• Subject - Mechatronics

Summer -2018 Solution

• Q .01 a) What are requirements of control system. Explain different types of control systems
with suitable example. 6

Ans- Stability, accuracy and speed of response are the three requirement s of a
control system.

Stability:
A system is to be stable if the output of the system after fluctions, variation or
oscillation, if any, settles at a reasonable value for any change in input or change in
disturbance.

Accuracy:
A system is said to be 100 percent accurate if the error ( different between input and
output ) is zero. An accurate system is costly. There is no point in going for 100
percent accurate system when that much of accuracy is not really required.

Example of accuracy:
When a variation of say 0.2 degree centigrade cannot be sensed by a human being,
there is no need to have a home heating system of temperature variation equal to
zero.

Speed of Response:
This refers to time taken by the system to respond to the given input and give that as
the output. Theoritically the speed of response should be infinity, that is, the system
should have an instantaneous response. This requirement is prime concern with
follow-up systems.

Any ideal system is perfectly stable, 100 percent accurate and has instantaneous
speed of response. Unfortunately, the requirements are incompatiable. Hence there
should be a compromise between these requirements.

There are two types of control systems namely:

• Open loop control systems (non-feedback control systems)

• Closed loop control systems (feedback control systems)
 • Open loop control system
•
If in a physical system there is no automatic correction of the variation in its output, it
is called an open loop control system. That is, in this type of system, sensing of the
actual output and comparing of this output (through feedback) with the desired input
doesnot take place. The system on its own is not in a position to give the desired
output and it cannot take into account the disturbances. In these systems, the
changes in output can be corrected only by changing the input manually.

These systems are simple in construction, stable and cost cheap. But these systems
are inaccurate and unreliable. Moreover these systems donot take account of
external disurbances that affect the output and they donot initiate corrective actions
automatically.

Examples of open loop control systems:

• Automatic washing machine

• traffic signal system
• home heating system( without sensing, feedback and control)

Closed loop control system

A closed loop control system is a system where the output has an effect upon the input
quantity in such a manner as to maintain the desired output value.
 An open loop control system becomes a closed loop control system by including a
feedback. This feedback will automatically correct the change in output due to
disturbances. This is why a closed loop control system is called as an automatic
control system. The block diagram of a closed loop control system is shown in figure.

In a closed loop control system, the controlled variable (output) of the system is
sensed at every instant of time, feedback and compared with the desired input
resulting in an error signal. This error signal directs the control elements in the
system to do the necessary corrective action such that the output of the system is
obtained as desired.

The feedback control system takes into account the disturbances also and makes
the corrective action. These control systems are accurate, stable and less affected
by noise. But these control systems are sophisticated and hence costly. They are
also complicated to design for stability, give oscillatory response and feedback
brings down the overall gain of the control system.

Q. 01. b) Explain the following mechatronic system applications: a) Boat Auto Pilot b) High speed Tilting
train

Ans- A) BOAT AUTO PILOT

 Autopilots are self-steering devices
for power or sailboats. They can hold your vessel on a pre-set compass course (even the most
basic pilots do this) and sophisticated pilots that connect to GPS receivers or gather data from
your boat's instruments can handle a lot more advanced tasks.

A boat autopilot is an electronic device capable of steering a boat on a preset course, taking the place of a crew
member. On NauticExpo, this equipment is for use on leisure craft.

Applications
Autopilots are extremely useful on long passages or when sailing single- or short-handed.

Technologies

Most autopilots include the following components:

- An electro-hydraulic pump and cylinder constitute the system's mechanical arm. The cylinder actuates the helm
according to instructions from the electronic control unit.
- The control unit analyzes input data and sends instructions to the pump/cylinder.
- Sensors read the current course from a gyrocompass, as well as the helm position.
- A control screen is used to configure the autopilot and indicate the course to be followed.

Some autopilots are better suited to motor vessels, others to sailboats. They also may vary by steering system: tiller,
wheel, quadrant, belt, etc. Computer control of the autopilot is also possible via an NMEA-compatible electronic
network.

An autopilot is a combination of electric or electronic navigation tools that steer a vessel

without continual hands-on involvement. Autopilots allow short- or single-handed sailors
and boaters to leave the helm to trim or rig sails, adjust lines, set anchor, eat without
interruption, take short naps, or other activities while not at the helm.

B) HIGH SPEED TILTING TRAIN- Tilting Train consists of tilting mechanism that
enables to increase the speed on regular tracks. In the upper part of tilting trains that is
in which the passengers are seated can be tilted sideways. During the motion of the
train if the train has to
steer to left in a left turning the coaches of the train will be tilted to the left in order to
compensate the centrifugal push to the right and conversely during the right turn. Tilting
trains can be classified into different categories according the features of their tilting
system. On every types of tilting trains the tilting systems shall perform three main
functions: first, they have to identify accurately and without delay the initial position of
curve transitions, then second they have to tilt the car body according to the tilting
algorithm provided for the system and finally they have to verify that the provided
amount of tilt corresponds to the tilt demand.

PRINCIPAL/ CONCEPT/CAR BODY OF TILTING TRAINS

The active tilt relies on active technology, controlled by sensors and electronics and
executed by an actuator, usually hydraulic or electric. Tilt as such has normally not an
impact on safety of actively tilted train, as the centre of gravity does not essentially
change its lateral position. The passive tilt relies on physical laws with a tilt centre
located well above the centre of gravity of the car body. In a curve, under the influence
of centrifugal force, the lower part of the car body then swings outwards. It should be
noted that passive tilt has a negative impact on safety due to the lateral shift of the
centre of gravity of the car body.
A train and its passengers are subjected to lateral forces when the train passes
horizontal curves. Car body roll inwards, however, reduces the lateral acceleration felt
by the passengers, allowing the train to negotiate curves at higher speed with
maintained ride comfort [1]. Trains capable of tilting the car bodies inwards in curves are
called tilting trains. Tilting trains can be divided in two groups: the naturally tilted trains
and the actively tilted trains Natural tilt relies on physical laws with a tilt center located
well above the Center of gravity of the car body. In a curve, under the influence of
lateral acceleration, the lower part of the car body then swings outwards. Active tilt may
have car body center of gravity and rotation center at about the same height. This form
of tilt does not normally have an impact on the safety of the train, since the center of
gravity does not essentially change its (lateral) position. Active tilt relies upon control
technology involving sensors and electronics and is executed by an actuator, usually
hydraulic or electric, without actuation there is no significant tilt action.
Q.02. Explain mechatronic design process?
Ans- Mechatronics is a methodology used for the optimal design of electromechanical
products. A methodology is collection of practices, procedures and rules used by those
who work in particular branch of knowledge or discipline. The familar technological
disciplines include thermodynamics, electrical engineering, computer science and
mechanical engineering, to name several. The mechatronical system is multi-
disciplinary, embodying four fundamental disciplines: electrical, mechanical, computer
science and information technology. The mechatronic design methodology is based on
a concurrent, instead of sequential, approach to discipline design, resulting in products
with more synergy. Mechatronics is a design philosophy, an integrating approach to
engineering design. The primary factor in mechatronics is the involvment of these areas
throughout the design process. Through a mechanism of simulating interdisciplinary
ideas and techniques, mechatronics provides ideal conditions to raise the synergy,
thereby providing a catalytic effect for the new solutions to technically complex
situations. An importatant characteristic of mechatronical devices and systems is their
built-in intelligence, which results through a combination of precision mechanical and
electrical engineering and real-time programming integrated with the design process.
Mechatronics makes possible the combination of actuators, sensors, control systems,
and computers in the design process. Starting with the basic design, and progressing
through the manufacturing phase, mechatronic design optimizes the parameters at each
phase to produce a quality product in a short cycle time. Mechatronics uses the control
systems in providing a coherent framework of component interactions for system
analysis. The integration within a mechatronical system is performed through the
combination of hardware (components) and software (information processing).
Hardware integration results from designing the mechatronical system as an overal
system and bringing together the sensors, actuators, and microcomputers into the
mechanical system. Software integration is primarily based on advanced control
functions. The first step in the focused development of mechatronical systems is to
analyze the customer and the technical enviroment in which the system is integrated.
Complex technical systems designed to solve problems tend to be a combination of
mechanical, electric, fluid, power, and thermodynamic parts with hardware in digital and
analog form coordinated by complex software. Typical mechatronical systems gather
data and information from their technical enviroment using sensors. The next step is to
use elaborate ways of modeling and description methods to cover all subtasks of this
system in an integrated manner.
Q- 02 b) Mechatronics is synergic integration of mechanical engineering with electronics
and control engineering for design and manufacture of products. Justify the statement

Ans- echatronics: the synergistic integration of mechanical engineering with electronics

and control engineering. ... The input signal conditioning and interfacing system provide
connection between the control circuits and input/ output system. The overall control of
the system is carried out by digital controls.

Mechatronics engineering may be regarded as a modern approach to automation

techniques

for the broadly defined needs of engineering and education.

It can be assumed that mechatronics is an interdisciplinary field of science and

technology,

dealing with general problems of mechanics, electronics and informatics. However, it

contains too many related mechatronics areas that form the foundation of

mechatronics and cover many well-known disciplines such as electrical engineering,

power

electronics, digital technology, microprocessor technology, and other techniques.

Mechatronics
engineering provides an opportunity, not only humanization of machines, but also it
changes

the mindset and the approach to technological issues and most importantly teaching
new

technologies and ways of acquiring knowledge and skills. The most important feature

of mechatronic devices is the ability to process and communicate information accurately

in a

form of different types of signals (mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic, optical,

chemical, biological), with high level of automation of these devices.The course aims to
produce students who can design and develop smart machines and use their

multidisciplinary skills to meet growing demands of an industry.

Mechatronics Engineering is offered with an integrated curriculum to provide a broad-

based

education in the basic principles of electrical, electronics, mechanical, control,

instrumentation

and computer engineering. Broad range of topic covered include: Design of machine
elements,

Analog and Digital system Design, Signal Processing, Measurements, Material Science,

Mechanical Vibration, Kinematics of Machinery, PLC Programming, Control Systems,

Microcontrollers, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems, Industrial Robotics, Embedded

Systems,

Nanotechnology and Computer Integrated Manufacturing.Application in Industry Sectors

Mechatronics is a multidisciplinary field of engineering with far reaching applications on

various

sectors of the society. Mechatronics plays a key role in the development of tomorrow’s

products by being at the forefront of cutting-edge designs. Today, Mechatronics

Engineering

has gained much recognition and importance in the industrial world and has become an
engineering discipline on high demand. Mechatronics may be viewed as a modern
mechanical

engineering design in the sense that it is the synergistic integration of mechanical

engineering

with electronics and intelligent computer control in the design and manufacturing that
aims at

improving and/or optimizing its functionality.

Q.03 a) Explain interfacing requirements in Data Acquisition Systems.

Ans- Data acquisition systems, as the name implies, are products and/or processes
used to collect information to document or analyze some phenomenon. In the simplest
form, a technician logging the temperature of an oven on a piece of paper is performing
data acquisition. As technology has progressed, this type of process has been simplified
and made more accurate, versatile, and reliable through electronic equipment.
Equipment ranges from simple recorders to sophisticated computer systems. Data
acquisition products serve as a focal point in a system, tying together a widevariety of
products, such as sensors that indicate temperature, flow, level, or pressure.Recorders
and Dataloggers are products used with sensors to document information relating to a
process. Recorders usually have a pen that deflects as a percentage of input span,
while paper moves beneath it at a defined speed in relation to time. The recorder output
is an easy-to-read, continuous trend line. Dataloggers typically print the actual value of
the input with a time stamp. The advantages of the datalogger include less paper
usage, higher resolution of the reading, and less chance of misinterpretation of the data.
Hybrid recorders are instruments that have both trend recording and datalogging ability.
Some of these units also include features such as math calculations and communication
ability to transfer data to a host computer for further analysis.
Communication-Based data acquisition products, those that interface with a computer
through a communication port, can range from dataloggers to remote intelligent control
systems. The most common communication interface for short distances is RS-232.
RS-232 defines serial communication for one device to one computer communication
port, with speeds up to 115 K baud (bits per second). Typically 7 or 8 bits (on/off signal)
are transmitted to represent a character or digit. The ASCII code provides a standard
definition allowing alphanumeric characters to be represented by a string of bits. Other
serial communication interfaces includeRS-422 and RS-485. Both provide
communicate longer distances with multiple units on the line. Two common parallel
communication interfaces are the Centronic and IEEE488. Parallel interfaces
communicate data at 8 or more bits at one time. The Centronic interface is the common
parallel interface used to connect printers to a computer. The IEEE488 interface (also
sometimes known as GPIB or HPIB) provides a high speed parallel interface forup to 15
devices
Q- 03 b) What is digital communication? Explain modes of serial communication
Ans- Data can be transmitted between a sender and a receiver in two main ways: serial
and parallel. Serial communication is the method of transferring one bit at a time
through a medium. ... For this reason, the internal connections in a computer, ie: the
busses, are linked together to allow parallel communication.
Definition - What does Serial Communication mean?
Serial communication is a communication technique used in telecommunications
wherein data transfer occurs by transmitting data one bit at a time in a sequential order
over a computer bus or a communication channel. It is the simplest form of
communication between a sender and a receiver. Because of the synchronization
difficulties involved in parallel communication, along with cable cost, serial
communication is considered best for long-distance communication.
erial communication is the most widely used approach to transfer information between
data processing equipment and peripherals. In general, communication means
interchange of information between individuals through written documents, verbal
words, audio and video lessons.

Every device might it be your Personal computer or mobile runs on serial protocol. The
protocol is the secure and reliable form of communication having a set of rules
addressed by the source host (sender) and destination host (receiver). To have a better
insight, I have explained the concept of serial communication.
In embedded system, Serial communication is the way of exchanging data using
different methods in the form of serial digital binary. Some of the well-known interfaces
used for the data exchange are RS-232, RS-485, I2C, SPI etc.

n serial communication, data is in the form of binary pulses. In other words, we can say
Binary One represents a logic HIGH or 5 Volts, and zero represents a logic LOW or 0
Volts. Serial communication can take many forms depending on the type of
transmission mode and data transfer. The transmission modes are classified as
Simplex, Half Duplex, and Full Duplex. There will be a source (also known as a sender)
and destination (also called a receiver) for each transmission mode.
The Simplex method is a one-way communication technique. Only one client (either the
sender or receiver is active at a time). If a sender transmits, the receiver can only
accept. Radio and Television transmission are the examples of simplex mode.

In Half Duplex mode, both sender and receiver are active but not at a time, i.e. if a
sender transmits, the receiver can accept but cannot send and vice versa. A good
example is an internet. If a client (laptop) sends a request for a web page, the web
server processes the application and sends back the information.

The Full Duplex mode is widely used communication in the world. Here both sender and
receiver can transmit and receive at the same time. An example is your smartphone.

Q-04 a) What is Digital to Analog converter? Explain adder type Digital to Analog
convertor?

Ans- A D/A Converter is used when the binary output from a digital system is to be
converted into its equivalent analog voltage or current. The binary output will be a
sequence of 1’s and 0’s. Thus they ma be difficult to follow. But, a D/A converter help
the user to interpret easily.

Basically, a D/A converter have an op-amp. It can be classified into 2 types. They are

Digital to Analog Converter using Binary-Weighted Resistors

A D/A converter using binary-weighted resistors is shown in the figure below. In the
circuit, the op-amp is connected in the inverting mode. The op-amp can also be
connected in the non-inverting mode. The circuit diagram represents a 4-digit converter.
Thus, the number of binary inputs is four.

e know that, a 4-bit converter will have 24 = 16 combinations of output. Thus, a

corresponding 16 outputs of analog will also be present for the binary inputs.

Four switches from b0 to b3 are available to simulate the binary inputs: in practice, a 4-
bit binary counter such as a 7493 can also be used.

Weighted resistor digital to analog Converter is a very basic D/A converter. By using
simple resistor network we can easily build that. As we discuss earlier about how digital
to analog converters works you may refer that first. Let us consider a N-bit straight
binary resistor network, which produces a current I corresponding to logic 1 at the most
significant bit, I/2 corresponding to logic 1 at the next lower bit, I/22 for the next lower bit
and so on, and I/ 2N–1 for logic 1 at the least significant bit position. Now the total
current thus produced by that resistive network will be proportional to the digital inputs,
which we want to convert in equivalent analog signal. Farther this current can be
converted to voltage with the help of a converter circuit by an using operational amplifier
(OP AMP). Finally then we get the produced voltage is analog in nature and will be
proportional to the digital inputs.

Q.04 b) Explain impedance matching in mechanical system? State effects of improper

impedancematching

Ans- mpedance is the opposition by a system to the flow of energy from a source. For
constant signals, this impedance can also be constant. For varying signals, it usually
changes with frequency. The energy involved can be electrical, mechanical, acoustic,
magnetic, or thermal. The concept of electrical impedance is perhaps the most
commonly known. Electrical impedance, like electrical resistance, is measured in ohms.
In general, impedance has a complex value; this means that loads generally have a
resistance component (symbol: R) which forms the real part of Z and a reactance
component (symbol: X) which forms the imaginary part of Z.

In simple cases (such as low-frequency or direct-current power transmission) the

reactance may be negligible or zero; the impedance can be considered a pure
resistance, expressed as a real number. In the following summary we will consider the
general case when resistance and reactance are both significant, and the special case
in which the reactance is negligible.

Reflection-less matching

Impedance matching to minimize reflections is achieved by making the load impedance

equal to the source impedance. If the source impedance, load impedance and
transmission line characteristic impedance are purely resistive, then reflection-less
matching is the same as maximum power transfer matching.[1]

Maximum power transfer matching Complex conjugate matching is used when

maximum power transfer is required, namely

{\displaystyle Z_{\mathsf {load}}=Z_{\mathsf {source}}^{*}\,} Z_{{\mathsf

{load}}}=Z_{{\mathsf {source}}}^{*}\,

where a superscript * indicates the complex conjugate. A conjugate match is different

from a reflection-less match when either the source or load has a reactive component.

If the source has a reactive component, but the load is purely resistive, then matching
can be achieved by adding a reactance of the same magnitude but opposite sign to the
load. This simple matching network, consisting of a single element, will usually achieve
a perfect match at only a single frequency. This is because the added element will
either be a capacitor or an inductor, whose impedance in both cases is frequency
dependent, and will not, in general, follow the frequency dependence of the source
impedance. For wide bandwidth applications, a more complex network must be
designed. Power transfer Main article: Maximum power theorem Whenever a source of
power with a fixed output impedance such as an electric signal source, a radio
transmitter or a mechanical sound (e.g., a loudspeaker) operates into a load, the
maximum possible power is delivered to the load when the impedance of the load (load
impedance or input impedance) is equal to the complex conjugate of the impedance of
the source (that is, its internal impedance or output impedance). For two impedances to
be complex conjugates their resistances must be equal, and their reactances must be
equal in magnitude but of opposite signs. In low-frequency or DC systems (or systems
with purely resistive sources and loads) the reactances are zero, or small enough to be
ignored. In this case, maximum power transfer occurs when the resistance of the load is
equal to the resistance of the source (see maximum power theorem for a mathematical
proof).

Impedance matching is not always necessary. For example, if a source with a low
impedance is connected to a load with a high impedance the power that can pass
through the connection is limited by the higher impedance. This maximum-voltage
connection is a common configuration called impedance bridging or voltage bridging,
and is widely used in signal processing. In such applications, delivering a high voltage
(to minimize signal degradation during transmission or to consume less power by
reducing currents) is often more important than maximum power transfer.

In older audio systems (reliant on transformers and passive filter networks, and based
on the telephone system), the source and load resistances were matched at 600 ohms.
One reason for this was to maximize power transfer, as there were no amplifiers
available that could restore lost signal. Another reason was to ensure correct operation
of the hybrid transformers used at central exchange equipment to separate outgoing
from incoming speech, so these could be amplified or fed to a four-wire circuit. Most
modern audio circuits, on the other hand, use active amplification and filtering and can
use voltage-bridging connections for greatest accuracy. Strictly speaking, impedance
matching only applies when both source and load devices are linear; however, matching
may be obtained between nonlinear devices within certain operating ranges.

Q.05 a) Explain the principle and working of Brushless D. C. Motor?

Ans- Electrical equipment often has at least one motor used to rotate or displace an
object from its initial position. There are a variety of motor types available in the market,
including induction motors, servomotors, DC motors (brushed and brushless), etc.
Depending upon the application requirements, a particular motor can be selected.
However, a current trend is that most new designs are moving towards Brushless DC
motors, popularly known as BLDC motors.

This article will concentrate on the following aspects of BLDC motor design:
Construction of the BLDC motor

Operation of the BLDC motor

Torque and Efficiency requirements

Comparison with Induction and Brushed DC motors

Selection criteria for a BLDC motor

Motor control – Speed, Position and Torque, to be covered in Part II of this article.

Construction -BLDC motors have many similarities to AC induction motors and brushed
DC motors in terms of construction and working principles respectively. Like all other
motors, BLDC motors also have a rotor and a stator.Similar to an Induction AC motor,
the BLDC motor stator is made out of laminated steel stacked up to carry the windings.
Windings in a stator can be arranged in two patterns; i.e. a star pattern (Y) or delta
pattern (∆). The major difference between the two patterns is that the Y pattern gives
high torque at low RPM and the ∆ pattern gives low torque at low RPM. This is because
in the ∆ configuration, half of the voltage is applied across the winding that is not driven,
thus increasing losses and, in turn, efficiency and torque.teel laminations in the stator
can be slotted or slotless as shown in Figure 2. A slotless core has lower inductance,
thus it can run at very high speeds. Because of the absence of teeth in the lamination
stack, requirements for the cogging torque also go down, thus making them an ideal fit
for low speeds too (when permanent magnets on rotor and tooth on the stator align with
each other then, because of the interaction between the two, an undesirable cogging
torque develops and causes ripples in speed). The main disadvantage of a slotless core
is higher cost because it requires more winding to compensate for the larger air
gap.Proper selection of the laminated steel and windings for the construction of stator
are crucial to motor performance. An improper selection may lead to multiple problems
during production, resulting in market delays and increased design costs.

rotor- The rotor of a typical BLDC motor is made out of permanent magnets. Depending
upon the application requirements, the number of poles in the rotor may vary.
Increasing the number of poles does give better torque but at the cost of reducing the
maximum possible speed.

Another rotor parameter that impacts the maximum torque is the material used for the
construction of permanent magnet; the higher the flux density of the material, the higher
the torque.

Q-05 b) Explain how PWM technique is used to control the speed of D.C. motor.
Ans- By increasing or decreasing pulse width, the controller regulates energy flow to the
motor shaft. ... The circuit is used to control speed of DC motor by using PWM
technique. Series Variable Speed DC Motor Controller 12V uses a 555 timer IC as a
PWM pulse generator to regulate the motor speed DC12 Volt.

DC motor speed control is one of the most useful features of the motor. By controlling
the speed of the motor, you can vary the speed of the motor according to the
requirements and can get the required operation.

When the conductor (armature) is supplied with a current, it produces its own magnetic
flux. The magnetic flux either adds up to the magnetic flux due to the field windings at
one direction, or cancels the magnetic flux due to field windings. The accumulation of
magnetic flux at one direction compared to the other exerts a force on the conductor,
and therefore, it starts rotating.

According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the rotating action of the

conductor produces an EMF. This EMF, according to Lenz’ law, tends to oppose the
cause, i.e., the supplied voltage. Thus, a DC motor has a very special characteristic of
adjusting its torque in case of varying load due to the back EMF.

Q-06 a)What is the function of a control valve? Explain with neat sketch construction
and working of 4/2- way Spoal valve.

Ans- Process plants consist of hundreds, or even thousands, of control loops all
networked together to produce a product to be offered for sale. Each of these control
loops is designed to keep some important process variable such as pressure, flow,
level, temperature, etc. within a required operating range to ensure the quality of the
end product. Each of these loops receives and internally creates disturbances that
detrimentally affect the process variable, and interaction from other loops in the network
provides disturbances that influence the process variable.

To reduce the effect of these load disturbances, sensors and transmitters collect
information about the process variable and its relationship to some desired set point. A
controller then processes this information and decides what must be done to get the
process variable back to where it should be after a load disturbance occurs. When all
the measuring, comparing, and calculating are done, some type of final control element
must implement the strategy selected by the controller.

The most common final control element in the process control industries is the control
valve. The control valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gas, steam, water, or
chemical compounds, to compensate for the load disturbance and keep the regulated
process variable as close as possible to the desired set point.

Control valves may be the most important, but sometimes the most neglected, part of a
control loop. The reason is usually the instrument engineer's unfamiliarity with the many
facets, terminologies, and areas of engineering disciplines such as fluid mechanics,
metallurgy, noise control, and piping and vessel design that can be involved depending
on the severity of service conditions.

Any control loop usually consists of a sensor of the process condition, a transmitter and
a controller that compares the "process variable" received from the transmitter with the
"set point," i.e., the desired process condition. The controller, in turn, sends a corrective
signal to the "final control element," the last part of the loop and the "muscle" of the
process control system. While the sensors of the process variables are the eyes, the
controller the brain, then the final control element is the hands of the control loop. This
makes it the most important, alas sometimes the least understood, part of an automatic
control system. This comes about, in part, due to our strong attachment to electronic
systems and computers causing some neglect in the proper understanding and proper
use of the all important hardware.

What is a Control Valve?

Control valves automatically regulate pressure and/or flow rate, and are available for
any pressure. If different plant systems operate up to, and at pressure/temperature
combinations that require Class 300 valves, sometimes (where the design permits), all
control valves chosen will be Class 300 for interchange-ability. However, if none of the
systems exceeds the ratings for Class 150 valves, this is not necessary.

Control Valve Arrangement

The image below shows how a control valve can be used to control rate of flow in a line.
The "controller" receives the pressure signals, compares them with pressure drop for
the desired flow and if the actual flow is different, adjusts the control valve to increase or
decrease the flow.
Comparable arrangements can be devised to control any of numerous process
variables. Temperature, pressure, level and flow rate are the most common controlled
variables.

Q. 06 b) When a push button is pressed cylinder A extends; when it is fully extended,

cylinder B extends. Then cylinder A retracts; when it is fully retracted, the piston of the
cylinder B too retracts. Design the pneumatic circuit to give the sequence of cylinders
operation as follows: A , B , A ,B + + − −

Ans- This resource is designed to help the student gain the knowledge and skills
required

to achieve the competency MEM18018C – Maintain Pneumatic System Components.

This unit may be assessed on the job, off the job or through a combination of both. The

skills covered by this unit can be demonstrated by an individual working alone or as

part of a team. The unit consists of the two elements detailed in the table below. This

unit can be clustered with MEM15004B – Perform Inspection.How to use this learner’s
guide

This resource is your guide to developing the underpinning knowledge and practical

skills required to pass this unit of competency. It is divided into six sections. These

can be worked through separately (in no particular order) or in sequence. However,

Section 1 must be completed first, as it covers pneumatic safety and basic pneumatic

principles – on which you will be assessed in the practical activities. Each section has

an introduction to the topic area and directs you to undertake tasks, such as reading a

section of a reference text or watching a video, before you do the practical activity for

that section. Most sections also include review questions. These are designed to allow

you to check your understanding of the topic area before you start the practical activity.

Your lecturer will question you to assess your underpinning knowledge during the

practical assessments.

How you will be assessed

Due to the range of available pneumatic equipment and systems in industry, the

practical tasks you will need to undertake to meet the outcomes for this competency

will be determined by your assessor. See your assessor for the practical task

worksheets applicable to the equipment you are using. You must have a good

understanding of the topic area prior to attempting these tasks and you must adhere to

the appropriate manuals and precautions. Adherence to safety procedures, correctness

of maintenance procedures and underpinning knowledge will also be assessed during

these tasks. These assessments can be performed either on or off the job. Your

assessor must be a qualified workplace assessor.

Q. 07 a) Given the logical equation

Y (A BC) (B CA) = + +

i) Design a circuit using gates to realize this functions.

ii) Find out whether it is possible to design the circuit with only one type of gates

(NAND or NOR) If yes, design the circuits

Ans-
Q. 07 b) Using Boolean law simplify the following expressions:

i) X A B C A B C =   +   ,

ii) Y (A B)(A C)

Q. 08a) Convert the following:

i) 10 8 (320 72) (?)  =

ii) 16 8 (4B 2E) (?)  =

iii) 8 16 2 (275) (?) (?)

Q.08 b) Using k-map, minimize the following logic function;

f (A,B,C,D) m (0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14)

Q. 09 a) Explain the following with reference of PLC (a) Jump control, (b) Shift register

Ans- PLC A Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC, is a ruggedized computer used for
industrial automation. These controllers can automate a specific process, machine
function, or even an entire production line.

How does a PLC work?

The PLC receives information from connected sensors or input devices, processes the
data, and triggers outputs based on pre-programmed parameters.

Depending on the inputs and outputs, a PLC can monitor and record run-time data such
as machine productivity or operating temperature, automatically start and stop
processes, generate alarms if a machine malfunctions, and more. Programmable Logic
Controllers are a flexible and robust control solution, adaptable to almost any
application.

a) Jump control- A function often provided with PLCs is the conditional jump. We can
describe this as:

IF (some condition occurs) THEN perform some instructions ELSE perform some other
instructions

Such a facility enables programs to be designed such that if certain conditions are
met,certain events occur, and if they are not met, other events occur. Thus, for
example, we might need to design a system so that if the temperature is above 60 C a
fan is switched on, and if below that temperature no action occurs.Thus, if the
appropriate conditions are met, this function enables part of a ladder program to be
jumped over. Figure illustrates this concept in a general manner. When there is an input
to Input 1, its contacts close and there is an output to the jump relay. This then results in
the program jumping to the rung in which the jump end occurs and skipping the
intermediate program rungs. Thus, in this case, when there is an input to Input 1, the
program jumps to rung 4 and then proceeds with rungs 5, 6, and so on. When there is
no input to Input 1, the jump relay is not energized and the program then proceeds to
rungs 2, 3, and so on.

Figure shows the preceding ladder program in the form used by Mitsubishi. The jump
instruction is denoted by conditional jump (CJP) and the place to which the jump occurs
is denoted by end of jump (EJP). The condition that the jump will occur is that there is
an input to X400. When that happens, the rungs involving inputs X401 and X403 are
ignored and the program jumps to continue with the rungs following the end-jump
instruction with the same number as the start-jump instruction—in this case, EJP 700

Q. 09 b) Explain the criterion for selecting a PLC for the application

PLC selection criteria consists of:

* System (task) requirements.

* Application requirements.

* What input/output capacity is required?

* What type of inputs/outputs are required?

* What size of memory is required?

* What speed is required of the CPU?

* Electrical requirements.

* Speed of operation.

* Communication requirements.

* Software.

* Operator interface.

* Physical environments.
System requirements

* The starting point in determining any solution must be to understand what is to be

achieved.

* The program design starts with breaking down the task into a number of simple
understandable elements, each of which can be easily

described. Application requirements

* Input and output device requirements. After determining the operation of the system,
the next step is to determine what input and

output devices the system requires.

* List the function required and identify a specific type of device.

* The need for special operations in addition to discrete (On/Off) logic.

* List the advanced functions required beside simple discrete logic.

Electrical Requirements

The electrical requirements for inputs, outputs, and system power; When determining
the electrical requirements of a system, consider three items:

Incoming power (power for the control system); Input device voltage; and

Output voltage and current.

Q. 10 a) Describe application of PLC for extending and retracting pneumatic piston

using latches.

Ans- A programmable logic controller (PLC) is essentially a user friendly micro-

processor based microcomputer, consisting of hardware and software, designed to
control the operation of Industrial equipment and processes. An important advantage of
the PLC is that it can be easily programmed and reprogrammed. PLC has tremendous
impact on Industrial control and instrumentation due to its high reliability and flexibility at
the design and implementation stages. The decreasing cost of microprocessor with
increasing facilities in them is acting as catalyst in their widening scope of applications.
In recent years, PLC are being used in place of electromechanical relays or cam
operated logic controllers to control fluid power systems. Modern day PLCs are
developed into a sophisticated and highly versatile control systemcomponent capable of
performing complex mathematics functions and operate at fast microprocessor
speeds. Some leading PLC manufacturers are ABB, Allen Bradley, Honeywell,
Siemens, GE Fanuc, Mitsubishi, Modicon, Omron etc. PLC can be defined as digital
electronic device that uses a programmable memory to store instructions and to
implement functions such as logic, sequencing, counting, timing and arithmetic in order
to control machine, processes and instrumentation PLC is user –friendly digital
computer used for making logic decisions and providing output. It consists of solid state
digital elements and is a replacement for hard-wired electro-mechanical relays to control
pneumatic systems. The term „programmable logic controller‟ is defined as follows by
IEC 1131 ( PLC standard) part 1 ―A digitally operating electronic system, designed for
use in an industrial environment, which uses a programmable memory for the internal
storage of user- oriented instructions for implementing specific functions such as logic ,
sequencing , timing , counting and arithmetic, to control through digital or analog inputs
and outputs, various types of machines or processes. Both the PC and its associated
peripherals are designed so that they can easily integrated into an industrial control
system and easily used in all their intended function‖ PLC is quite similar to digital
computers. They also have certain features which are specific to logic controllers. They
are

1. PLC are rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature , humidity and
noise

2. The interfacing for input and output is part of the controller

3. They are easily programmable and primarily use logic and switching functions

Q. 10 b) Explain the application of PLC in control of conveyor motor

Ans- A programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a specialized computer used for the
control and operation of manufacturing process and machinery. It uses a programmable
memory to store instructions and execute functions including on/off control, timing,
counting, sequencing, arithmetic, and data handling. Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLC) is used in almost every aspect of industry to expand and enhance production.
Where older automated systems would use hundreds or thousands of
electromechanical relays, a single PLC can be programmed as an efficient replacement.
The functionality of the PLCs has evolved over the years to include capabilities beyond
typical relay control. Sophisticated motion control, process control, distributive control
systems, and complex networking have now been added to the PLC’s Functions.
Therefore, PLCs provide many advantages over conventional relay type of control,
including increased reliability, more flexibility, lower cost, communication capability,
faster response time and convenience to troubleshoot. The paper is based on
systematic conveyor controller programming by programmable logic controller using
omron software which is a world smallest plc, offers variety of expansion options and
has user-friendly software.

A programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a specialized computer used for the control
and operation of manufacturing process and machinery. It uses a programmable
memory to store instructions and execute functions including on/off control, timing,
counting, sequencing, arithmetic, and data handling. Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLC) is used in almost every aspect of industry to expand and enhance production.
Where older automated systems would use hundreds or thousands of
electromechanical relays, a single PLC can be programmed as an efficient replacement.
The functionality of the PLCs has evolved over the years to include capabilities beyond
typical relay control. Sophisticated motion control, process control, distributive control
systems, and complex networking have now been added to the PLC’s Functions.
Therefore, PLCs provide many advantages over conventional relay type of control,
including increased reliability, more flexibility, lower cost, communication capability,
faster response time and convenience to troubleshoot. The paper is based on
systematic conveyor controller programming by programmable logic controller using
omron software which is a world smallest plc, offers variety of expansion options and
has user-friendly software.

Block diagram of PLC system.

Q.11 a) What is CMOS? Explain the characteristics of CMOS.

Ans- Stands for "Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor." It is a technology used to produce
integrated circuits. CMOS circuits are found in several types of electronic components, including
microprocessors, batteries, and digital camera image sensors.

The "MOS" in CMOS refers to the transistors in a CMOS component, called MOSFETs (metal oxide
semiconductor field-effect transistors). The "metal" part of the name is a bit misleading, as modern
MOSFETs often use polysilicon instead of aluminum as the conductive material. Each MOSFET includes
two terminals ("source" and "drain") and a gate, which is insulated from the body of the transistor.
When enough voltage is applied between the gate and body, electrons can flow between the source and
drain terminals.

The "complimentary" part of CMOS refers to the two different types of semiconductors each transistor
contains — N-type and P-type. N-type semiconductors have a greater concentration of electrons than
holes, or places where an electron could exist. P-type semiconductors have a greater concentration of
holes than electrons. These two semiconductors work together and may form logic gates based on how
the circuit is designed.

CMOS Advantages

CMOS transistors are known for their efficient use of electrical power. They require no electrical current
except when they are changing from one state to another. Additionally, the complimentary
semiconductors work together to limit the output voltage. The result is a low-power design that gives
off minimal heat. For this reason, CMOS transistors have replaced other previous designs (such as CCDs
in camera sensors) and used in most modern processors.It is shown by DC analysis that NAND and NOR
CMOS logic circuits can be replaced by equivalent CMOS inverters. The threshold voltage depends on
the number and position of active inputs. It is further shown that the optimum geometry ratio of PMOS
and NMOS transistors depends also on the number of inputs.

characteristics of CMOS- CMOS transistors have replaced other previous designs (such as CCDs in
camera sensors) and used in most modern processors.It is shown by DC analysis that NAND and NOR
CMOS logic circuits can be replaced by equivalent CMOS inverters. The threshold voltage depends on
the number and position of active inputs. It is further shown that the optimum geometry ratio of PMOS
and NMOS transistors depends also on the number of inputs.

Q.11 b) Explain functionality of SCADA

Ans- It is impossible to keep control and supervision on all industrial activities manually. Some
automated tool is required which can control, supervise, collect data, analyses data and generate
reports. A unique solution is introduced to meet all this demand is SCADA system.It is one of the
solutions available for data acquisition, monitor and control systems covering large geographical areas.
It refers to the combination of data acquisition and telemetry.In this system, measurements are made
under field or process level in a plant by number of remote terminal units and then data are transferred
to the SCADA central host computer so that more complete process or manufacturing information can
be provided remotely.

This system displays the received data on number of operator screens and conveys back the necessary
control actions to the remote terminal units in process plant. In Modern SCADA-

SCADA performs automatic monitoring, protecting and controlling of various equipments in distribution
systems with the use of Intelligent Electronic Devices (or RTUs). It restores the power service during
fault condition and also maintains the desired operating conditions.

SCADA improves the reliability of supply by reducing duration of outages and also gives the cost-
effective operation of distribution system. Therefore, distribution SCADA supervises the entire electrical
distribution system. The major functions of SCADA can be categorized into following types.

Substation Control

Feeder Control

End User Load Control

Q.12 a) What are MEMS? Draw the basic block diagram of MEMS and explain it
Ans- Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems, or MEMS, is a technology that in its most general form can be
defined as miniaturized mechanical and electro-mechanical elements (i.e., devices and structures) that
are made using the techniques of microfabrication. The critical physical dimensions of MEMS devices
can vary from well below one micron on the lower end of the dimensional spectrum, all the way to
several millimeters. Likewise, the types of MEMS devices can vary from relatively simple structures
having no moving elements, to extremely complex electromechanical systems with multiple moving
elements under the control of integrated microelectronics. The one main criterion of MEMS is that there
are at least some elements having some sort of mechanical functionality whether or not these elements
can move. The term used to define MEMS varies in different parts of the world. In the United States
they are predominantly called MEMS, while in some other parts of the world they are called
“Microsystems Technology” or “micromachined devices”.

While the functional elements of MEMS are miniaturized structures, sensors, actuators, and
microelectronics, the most notable (and perhaps most interesting) elements are the microsensors and
microactuators. Microsensors and microactuators are appropriately categorized as “transducers”, which
are defined as devices that convert energy from one form to another. In the case of microsensors, the
device typically converts a measured mechanical signal into an electrical signal.

ver the past several decades MEMS researchers and developers have demonstrated an extremely large
number of microsensors for almost every possible sensing modality including temperature, pressure,
inertial forces, chemical species, magnetic fields, radiation, etc. Remarkably, many of these
micromachined sensors have demonstrated performances exceeding those of their macroscale
counterparts. That is, the micromachined version of, for example, a pressure transducer, usually
outperforms a pressure sensor made using the most precise macroscale level machining techniques. Not
only is the performance of MEMS devices exceptional, but their method of production leverages the
same batch fabrication techniques used in the integrated circuit industry – which can translate into low
per-device production costs, as well as many other benefits. Consequently, it is possible to not only
achieve stellar device performance, but to do so at a relatively low cost level. Not surprisingly, silicon
based discrete microsensors were quickly commercially exploited and the markets for these devices
continue to grow at a rapid rate.

More recently, the MEMS research and development community has demonstrated a number of
microactuators including: microvalves for control of gas and liquid flows; optical switches and mirrors to
redirect or modulate light beams; independently controlled micromirror arrays for displays,
microresonators for a number of different applications, micropumps to develop positive fluid pressures,
microflaps to modulate airstreams on airfoils, as well as many others. Surprisingly, even though these
microactuators are extremely small, they frequently can cause effects at the macroscale level; that is,
these tiny actuators can perform mechanical feats far larger than their size would imply. For example,
researchers have placed small microactuators on the leading edge of airfoils of an aircraft and have been
able to steer the aircraft using only these microminiaturized devices.

The real potential of MEMS starts to become fulfilled when these miniaturized sensors, actuators, and
structures can all be merged onto a common silicon substrate along with integrated circuits (i.e.,
microelectronics). While the electronics are fabricated using integrated circuit (IC) process sequences
(e.g., CMOS, Bipolar, or BICMOS processes), the micromechanical components are fabricated using
compatible "micromachining" processes that selectively etch away parts of the silicon wafer or add new
structural layers to form the mechanical and electromechanical devices. It is even more interesting if
MEMS can be merged not only with microelectronics, but with other technologies such as photonics,
nanotechnology, etc. This is sometimes called “heterogeneous integration.” Clearly, these technologies
are filled with numerous commercial market opportunities.

Q.12 b) Explain motor isolation schemes.

Ans- Electric motors are ubiquitous in industrial applications. They are used in fans, conveyor belts,
printing presses, paper mills, cranes, mixers, hoists, lifts, cooling and recirculating pumps, blowers,
compressors, factory robotics, and many other applications. More than 300 million industrial electric
motors are in use worldwide, with the number growing steadily every year.

What is Isolation?

A means of transporting data & power between circuits with different ground references (functional
isolation) or hazardous voltage levels (user safety) while preventing uncontrolled transient current from
flowing in between the two.

Fault detection, isolation, and recovery (FDIR) is a subfield of control engineering which concerns itself
with monitoring a system, identifying when a fault has occurred, and pinpointing the type of fault and its
location. Two approaches can be distinguished: A direct pattern recognition of sensor readings that
indicate a fault and an analysis of the discrepancy between the sensor readings and expected values,
derived from some model. In the latter case, it is typical that a fault is said to be detected if the
discrepancy or residual goes above a certain threshold. It is then the task of fault isolation to categorize
the type of fault and its location in the machinery. Fault detection and isolation (FDI) techniques can be
broadly classified into two categories. These include model-based FDI and signal processing based FDI.

A motor is rigidly mounted in the center of an acrylic plate of mass m and flexural rigidity cm. This motor
generally produces displacement excitation on its surface. Therefore, the motor produces oscillatory
excursions in the outward direction, and thus the mass of the motor is not significant for the excitement
of the plate. The middle of the mounting plate experiences displacement excitation of x(t). The
mounting plate possesses a natural frequency that is dependent on its mass and flexural rigidity. In
order to decouple or isolate the motor, it must be flexibly attached to the mounting plate. To
accomplish this, an additional elasticity c added is interposed between the displacement excitation and
the excited mass m, thus creating a single-degree-of-freedom system. This decoupling causes the motor
to act like a loudspeaker without a diaphragm; sound radiation is correspondingly low, and the low
frequencies are short-circuited. If the decoupling were not present, the case would be that of a
loudspeaker coil equipped with a diaphragm: The airborne noise level increases and the perceived
spectrum changes in the direction of lower frequencies.