated tor each stability requirement, Thus for the = maximum GZ at p>30° (eq. 1) ~ position of the top of the curve (req. 2) under the curve up to 30° (req, ~ Anerease from 30° co 40" (ey, 4) ~ area from 0° ~ 40° (req, 5) ~ minimal GM, (req. 6) — wind condition (req.7). ‘The la column (Max, VEG) indicates which condition is representative always the condition with the smallose KG). ‘There may be another column with further twin details and also the maximal value of KG in relation to stability inthe case of damage. “The tables show why the ship does nor smece the requirements. Neither of she methous, however, provides information or an indication about statial for dynamical range of sability or the actual position of the cop of the curve, ax shown in the stability curve. ‘TABLES OF MAXIMUMYCG (MV. ENFORCER) Initial rio ‘The trim is modified co mecc constant LCB, 000m. Dealt is from baseline. Calculation valid for wind contour : Without deckeargo. Stabiliy criteria: IMO A749 standard stability crteria 1 Mininwum metaceneric height GM O15 ae 2 Maximum GZ. 30 deyeees oF mote 020 ng 3 Top of the GZ curve at least at 25 day FAvesunder the GZ curve up wo 30 degrees 0.055 wl 5 Areaunder the GZ. curve up to 40 degrees 0.09 ad G Areaunder the GZ curve between 30 and 40 degrees 7 Maxinmum angle of inclination ace. to IMO’ A.562 weather criterion 8 Maxirmum statcal angle due ro wind _ 9 Maximum statical angle 80% of angle of deck immersion. ‘10 Damage stabilicy| SAFE AREA Draft3.11.2 Calculation of the area under the curve ‘The area under she stability curve, epresenting che energy a ship can exert iment eaused by: list, can be rwpresented as ¥GZ¢, whereby ¢ is reported in cadian, ‘Astong as the eure runs evenly, dbe caleulation of dhe ate eas be estipated by egarding the area 0-307 ava eriangle and the atea 30-40", eeapeaionn Acea 0°30" is then: 0,5 x (30°/57",3) x GZ30" mrad = 0.262 % G30" inrad Atea 30°-40" is then: 0.5(10°/57°,3) x (GZ30" + Gz40") mrad = 04873 x (GZ30"+ GZ40") mead For a more accurate calculation of the area, especially iFthe curve is less regular such as ships with a low freeboard and a high coaming, Simpxon’ Rules can be used assunting thar the curve ivof the second degree. The substantiation of this will not be addressed here, The resulting area isa reasonably accurate estimate ‘The practical a ‘The curve is divided in a number of equal parts (h) on the X axis. In this case, 4, resulting in an uneven number af vertical ordinates (YY): Acconding to Sipson’ Ise rule thearea is now fexhx (Yor aY) 42,44 x 1,4¥)) ‘The calculation of the area under che curve using the sc eule of Simpson works as fol- lows: “The area from 0°-30", 0°-40" and the increase from 30°-40° must be ealeulated ‘There is ‘one problem in eleulacing the area 0-30", Because chs parc oF the eueve eames be divided inan equal number of parts on che X asis, (from which the GZ value is determined) an intermediate step i used First, the area 0°-10" has to be calculated and chis pate of the curve regarded as a teins {area shaded in blue) Next, the area from 10"-30? (in read) his to be calculated; eogerher, they indisate the area 0-30", ‘The area from 0°-40" can be directly figured using Simpsons Ise Rule. “To reduce the area trom 0-30", an increase from 30°-40 is obtained (in gree) 10° is equal « 101/57°,3 = 0.175 radials “The calculation now includes the folowing seeps: Arca" 10"=05 x 0.175 x GZ, =A 5 x O75 x (GZ10' + 4°G220" 4 GZ") = B AGB 16x 0.175 x (GZO"+ 4 x GZI0 +2. G20" + 4 x GZ30" 4. GZ40) = C Increase 30-40" = C - (A+B) 3.11.3 Mathematical explanation of the stability curve ‘The formula co calculate stal GZ= KNsing - KGsing ity ever is KGsing has a pure sine form and is O by 0° and. maximum of 90%, KINsing however, has no pure sine form be- cause KN isa continually changing value, ‘The form of che curve then is also solely dletecmined by KNsing. ‘The irregularities are caused by the ines: section of the waterline and hull ac diffe encangles p. The stare of the curve (origin to ea, 5°) Far the range from 0° toca. 3° the ealeulhe tion GZ = GM sin) isused. This Formula ean also be represented by GZ=GM xe with the angle p in radian equal to che firsescraighe (linear) part of the GZ curve "Thus, che intersecting angle of the curve with the source can also be found by ex tending GM, ac 573. Seribanei’ Formula From ca. 3", the GZ curwis non-linear and the form ean be reasonably well described by Scribanci’s Formula, GZ = (GM 4.0.5 BM can%(p)} sin(p), Seribanti’s formula applies «0 ships with straight side walls, so far the deck is nor submerged nor the bilge rise oue ofthe wa- Scribanci is useful until about a 10° heeling angle for normal ships with seraight side walls, Beyond thar, so many irregularities play a role, thac a straightforward math ematical equation is no longer possible. For shipswith pronounced outward oF inward chruting frames, Seribantis formula is not recommended asthe results are not accu: rate enough Exphnation of Seribanei formula Basis ~ ship has vertical side walls = the deck edge isnot submerged — bilge does noe rise outof water,% © How large isthe hecling angle (9) if GZ=07 (GM + 4 BM tan"4)sino =0 sing=0 v GM+%BMtan*=0 According to Scribanti, GZ. = 0: sing =0 or GM+¥%BMtan*9=0 GZ=0if, or 6, =aretan From which: engtv=a ‘The first solution applies to the upright ship and the second, t0 the ship wieh a From the above figure of a ship with a heeling angle >, heling angle or loll. ne a8 arctan (20M. RCO Sao aay 48 makinguse ofthe displacement rl the following applies 4, = 0.2 radialen x 57.3 gradeniradinal = 11.5 graden GZ, Lh + DL, 0.2 radialen : Jisy? tang > vtang de Saimple aleulions V,Asytane _ Given GM =-0,1 mand BM =438 m V Fora ship with assigned GM and M values, the ship appears ro be unstable (to GM < 0). In fae water, che ship will not capsize, Due will urn on its longitudinal axis until ic teaches fixed heeling angle equal to ns. How high is initial instability then at this statical heeling angle? Initial stabiliry in this situation can be de- resultsin Scribane’s formula GZ, = (GM + 4 BM tan’ sind termined using the following data, “Application of Serban: Suppose a ship has negacive initial stability lke che lever of static stax bility below. ci, (2) (Aeueuaenit The tangent to the GZ curve at point GZ=0 creates an angle with the axis whose tangent is equal to the value of initial instability Thisic made visible in the gure as GM,4 Longitudinal stability4.1 The importance of longicudinal stability Because the lengch of the ship is greater than the beam, che moment of inertia of the waterline is also much greater longitu- dinally chan herally. Longitudinal B is the same as lateral B, Miongitinat i higher than Mj Inseetion 2.8.4, ic was also concluded thac BMioasaaina! is equal to or even greater than che ships length. From this, iccan be concluded that if the lateral stability of a ship is sufficiene, the longitudinal stability will also be suffi- Longitudinal stabiliy, chus, has no direct relationship to the ships safety. Therefore, there is also no need to ealeulate or evalu ate the ship’slongitudinalstabiliy. Ic is then futile 10 look at KMroogcntinal OF KNiungadinl for longitudinal form daca Farthermore, the longitudinal metacenter «within the range of normal trim is more oF less.a fixed point, A ship 100 meters ong with a trim of } me- ters still has aim angle of only’ 17°. Only in very exceptional cases ic can teach 3". The longieudinal form data, LCB, LCF and Moment to change trim per cm, are then also ulrimacely used to determine: = the correct displacement at an accepted draft — the draft before and after loading — draft and crim on arrival in harbour. “The latter is due co possible draferestic- tions at departure, enroute or in the har- bour itself In ships where the forn of the waterline differs greatly fore and aft, the tim also affects che position of Mysnsene 4.2 The waterline’s center of Floatation (COF) ‘The ship ims longicudinally ac the water- line's center of area, for watcelines called Cencer Of Floatation, COF (see 2.8.3) Ina rectangular ship, a barge, COF is loca ted exacdy midships. The result is that if the vessel trims 1 meter by the stern, then the bow rises 05 meter our of the water and the ae immerses 0,5 meter The position of COF depends on the form of the waterplane, along the length of the ship. The (OF lies aft of midships on a ship a wide stern. Contrary, if che waterline forward_has ‘more area than aft itis clear that COF lies forward of midships. Ifa ship with a wide ster, hasso litee draft thar the stern is above water, the first bit of loading will eause the ship to erim aft. Assoonas the stern is immersed and COF more afi, the change of trim quickly de- COF hasa direct relationship to: — draft = tim, In section 2.14, it was also discussed thae the position of COF affects che accurate calculation of displacement ofthe ship. 4.3 Moment to change trim per unit In order to trim the ship, a longieudinal ‘moment must be exerted. This moment occurs as soon as a longieu- dinal change in weight rakes place. The ex- tent ofthis moment is depending upon the distance thar these weights have in relation to the vertical transfer plane through COR If carga is loaded or unloaded in COF or in the direct ncighbouthood, no change of sim willoccur, ‘The shipbuilder calculates the moment for the ship to trim I em: the moment to change trim per unit, This moment de- pends upon draft and evim. ‘The change in trim (A trim) can be calculated as follows pxa ‘moment to changetrim per unit Actin ‘The values in the formula, depending ona ‘weight (p) eeansfereed, lauded or unloaded, (p= transferred weight a =the distance over which weight is moved ~ p=loaded weight = the distance from the pivor (COF) to the area where the weight has been loaded ~ p=unloaded weight a= distance from the place where the weight was located to COR ‘Note: tim is the change in erm, (usually) not che actual tim. IF the ship, before loading, unloading and! or nansfer of weight: ~ isat even keel, che A trim is the actual tuim at the end of loading, unloading ~ is not even keel (has trim), the tim must be calculated using A trim. “Take example b in 4.4.1. I che ship hasa forward esi (Ty > T,) of 50 ex before taking ballast, then alter ballating, the ship will sell have forward trim, but les namely: 50m 20cm =30em. Formulated ‘A crim x momene tochange m per unit How many tons mustbe loaded in certain position co get a specific change of rim to fore can be calculated. Formulated as: Avctim x moment cochange tim pecur Pe Using the above formula, we can calculate what distance, from COR, a known weight must be loaded, discharged or moved «w finda necessary change in trim, In order to determine the resule in trim forward or aft, the relation to COF of the weight, loaded or unloaded, must be known.4.4 Calculation of crim 44.1 Determining trim difference with one or more weights Inthe (properly rimmed) ships below is: moment co chang: trim per unie = 100 con.mecee/em. a. 10-ton weight is moved 20 meters longitudin ward. This ment of: 10 eons x 20 meters = 200 tonamecer NO ronameters 100 tonameters / em This results in achange of trim = 2em trim (Fory meters = 20000 ronameter 2000 con.meters This results in achange of trim 1 trim (a2) 100 ton.aneters / em The difference in rim (A trim) is 20cm. A900-ton weight is loaded 20 meters aft of COF, ‘The weight is apparently moved fist to COF, causing no change in tri. Then the weight is moved 20 meters aft of COR. Actually, the weight is placed direcdy in the right location, Aft trimming momene: 500 cons x20 meters =10,000 con.meters. 10,000 conmecers This results ina change of trim s SS = 100 x err (aft) 100 ron.meters / crm The difference in trim (A trim) is thus, 100 em,442 Devers the total ship ‘The formula to decermine A erin is act ally used only ifone weight mustbe loaded, discharged or moved. ‘The formula can also be used to find a pro- spective tim (difference) quickly. IF she Formula is adapeed accordingly, de- nitive tein and actual drafe can be deter mined, These methods of calculation ean be ap: plied to (computer) loading programs. In practice, tens or hundreds of different sweights must be entered to find definitive stability daca, including, evi pxa “qromencto change win Temi determinesthe change in trim. rently, the coral trim can be Ax (longitudinal distance G and B) moment so change tim [em ~ displacement (A): the toralweight of the after loadingand/or unloading = longicudinal difference in length be tween Gand B: (LCB-LCG} I che resule is negative, the ship has for- ward trim, This ean also be side visible by deawinga longicadinal view of the ship with points G and B. With the vectors originating from G and B,iecan beseen ifthe ship trims forward or aft. The vectors Gand B will be positioned opposite Caleulating LOG LCG can ako be determined using the for mula aboveand the actual draft. The draft T and che rrim can becalculated accurately by using the drafts T, and ‘T), ‘Tim is T, -T) ‘The displacement can be found in the ti bles and/or calculated. By usingA,LCB (arevenkeel) and moment to-change trim per unit can be found. The formu is now: tim x momene go change trim Lem LCB-LCG A Thus: trim moment to change trim 1 cm LOG =LCB- iwstrd. The sh gradually, depen B mvc co Gceenally the erm wl ca be speed af th ard.45. Distribution of trim forward and aft ‘There is still one problem co solve, namely, the distribution of ees forward and af ‘As has already been explained, there is a simple solution if the waterline’ center of gravity, the Center OF Floatation (COR) is midships, The trim then can be distributed evenly forward and af If the ship trims aft, then half of the total ttim has to be added co the mean draft and the other half to be subtracted from the ‘mean drafe in order to find the drafe aft and the draft forward, If there is forward trim then in the oppo- Iris lear in the exaggerated drawing, chae the area through the COF lies aft of mid: ships. In chis case. ifthe ship trims co aft, the increase of the draft aft is less than the decrease ofthe draft forward. Suppose the ship trims 300 cm, then the diafe afe increases 100 cm and che drafe forward becomes 200 em less. ‘The total change of trim remains: 300.cm (100 + 200 cm). ‘The formulas for the correct distribution fore and afe are: total crim x LCF Tinga= — “i length Trimge = total trim ~ crim The draft aft is equal to the mean draft pls the erim afe T, can + OMG ‘The draft forward is equal co the mean drafe minus the wim forward Tie = Tian ~ De NB.L: trim is understood co be the drafe aft ninus draft co fore, thus: Tin = Ty. ~ Tie Aft rim is a positive erim, forward is a fegaive crim ‘When applied to the Formulas, che correct values are automatically produced. aster Inaded with bull cargo fran a lange veel (using a floating crane). The ship on the previous page trims severely by the stern afer ship is lly loaded and is nearly in proper trim. ading is started man onpty hold «tn the photo above5 Ship stability in damaged conditions, so-called damage stability 5.1 Introduction ‘How a ship performs after incurring dam- age, is already examined during the design perod, and is subject co Class approval Ar firse glance, the more watertight com- partments ship has, the more likely eis to survive ease of considerable damage. Ina ship wich many small compartments, there will be more damaged compartments ‘compared toa ship wich fewer, lrger com- partments. Additionally, ships wich larger compare: ments will cost less co build, and can be used co transport larger size of cargo. Depending on ships size and type SOLAS has stringenc requirements regarding sur- vival incase of damage, Ieis important to know if: = theship can survive specific damage: ‘+ does it still have sufficient freeboard, + ischere sill suficientseabilicy, + ate the non-watertight openings sil far enough above the waterline, «cid the ship sink symmetrically and is the resulting lise acceptable, + cana harbor still be ached or help be expected. ~ Isthe environment endangered. 5.2. Evolving points of view regarding damage stability Draft, trim and stability can be caleulaed ‘ic has sustained damage. How i’ calcu lated is addressed in section 5:3. [Ff the ship’ position and stability ae cal: culated, the question avises ifthe damaged condicion i suficienely safe. Tn some cases, the answer is simples if ship sinks, it is no longer safe. When st. ing float the amount of submersion ori has tobe judged. An additional question is how robus should the ship’ design be. In other word, which damage should he ship be able w endure, The answers vary. Absolute safery doesnt exist, and a are number of safety measures are expense and difficult ro execute: Obtaining balance beeween cost and safety isa classic concem of authorities and owners. Ie isthe regu tory entity that has established the damage stability cvicria. ‘These criteria are divided ineo three main categories thac are examined on the net ages. ne classification fuctor = 1 classification factor = 0.5 Curve of floodable length or Bulkhead spacing curve The vertical bars in the bulthead curve indicate the maxon interval between 2 bulkbends, If hese intervals are sufcient then they fall within acceptable damage sebiligy rules,52.1 Floodable lengeh One of the most horrific accidents and certainly the one that has capcured our im- aginations che most, was that ofthe Titanic {in 1912. This disastet led co che fest incer- rational convention for ship safety, held in London in 1914, cilled "The international convention for the Safety Of Lite At Sea, orSOLAS. This convention started with rules to pee- ‘ene the sinking of passenger ships and lie- er also of cargo ships, In essence, this deals withthe following assumptions: ~ The intact ship completely symmetrical with no list. Consequently, che effects of watertight longieudinal bulkheads are neglected. = The number of laceral compartments expected to incur damage depends on a number ofaspecs, such as the size of the shipand the number of passengers. ~ The ship is considered sufficiently safe when the freeboard deck, with the ship in damaged condition, remains a mini- umn of 3 inches (76 mm) above the ter, A vietual line that lies 76 mm below the vonrinues lowest wateitight deck is called the margin line. ‘With these underlying assumptions, a spe- 53.1 Constant displacement *" » LCG = LCB Mop Inthe drawings itis assumed that: ~ hold 2 has incurred damage and water ean enter easily ~ hold 2 contains no cargo ~ the volume of the ship’ structural parts in the hold is not included ~ the water in the hold will evencually be ac che same level as the sea water Asa resule, the buoyancy in hold 2 disappears. The weight ofthe ship and its eargo doesn't change. The center of gravity (G) remains in place. In onder to compensate for the lose buoyancy, che ship sinks deeper and che reserve buoyancy of the rest of the ship decreases. The lost buoyancy in hold 2 lies in front of B. In accordance with the center of gravity displacement rules, B moves back and lies behind C. loss of bunyaney ‘The ship now rims forward. The center of buoyaney moves forward uncil B is again un- dec G, Equilibrium is achieved What happens to the ship’ stability? G in this ease, has not moved, Because the ship is deeper in che water, KB is greater. The volume ofthe under water hullhas not changed BM however, does change. BM Lis the waterdine’s moment of inertia. ‘The waterline area in hold 2 is no longer included. “The form of the waterline has changed and the moment of inertia becomes smaller. Conseqeuntly BM, is smaller Seabiliey cannotbe ealeulaced from the on- board form daca in ehis manner LCB ean still bedetermined usingthe Law of equilibrium moments, Since the waterlin’s form and surface area has changed, LCE, Trimming moment per unit, c/cm, KM and KNsing are no longer the same as the onboard data This calculation mechod is only required for passenger ships shorter than 20 meters, ‘The shipbuilder works out a number of possibilitiesbased on che altered form data. For example, damage ro the: = fore peak, = tanks, midship area, ~ engine room, ~ after peak. Allthis rfars to various ypes of ergo and fuel sicuations,5.3.2 Loaded weight Itisnowasifthe waterin the damaged hold (hold 2) is 2 loaded weight in thar hold The water in the hold now equals the level lof the sea water, and the ship sinks low ‘Theamount of water in the holdis dependant upon the permeability of the compartment (the 9% of the space which ‘ean be occupied by water when the com- partments damaged). By law, a dry-cargo loaded hold must have {60% volume permeability (x) ‘The amount of incoming water is chen ‘multiplied by 0.6. KM can now be determined using the re sulting drafts and che amount of incoming KG has to be adjusted for free liquid sur- face (of the water in the hold). Ieargo pro- trudes above the water surface in the hold the adjustment can be multiplied by the surface permeability (x). The above isareliable method, required for passenger ships (pre-determined by the de- signer) and chemical tankers (by means of ‘computer program consulted before each voyage), butalso to be applied with accepe- able results onboard dry-cargo ships. Now the problem is devermining the meas- urements of the hold. For example. mean dimensions can be taken from thedrawings or the volume and Kg can be devermined using the grain curve. Also, free surface moment can be ascertained usingthe volu- metric eapsizing moment (VOM). However, the volume capsizing moment assumes thatthe geain shifts 25°, Using the resulting VCM, the free surface correction works as follows: “The resulting draft and the righting mo- ment are, in this case, identical 9 the re- sulting values found with the constant dis- placement method. ‘The form data, however, can only be used to determine the final results. Because the form and waterline area are changed, the LCE, Trimming moment per unit, ¢/em, KM and KNsing no longer agree with the onboard data loaded weight Te { cle dG] J G will move to fore in the direction of the center of gravity of the water in che hold. G therefore. moves in front of Band the ship will tim to fore. The standard form data ean now be applied. The conclusion is nor immediately known, butt can be approximated through reiteration, First, assuming thae a specific amount of water flows in the hold, the drafe can be calculated, However, che water in the hold is nor at the same level as the seawater and more water is flowing into the hold. ‘This muse be repeated a number of times until the situation se trim * Leas TES ist = Tar i, Ifthe load situation of the damage ship changes, due to for instance salvage material being placed onboard, chen this calculation method eannot be used. Duc to the weight of the salvage material the ship sinks deeper and trims. ‘The amount of wwaterin the hold also changes. ‘To find che draft and trim that material must be considered as placed on the undamaged ship whereafter the damage has to be applied.54. Determining damage stability The entire discussion about damage sta bilcy up cil now ment of this aspect in the design phase and is meant as » tool for the design of a safe ship, Such design ealeulations are not aways sufficient, There are two cases in which such caleulitions have to be per- formed onboard. ako. These situacions are addressed in the fol «as concerned the treat lowing ewo sections, Ssh Damage sal the actual voyage Previously, it has been established thae chemical, gas- and oil tankers, among others, have to meet daniage stabiliey requirements at all mes. rognosis for Calculations are made during the ship’ design phase, buc they are limited 10 a umber of (design)-cargo conditions Inthe design phase it is impossible to pre- dicr, ler alone calculate, all load variations thar could occur th:oughout the life of the ship Nevertheless, these load variationscan have great influence on damage stabil. Imagine chemical tanker with a cargo that hasahigh specifi graviey. Not all inks can then be used and are alternately filled. The ship can then be a its maximum deaft and still have a number of empry tanks. IF such an empry tank is damaged, then sea water flows in, which can lead to a dangerous list a completely full tank tha: incurs damage can also be In chat case, the heavier eargo is replaced by the relatively lighter seawater, Ia searboard tank is damaged, the ship will list co port and may even capsize for even eapsizing. Howe By law, a shipin all conditions muse satisfy dam ge stability requirements. This means, , that the loading condition for instanc in the design calculation. T laced and tested against the requirements, actual circumstances must be caleu- Te would be impossible to perform manual damage calculations for every voyage, thus, 4n practice, there are two solutions: — Every ship has a table or diagram of ‘maximum allowable KG in damage con. ditions. Such a KG-max able for intact stability has already been addressed in chapcer 3.11.1 In principle, itis nor dif ferene from damage stability. However, the KG-max for intact stabiliey depends only on ehe ships form, Damage stabil- ity isalko dependane on liquids flowin or out che various (cargo) tanks, For this, a loading manual. This isa rather sub stantial publication containing many graphs or tables to be fille in, — A computer program provides in: structions as to how these cal culations should be performed, The programs can distinguish: + Designs for intact stabiliqy. KG- max diagrams for damage sieua- tions, which are applicable co intact conditions, are included. The effect of the cargo has not been consid- ered such dara are eovered in A program thae works with direct calculations i preferable, Such a pro- gram has a complete model of hull and compartment forms and ean eal: culate and assess correct damage sta bility for every imaginable situation. Damage Stability Caleulations as tool, for a real damage situation After having sustained a (substantial) da mage, a “direct calculation computer pro: gram” can be an efficiene rool By using such a program one eannor only judge the actual situation, bur also the re sule of counter measurements such as con- tracballasting or the application of external (lifting) forces The availabilicy of this kind of programs is a requiremenc in the American Oil Pollution Act (OPA), for ships navigating in American waters. Quality systems will require this kind of calculations more and more often However, the computer, capableof carrying out these ealeulations does not necessarily to be insalled on board, A shore facili in con isa good alternative. These systems are called an “Emergency Response System” (ERS)