V

Biomedical Sensors
Michael R. Neuman
Michigan Technological University

46 Physical Measurements
Michael R. Neuman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-1

47 Biopotential Electrodes
Michael R. Neuman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-1

48 Electrochemical Sensors
Chung-Chiun Liu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-1

49 Optical Sensors
Yitzhak Mendelson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-1

50 Bioanalytic Sensors
Richard P. Buck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-1

51 Biological Sensors for Diagnostics

Orhan Soykan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-1

S
ENSORS CONVERT SIGNALS OF ONE type of quantity such as hydrostatic fluid pressure into an
equivalent signal of another type of quantity, for example, an electrical signal. Biomedical sensors
take signals representing biomedical variables and convert them into what is usually an electrical
signal. As such, the biomedical sensor serves as the interface between a biologic and an electronic system
and must function in such a way as to not adversely affect either of these systems. In considering biomedical
sensors, it is necessary to consider both sides of the interface: the biologic and the electronic, since both
biologic and electronic factors play an important role in sensor performance.

V-1

Bronz: “2122_s005” — 2006/2/16 — 20:23 — page 1 — #1

V-2 Medical Devices and Systems

TABLE V.1 Classification of

Biomedical Sensors

Physical sensors
Geometric
Mechanical
Thermal
Hydraulic
Electric
Optical
Chemical sensors
Gas
Electrochemical
Photometric
Other physical and chemical methods
Bioanalytic

Many different types of sensors can be used in biomedical applications. Table V.1 gives a general
classification of these sensors. It is possible to categorize all sensors as being either physical or chemical.
In the case of physical sensors, quantities such as geometric, mechanical, thermal, and hydraulic variables
are measured. In biomedical applications these can include things such as muscle displacement, blood
pressure, core body temperature, blood flow, cerebrospinal fluid pressure, and bone growth. Two types of
physical sensors deserve special mention with regard to their biomedical application: sensors of electrical
phenomena in the body, usually known as electrodes, play a special role as a result of their diagnostic and
therapeutic applications. The most familiar of these are sensors used to obtain the electrocardiogram, an
electrical signal produced by the heart. The other type of physical sensor that finds many applications in
biology and medicine is the optical sensor. These sensors can use light to collect information, and, in the
case of fiber optic sensors, light is the signal transmission medium as well.
The second major classification of sensing devices is chemical sensors. In this case the sensors are
concerned with measuring chemical quantities such as identifying the presence of particular chemical
compounds, detecting the concentrations of various chemical species, and monitoring chemical activities
in the body for diagnostic and therapeutic applications. A wide variety of chemical sensors can be classified
in many ways. One such classification scheme is illustrated in Table V.1 and is based upon the methods
used to detect the chemical components being measured. Chemical composition can be measured in the
gas phase using several techniques, and these methods are especially useful in biomedical measurements
associated with the pulmonary system. Electrochemical sensors measure chemical concentrations or,
more precisely, activities based on chemical reactions that interact with electrical systems. Photometric
chemical sensors are optical devices that detect chemical concentrations based upon changes in light
transmission, reflection, or color. The familiar litmus test is an example of an optical change that can
be used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Other types of physical chemical sensors such
as the mass spectrometer use various physical methods to detect and quantify chemicals associated with
biologic systems.
Although they are essentially chemical sensors, bioanalytic sensors are often classified as a separate
major sensor category. These devices incorporate biologic recognition reactions such as enzyme–substrate,
antigen–antibody, or ligand-receptor to identify complex biochemical molecules. The use of biologic reac-
tions gives bioanalytic sensors high sensitivity and specificity in identifying and quantifying biochemical
substances.
One can also look at biomedical sensors from the standpoint of their applications. These can be generally
divided according to whether a sensor is used for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes in clinical medicine
and for data collection in biomedical research. Sensors for clinical studies such as those carried out in
the clinical chemistry laboratory must be standardized in such a way that errors that could result in an
incorrect diagnosis or inappropriate therapy are kept to an absolute minimum. Thus these sensors must

Bronz: “2122_s005” — 2006/2/16 — 20:23 — page 2 — #2

Biomedical Sensors V-3

TABLE V.2 Types of

Sensor-Subject Interfaces

Noncontecting (noninvasive)
Skin surface (contacting)
Indwelling (minimally invasive)
Implantable (invasive)

not only be reliable themselves, but appropriate methods must exist for testing the sensors that are a part
of the routine use of the sensors for making biomedical measurements.
One can also look at biomedical sensors from the standpoint of how they are applied to the patient or
research subject. Table V.2 shows the range of general approaches to attaching biomedical sensors. At the
top of the list we have the method that involves the least interaction with the biologic object being studied;
the bottom of the list includes sensors that interact to the greatest extent. Clearly if a measurement can
be made equally well by a sensor that does not contact the subject being measured or by one that must
be surgically implanted, the former is by far the most desirable. However, a sensor that is used to provide
information to help control a device already surgically placed in the body to replace or assist a failing
organ should be implanted, since this is the best way to communicate with the internal device.
You will notice in reading this section that the majority of biomedical sensors are essentially the same
as sensors used in other applications. The unique part about biomedical sensors is their application.
There are, however, special problems that are encountered by biomedical sensors that are unique to
them. These problems relate to the interface between the sensor and the biologic system being measured.
The presence of foreign materials, especially implanted materials, can affect the biologic environment in
which they are located. Many biologic systems are designed to deal with foreign materials by making a
major effort to eliminate them. The rejection reaction that is often discussed with regard to implanted
materials or transplanted tissues is an example of this. Thus, in considering biomedical sensors, one
must worry about this rejection phenomenon and how it will affect the performance of the sensor. If the
rejection phenomenon changes the local biology or chemistry around the sensor, this can result in the
sensor measuring phenomena associated with the reaction that it has produced as opposed to phenomena
characteristic of the biologic system being studied.
Biologic systems can also affect sensor performance. This is especially true for indwelling and implanted
sensors. Biologic tissue represents a hostile environment which can degrade sensor structure and perform-
ance. In addition to many corrosive ions, body fluids contain enzymes that break down complex molecules
as a part of the body’s effort to rid itself of foreign and toxic materials. These can attack the materials that
make up the sensor and its package, causing the sensor to lose calibration or fail.
Sensor packaging is an especially important problem. The package must not only protect the sensor
from the corrosive environment of the body, but it must allow that portion of the sensor that performs
the actual measurement to communicate with the biologic system. Furthermore, because it is frequently
desirable to have sensors be as small as possible, especially those that are implanted and indwelling, it
is important that the packaging function be carried out without significantly increasing the size of the
sensor structure. There are many measurements that can now be made on biological specimens ranging
from molecules through cells and larger structures. These measurements involve specialized sensors and
instrumentation systems that are necessary for these types of measurements and their ultimate application
in diagnostic medicine. This section concludes with a chapter devoted to describing some of the more
common of these measurements. Although there have been many improvements in sensor packaging, this
remains a major problem in biomedical sensor research. High-quality packaging materials that do not
elicit major foreign body responses from the biologic system are still being sought.
Another problem that is associated with implanted sensors is that once they are implanted, access to
them is very limited. This requires that these sensors be highly reliable so that there is no need to repair
or replace them. It is also important that these sensors be highly stable, since in most applications it is
not possible to calibrate the sensor in vivo. Thus, sensors must maintain their calibration once they are

Bronz: “2122_s005” — 2006/2/16 — 20:23 — page 3 — #3

V-4 Medical Devices and Systems

implanted, and for applications such as organ replacement, this can represent a potentially long time, the
remainder of the patient’s life.
In the following sections we will look at some of the sensors described above in more detail. We will
consider physical sensors with special sections on biopotential electrodes and optical sensors. We will
also look at chemical sensors, including bioanalytic sensing systems.1 Although it is not possible to cover
the field in extensive detail in a handbook such as this, it is hoped that these sections can serve as an
introduction to this important aspect of biomedical engineering and instrumentation.

1 There are many measurements that can now be made on biological specimens ranging from molecules through cells

and larger structures. These measurements involve specialized sensors and instrumentation systems that are necessary
for these types of measurements and their ultimate application in diagnostic medicine. This section concludes with a
chapter devoted to describing some of the more common of these measurements.

Bronz: “2122_s005” — 2006/2/16 — 20:23 — page 4 — #4