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Sagaing Fault: A desk study report on seismotectonic implications in Myanmar

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 Myanmar Earthquake Committee

The Sagaing Fault

A desk study report on seismotectonic implications in Myanmar

Soe Thura Tun

Research Associate/Secretary

November, 2005

i
 Ideas do not spring full-blown from a single brain. There has to be
wandering along bypaths, mid-night readings, and sustained effort.

L. Eiseley
Eiseley, L. (1975) All the Strange Hours:
The Excavation of a Life (Scribner’s Sons, New York), p. 186.

This book is the complement of the desk-study project assigned to U Soe Thura Tun
(former Asst. Lect. in Geology, YU) by Myanmar Earthquake Committee. All or part of
this publication can be copied or distributed inside the country for academic purpose,
with proper acknowledgement to the Committee.

Date of Final Print: 16 June 2006 113 pages, 22 color & 26 b&w figures

© Myanmar Earthquake Committee, Myanmar Engineering Society Building, Hlaing

Universities Campus, Yangon, MYANMAR

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 THE SAGAING FAULT

Summary

Part I Geology and Geotectonic Background

Chapter 1 Tectonics of Myanmar in General
1. Myanmar, part of the Indochina Peninsula, has been largely framed by convergence
tectonics between India and Eurasia mainland since the beginning of Tertiary time.
The major collision in the north India–Nepal–northern Myanmar region,
northeastward subduction and partial dextral transform in the Bay of Bengal and in
eastern Indian Ocean, Andaman Sea spreading and associated dextral transform
system in Myanmar, Andaman Sea and western Sumatra, and east and southeastward
extrusion and clockwise rotation along the sinistral transform systems in the mainland
China, and Indochina are major tectonic features of the region.
2. The onshore Myanmar lies in the frontier zone where two major tectonic plates
namely India Plate and Eurasia Plate congregate. The Sagaing fault has been
suggested as a plate boundary, having transform activity, between them and about it
the country is divided into two different tectonic terrains viz. Sunda Plate (or
Sibumasu Block) comprising the Eastern Highlands of Myanmar; and the Burma
(Myanmar) Plate (West Burma Block) which is composed of Myanmar west of the
Sagaing Fault. The Burma Plate is a sliver platelet bounded by convergence boundary
with India Plate in the west, by a transform boundary with Sunda Plate in the east.
The Andaman Spreading Center divides the Burma Plate from Sumatra Plate.
Neogene or Recent active tectonic activity seems to be subjective to rearrange the
physiography as well as geology of the country.
3. Present day physiographic provinces of Myanmar are thought to have been the
expressions of early Tertiary tectonics that are largely influenced by eastward Bengal
subduction and related magamatism. In accordance with this interpretation, Myanmar
can be subdivided into four main tectonic provinces namely Eastern Highland,
Central Myanmar Basin, Western Ranges, and Rakhine Coastal Strip. The tectonic
features of Myanmar are approximately in the north–south trend, following the
general orientation of the Himalayan-Indonesian orogeny, which is an eastern
segment of the Alpine-Himalayan Orogenic Belt.
4. Active deformation in Myanmar, especially of the Burma Plate, is prejudiced by non-
coaxial strain rather than coaxial strain (simple shear rather than pure shear, for finite
model) and it is believed to occur after change in direction of convergence between
India and Eurasia, from northeastward to northward or counterclockwise rotation.
Beyond this account, subduction of Indian oceanic crust beneath the Burma Plate
might have stopped or at least remarkably weakened during Neogene time and dextral
strike slip systems and related en echelon pull-apart basins overwhelmed the central

i
 Myanmar basin in place of volcanic arc, and active uplifting of Bago Yoma Ranges in
harmony to the northwest trending, predominantly east-verging thrust sheets.
Chapter 2 Review on Active Structures
5. Recently, geodectic positioning and other instrumentation that need watching through
for an hour to several years are applied to identify as well as record the active
deformation of structures. In this chapter, geological structures, mainly faults, in
Myanmar are tried to point out by reviewing seismicity data and available
instrumental information.
6. Major faults in the Myanmar territory, some of which also partly extend out beyond
the Myanmar border are listed here in west to east order. They are: - (1) Kaladan –
Mrauk-U Fault System, Kabaw Fault System, Pyay Fault, Yenangyat-Chauk Thrust,
Tangyidaung Thrust, Tuyin Taung – Gwegyo Thrust, the Sagaing Fault, Momeik
Fault System, Shan Scarp – Papun Fault System, and the Three Pagodas Fault.

Part II History of Study of the Sagaing Fault

Chapter 3 Myanmar Literature that described the fault in early stage
7. Part of the trace of a major fault that approximately coincided with the present
Sagaing Fault was shown in an illustration of Noetling (1900); however no
description on that line was recorded. La Touche (1913) accepted the existence of a
boundary fault system on the western edge of the Shan Plateau in the Mandalay area,
including the one separating the metamorphic rocks of the Sagaing Hills from the
Central Tertiary Basin. Later, in studying occurrence of earthquakes in Myanmar,
Chhibber (1934) inscribed a trend line joining the epicenters of the Swa, Pyu and
Pegu earthquakes and described as a general line of weakness.
8. During the later years of 1960s, Dey (1968) described the trace of the present Sagaing
Fault in the Yamethin-Pyawbwe Quadrangle by Aerial Photo-interpretation which he
recognized it as the original place of the boundary fault or Shan Scarp fault and
believed the present day Shan Scarp was just a fault line scarp. This first demarcation
of the Sagaing Fault line was named as Hninzee Fault by Dey and its strike slip nature
along the N10W trend was interpreted also. Consequently, Aung Khin et al. (1970)
geophysically determined the existence of a major fault in the line of the Sagaing
Fault. They made Bouger gravity survey between Taungoo and Thabeikkyin that was
performed also for the purpose of oil exploration.
9. The first description and nomenclature of the Sagaing Fault was made by Win Swe
who recognized the characteristic features of strike-slip faults that he mapped in the
Sagaing Hills and the ridges northward and published a report ‘Rift features at the
Sagaing Tagaung Ridge’ and read at the Fifth Burma Research Congress in 1970. He
differentiated it from the Shan Boundary or Shan Scarp Fault; and introduced the
name “Sagaing Fault” in accordance with accepted rule of nomenclature;
emphasizing on its actual position throughout Myanmar: strike-slip nature as opposed
to the normal fault, generally accepted for the Shan Boundary or the Shan Scarp fault
at that time; relationship with historical earthquakes along its course and structural

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 geology of the fault; and young and currently active nature of the fault along an old
fracture.
Chapter 4 Work on the Sagaing Fault After 1980
10. Work on the Sagaing Fault in Myanmar geological literature was unfortunately
fainted out in the 1980s. In the last years of 1980s, some students from Yangon
University organized a structure, tectonics and sedimentology study group (STS) and
the first and the only formal publication of the team was published in 1991 and two
articles concerning study on the Sagaing fault were included.
11. Myint Thein et al. (1991) conducted geological mapping along the Sagaing Fault
from south of Mandalay to Tagaung during 1980s and based on two displaced
metamorphic units probably continuous before the faulting they proposed a 203 km of
total displacement, and rate of motion along the fault at 20 mm yr-1 by accepting the
age of the fault as of late Oligocene, or early Miocene. Moreover, they considered
displaced ‘source’ and ‘sink’ of a young rudaceous (or conglomerative) deposit i.e.,
Mezalichaung Fanglomerate, as indirect evidence of the fault and 20 km of
displacement since Post-Pliocene.
12. Khin Maung Latt (1991) proposed a Megasausage Tectonic model explained in E-W
shortening and N-S stretching effects by surface forces facilitated by the subduction
of the Indian plate from southwest against the resisting Shan Plateau Mass. As the
evidence pointed out the occurrences of the megasausages on various stratigraphic
horizons (ranging from early Mesozoic to late Mesozoic), such as the en echelon
folding system of the Central Tertiary Basin (Hla Maung, 1983), the small scale en
echelon fault system along the eastern and western margins of granite intrusions
(Maung Thein et al., 1972), and tightly folded and sausaged rock units of the early to
late Mesozoic.
Chapter 5 Regional Tectonic Ideas
13. After 1970s, the first decade that the Sagaing Fault was studied and described by
local scientists, and when satellite images became available, the fault was noticed,
mentioned and interpreted by international workers in their publications concerning
regional tectonics. Distinguished and referred among them are Tapponier, Ledain and
others who characterized the tectonics of India-Asia convergence as extrusion-
prominent model, and A.H.G. Mitchell who conducted a lot of works on tectonics of
Myanmar and surrounding region. C.S. Hutchison, R. Hall and C.K. Morley are
workers who also performed research on tectonics of the region.
14. Tapponier and his co-workers produced a famous plasticene experiment, in which, a
block made of plasticene having similar rigidity to present day continents collided
with another rigid block and displacement along fractures were recorded, to
demonstrate ‘the escape tectonics’ or ‘the extrusion model’. Similarly, wrench faults
(here in referred to as strike slip faults having occasional thrusting or oblique-slip
faults) in the Eurasia Plate was suggested to allow blocks to rotate, and these rotations
were tested by paleomagnetism. Their idea to solve such problem is logical and the
plasticine model is impressive because the experiment has been coincided with
present day fracture system of the Eurasia. There have been comments that this idea

iii
 was relied on rigidity of plates and seems neglected the underlying ductile crust; that
meant the theory considered emphatically on brittle deformation.
15. Hutchinson proposed rotation and slippage model based on real trend lines in Malay
Peninsula, mostly representing the regional strike of regional folds exhibiting
counterclockwise rotation. The regional pattern swings south-eastwards. As this
bending can be achieved only by slippage on each vertical plane, he expected the
existence of many right-lateral wrench faults followed by rotations, trans-extension
and transpression.
16. Geologists with high experience in regional stratigraphy and distribution of rock units
over Myanmar and surrounding region could contribute episodes of geological
evolution and such kind of tectonic interpretation are here in referred as strata based
tectonics. They explained metamorphic belts, trench complex, back arc and fore arc
basins, calc-alcaline volcanic arc and marginal plutons as the consequences of
subduction of Indian oceanic plate beneath the Eurasian plate.

Part III Recent Studies

Chapter 6 Geodetic Positioning
17. In 1998, Christophe Vigny and coworkers from the ENS (Ecole Normale Supérieure)
started to perform the monitoring work of crstual deformation around Sagaing Fault,
as part of the Geodyssea (Geodynamics of South and Southeast Asia) project which
covers Southeast Asia and Yunnan. They established a large scale network of four
GPS stations, three transects near Mandalay including four stations in the north, four
in the south and ten stations in the center. After annual measurements in such stations,
they could proved the accommodation of the Sagaing Fault as much as 18 mm yr-1 of
the relative motion between India and the Sunda plate, and those of the other faults
between Mindat and Kwehtaingtaung (near Mandalay) as much as 24 cm yr-1.
18. Maurin et al. (2010)
Chapter 7 Structural geological studies of International workers
19. The most influential ones among works of the international scientists are those of the
GIAC cooperation project. For the tectonics of Sagaing fault, they dealt with the
problems of superimposed Cenozoic tectonic features (Mogok Metamorphic Belt,
Shan scarp and Sagaing fault), as well as their significance for strike-slip motion and
oblique convergence of India relative to Indochina. A multidisciplinary approach of
the GIAC includes: (1) Observation of structures in the field and on satellite images
to infer their geometry and spatial relationship, (2) Determination, by inversion of
fault population measurements, of the stress tensors responsible for the formation of
the brittle structures, (3) Radiochronological analyses to establish the chronology of
the ductile fabrics, and (4) Paths of plate motion to place their data in a wider
geodynamic context.
20. The study of the offset of Singu lava flows by Bertrand et al. (1998), a publication of
GIAC, indicated a velocity of 10–25 mm yr-1 on the Sagaing fault during the last 0.3
Ma. They suggested that the Sagaing Fault is accommodating less than two thirds of
the plate motion, the remaining part being absorbed into the CSB (Central

iv
 Sedimentary Basin), the Arakan (Rakhine) Yoma, and the Shan Plateau, as indicated
by the estimated 2.5 cm yr-1.
21. During the three-year project of field work, extensive field trips were made in various
parts of Myanmar excluding eastern Shan State and Kayin-Mon-Tanintharyi regions.
Some articles were internationally published, and some Abstracts were read at
research congresses. After the interpretation of final results, most of their preliminary
comments were confirmed and new ideas were added.
22. In April and May of 2000, a team which has been composed of GIAC members and
some oceanographers performed observations across the Andaman Sea. They
conducted a couple of seismic lines and other instrumentation work over Andaman
spreading center, Coco Island and Ninety East Ridge. It shows this basin has
generated oceanic crust only in the last 4 or 5 Ma. They published the results in
Chamot-Rooke et al., (2001) and Nielson et al., (2004).
23. Tsutsmi (2009)
24. Wang et al., (2008)
Chapter 8 Structural geological studies of local (academic) workers
25. Among the graduate works concerning tectonics of the Sagaing Fault, those of Lei
Lei Min (2003) and Thura Aung (2005) have focused specifically on the Sagaing
Fault.
26. Lei Lei Min (2003) conducted a study on the southern part of the onshore Sagaing
Fault i.e., Segment 5 of this study, occupying the southern part of Bago Division,
from Desunpa, northwest of Bago to Hpale-Thongwa area in the south. Through
interpretation of airphotos, Lei Lei Min produced aerial photo maps of Bago –
Shwedan-In – Desunpa area and Thongwa – Hpale area. Lithologic boundaries, off-
set topographic features, vegetation patterns and lineaments were accounted and a
drainage map was produced. Transpressional ridges and transtensional basins in local
scale were denoted in accordance with represented typical fracture systems.
27. The work of Thura Aung (2005) covers the middle part of the onshore Sagaing Fault,
occupying the eastern limb of the Bago Yoma, northern part of the Bago Division and
southern part of the Mandalay Division. In image and photo interpretation work, the
fault was studied in 3- divisions and 5 sub-divisions, depending on distribution of
fractures and lineament patterns that would possibly reflect structural regime in
accordance with progressive deformation. Field work was concentrated in the Kun
Chaung area, west of Pyu. Through microstructural analysis, bent mica grains,
curvilinear microfractures between mineral grains, and irregular or distorted twin-
bands of feldspar grains were observed as evidence of semi-brittle deformation
mechanism. He suggested that the Sagaing Fault zone between Pyu and Wundwin
exhibits sequential deformation of structural features: semibrittle deformation at the
middle crustal level and brittle deformation at the upper crustal level. He also
determined the possible stress position at the upper crustal level as NE-SW and that
of the lower crustal level as NNW-SSE.

v
Part IV Geology of the Sagaing Fault
Chapter 9 Salient Geomorphic Features
28. As the Sagaing Fault is a young tectonic element or the one that is being active
recently, an account of geomorphic features are notable along the fault line and are
prominent among the rocks having their particular exhibitions. Out of the criteria of
the existence of faults and those of the strike-slip ones, the following land forms like:
- linear and offset ridges, pressure ridges, sag ponds and transtensional basins,
straight river alignments, and dragged streams are distinguished and observable for
the people who are interested in structural geology and tectonics.
Chapter 10 Lineament Patterns
29. Judging the different style and magnitude to respond to the bulk of the stress in the
Neogene tectonics, structural features along the fault is classified in five segments
viz., (i) Putao–Indawgyi Segment (between Lat 24˚ and 30˚N), (ii) Tagaung -
Mandalay Segment (between Lat 21˚ and 24˚N), (iii) Meikhtila–Pyinmana Segment
(between Lat 20˚ and 21˚N), (iv) Taungoo – Bago Segment (between Lat 18˚ and
20˚N), and (v) Mottama Gulf Segment (between Lat 12˚ and 18˚N), based on fracture
patterns, historical seismicity, fault plane solution of seismic focal mechanism and
basement rock types.
30. In the Putao – Indawgyi Segment, the most distinguished pattern is branching.
Alignment of the fault bent or changed largely and the compressive regime is
prominent. Metamorphic rocks of medium to high grade are the typical basement
rocks and for that reason branching and change in orientation characterized the
segment. A lot of historic earthquakes are recorded. Taking into account of seismic
focal mechanism, both of strike slip and thrust are observed as sources of rupture. In
comparison with other segments, seismicity is rather high. Epicenters are fall mainly
in the northern part, while large earthquakes recorded in previous century occurred in
its southern half. Perhaps normal seismicity is the result of the fault which runs
parallel to the metamorphic foliations; and soft ultramafic rocks also give support to
release its stress.
31. The Tagaung – Sagaing Segment, where the River Ayeyarwaddy takes its path along
the main fracture, Sagaing Fault is notable as a boundary of medium- to high-grade
rocks of Mogok Metamorphic Complex in the east and folded sedimentary rocks in
the west. Though the segment is structurally rather simple than Segment 1, damage
caused by historical earthquakes is tremendous, as large (major) earthquakes (M>7)
occurred near the city of Sagaing and Innwa. Focal mechanism of earthquakes
exhibits pure strike slip motion in most places and occasionally oblique slip
mechanism as source of earthquakes. Southern half of this segment has long
recurrence interval of earthquakes, so the resultant strain to release may be rather big.
32. Shan Scarp Fault and its associates are the prominent structures in the Thazi –
Pyinmana Segment while the trace of the Sagaing Fault is remarkably indistinct. A
few evidences like sag ponds and low-lying pressure ridges near Thazi and Pyawbwe
towns are the only indicators of its existence. This segment shows very low seismicity
or scanty of recorded earthquakes, so some schools of thought (e.g., GIAC project)

vi
 suggest as seismicity gap on it. Generally saying, it would be possible that the main
fracture could have taken almost all the strain to run smoothly in the area of thick
alluvial sediments and (or) unconsolidated Neogene rocks. Another possibility is that
strain along the fault may have been absorbed by a subsurface locked structure for a
couple of years that records could be produced. Between these two ends, creeping
along the fault can occur as the third possibility. The fourth possibility is on nearly
parallel faults in the Shan Scarp to accommodate all the displacement between the
Burma Plate and Shan Plateau of the Sunda Plate in this area. The last option is
possible to occur simultaneously with each of the formers. If the second statement is
true, this segment has possibility to occur large earthquake in the near future.
33. In Taungoo – Bago segment, synthetic shear system of Papun Fault Zone plays a
major role in connection with the Sagaing Fault. Several large earthquakes were
recorded though there is no notable surface disturbance (e.g., pressure ridges) except
the NE aligned Papun and west verging thrust system in east and west respectively. In
accordance with moment tensor distribution, strike slip components in the Gwegyo-
Satthwa Thrust would be one the source of previous earthquakes. For the Bago area, a
branch of Fault (East Sagaing Fault) and main fracture of the Sagaing Fault would
accommodate the northward motion of the Burma Plate in different quantity; so
junction of them is considerable as one of the probable sources of large earthquakes.
34. Northward motion of the Burma Plate initiated in Mottama Gulf Segment and
extensional horsetail termination occurs about spreading in the Andaman Sea Basin.
N 64˚E trending spreading center propagate a series of roughly parallel normal faults
and produced dextral shear along the Sagaing Fault System. According to seismic
survey conducted by MOGE, two fractures of the Sagaing Fault in this area (East
Sagaing Fault and West Sagaing Fault) exhibit positive flower structures. According
to recorded moment tensor solutions during last three decades, there occurred two
different types of sources of earthquakes in this area. Generally, normal fault-induced
earthquakes were focused in the Gulf of Mottama, and strike slip fault-induced
earthquakes have been originated onshore, south of Bago and west of Yangon.
Magnitudes of earthquakes seem not too large however; higher intensity was felt
possibly because of the unconsolidated basement and high groundwater table that
strengthen the seismic waves.
Chapter 11 Structural Interpretations
35. As none of the structures have been formed unaccompanied, the term structural
association is applied for a structure and its neighbours which were possibly the
product of single tectonic stress regime. Sagaing fault is considered in relationship
with other (probably) contemporaneous structural features occurring in the region,
emphatically in Myanmar territory, in accordance with theoretical and recent
structural concepts.
36. A new model of progressive strain for the simple shear deformation (after Waldron,
2005) is illustrated with structures around the Sagaing Fault. Considering the
rotational component as a key factor, and the Sagaing Fault as one of an exhibition of
the dextrally shearing mobile zone, at least three stages of deformation might have
occurred progressively in Myanmar territory. They are: - (1) Initial convergence of

vii
 Indian Ocean and Eurasia, subduction and thrust sheets verging to both sides
(duplexes), including Shan Scarp and Proto-Sagaing Fault Zones, took place normal
to the 1, granitoids in the western margin of Shan Plateau emplaced as core to the
mountain belt; sinistral displacement in Ruili (Shweli), Kyaukme, Papun (Maeping)
Faults in Sunda Block occurred in antithetic riedel shear; opening of Andaman Sea
Basin; (2) Clockwise rotation of the Burma Plate and thrust faults in the eastern (Shan
Scarp, Papun) and western (Kabaw, Disang) margin of central Myanmar Basin started
to occur dextral displacement; blocks along the Momeik fault moved sinistrally; (3)
Progressive rotation; dextral activity along longitudinal faults in the western ranges,
Sagaing Fault, Shan Scarp, Papun and Three Pagodas faults; sinistral activity
continue in the Momeik, Kyuakme and Ruili (Shweli) fault system, thrusting in
central Myanmar Basin and progressive development of Bago Yoma Ranges.
Chapter 12 Age and Displacement of the Sagaing Fault
37. Since the early work of Win Swe (1970), the fault was recognized as an active one,
which had probably reactivated along the old fracture. He suggested the age of strike
slip activity as late Quaternary, by studying geology of the Sagaing Ridge. Curray et
al. (1979) postulated the age as 11 Ma which was also the time of postulated first
rifting in the Andaman Sea. Bertrand and Rangin (2003) estimated the possible age of
the fault as 5 Ma, based on their finding of the oldest oceanic crust in the Andaman
Sea spreading center. Curray (2005) determined the age of the fault as 32 Ma, after
extensive works in the Andaman Sea. Also, he reviewed suggestion of Tankard et al.
(1998) and proposed the age of the fault perhaps middle to late Eocene (44 Ma) after
some plate rotation had already occurred and the convergence direction became
increasingly more oblique.
38. Mitchell (1981) described the displacement in the name Hninzee-Sagaing Fault, in
studying ophiolite bodies along the western ranges and those of the Tagaung-
Myitkyina Belt as of offset equivalents, and attributed to excess of 300 km of offset.
Ba Than Haq (per. Comm., 1986, in Curray, 2005) observed offset of a Permo-
Triassic limestone of 444 km across the fault. Hla Maung (1987) also estimated the
displacement along the fault to be between 425 and 460 km his idealistic
reconstruction of Chindwin and Ayeyarwaddy rivers as previously of a single channel
and present day offsets. Myint Thein et al. (1991) stated that the Mayathein
metamorphics and Sagaing metamorphics north of Sagaing were continuous until late
Oligocene or early Miocene and were now offset 203 km. Guzman-Speiziale and Ni
(1993) calculated rates of opening of the Central Andaman Basin and offset along the
Sagaing Fault from earthquake seismic moments. Using earthquakes from 1964 to
1986, it exhibits rates of only 0.5 and 5mm yr-1, respectively. Using earthquakes back
to 1908, they obtained a rate of 57 mm yr-1, for the Sagaing Fault. Bertrand (1999a)
estimated the amount of motion of the Sagaing Fault at about 150 km and velocity at
10 to 25 mm yr-1, after completion of the GIAC project.
39. Vigny et al. (2003) concluded that the Sagaing Fault motion today is less than 20 mm
yr-1 of the total of 35 mm yr-1 of the India/Sundaland strike-slip motion. Based on
extensive works in the Andaman Sea, Curray (2005) explained the spreading history
and total offset of the Sagaing Fault to be only 332 km for the northward component,
rather than the vector sum of the sliver block of 389 km toward 327.

viii
Chapter 13 Mineralization and the Sagaing Fault
40. Tectonics of the Sagaing Fault has been thought to be related with occurrence of
precious metals, mainly gold, along and near the fault by some authors. At least,
seismic pumping and epithermal gold mineralization in Kyaukpahto Mine and
vicinity, near Kawlin Town of the northern Myanmar, is thought to be controlled by
NE extensional fractures in the transtension of Sagaing Fault Zone. Though there are
other gold deposits in the vicinity of the fault line, origins of them are still in
controversy.

Part V Role of Sagaing Fault in the Seismotectonics of Myanmar

Chapter 14 Seismicity along the Sagaing Fault
41. As a major active tectonic feature, as well as a tectonic plate boundary, the Sagaing
fault has a rather large record of seismicity. Several severe earthquakes occurred
along the Sagaing fault zone, especially in the Segment 1 (Putao-Indawgyi), Segment
2 (Tagaung-Sagaing), and Segment 4 (Taungoo-Bago).
42. During the period of last 30 years, 26 earthquakes (M>3) have been detected by
world’s seismograph and indicated their epicenters to fall along the Sagaing Fault.
Epicenters of the events also show that Structural Segments 1, 2, 4 and 5 are
seismically active, and Segment 3 seems rather inactive at least for a while. After the
Sumatra Earthquake (M=9.3, 26 December 2004), earth scientists of the international
universities have given comments on possible seismic risk for Myanmar territory.
43. Vigny et al. (2005) suggested the Sumatra earthquake increased stress on adjacent
segments, to have probably been added on the strike-slip system behind the
subduction: the Great Sumatran fault in Sumatra and the Sagaing fault in Myanmar.
However, Stein and Okal (2005) explained that strain accumulated from subduction
of India beneath Myanmar on the northern part of the rupture has also been released
as the entire aftershock zone slipped, and left no immediate danger of a large
earthquakes that should be at least 400 years apart. Recently Rangin et al. (2005)
thought the Sunda trench segment located between Coco Islands and Bangladesh has
been elastically loaded and could be the source for the next major earthquake in this
region. Kerry Sieh (California Institute of Technology) and Satoru Ohya (Oyo
Corporation) personally gave similar comments that Sittway area had serious seismic
risk for the near future.
Chapter 15 Controlling factors and possibilities
44. The Sagaing Fault (and related structures) has been known to play a major role for
large earthquakes in Myanmar. In the background of available data on structural
geology, tectonics, and seismic moment tensor solutions of the area along the fault (1)
nodes or pressure ridges that commonly originated in (a) linkage of en echelon or
overstepping structures, (b) heterogeneity of the basement and (c) changes in
kinematics; (2) synthetic faults, (3) antithetic faults, control of basement rock types,
and (4) variation in rate of displacement along the fault are interesting to interpret
controlling factors and earthquake possibilities.

ix
Part VI Proposed Future Plan
Chapter 16 Tectonic Studies
45. To designate future possibility of earthquakes about the Sagaing Fault, detail work on
structural geology of the whole fault, recording activity or displacement of each
segment along the fault, collecting seismological data, mineralogy and geochronology
of structure-related rocks are required principally. Moreover, similar information on
other active faults, which are associated structures giving rise to release principal
strain occurring in this region are important to collect for interpreting threats and
benefits of the active tectonics of Myanmar.
46. In reviewing the resent status of geological mapping along the Sagaing Fault, Win
Swe (1970) has already mapped 70 miles along the fault zone from Sagaing to
Gwebinmaw Village, Thabeikkyin Township in one inch to half mile scale (about
1:30000 scale). Myint Thein et al., (1981) mapped Sagaing to Zin about 100 miles
and Tagaung to Indaw covering 50 miles along the fault, in one inch to four miles
scale (approximately 1:250000 scale) and Win Swe, Sone Han and San Lwin (1991)
compiled the segment from Bago to Madaya (about 300 miles) in one inch to four
miles scale.
47. As only a few detail works has been performed on the Sagaing fault, geological
mapping of the whole fault system to configure its actual position, related structures
and basement it passes through are needed for further interpretation and application
for various purposes. Types of structural data to be collected and precise areas
representing structural segments of the fault are: lineament or fracture map,
distribution of principal stress occurred, basement rock types; and their representative
age, distribution of en echelon patterns, account of deeper structural regime, relative
displacement along the main fracture and associated active structures.
48. To perform such works, cooperation with international organizations concerning
tectonics and seismology will be necessary to accelerate in various aspects, including
technical data collection, technical training for local participants, funding, and other
available supports. The research should include encouragement on academic workers
and data collected by them is expected to be applicable for main project.
49. Direct methods applicable to record the relative displacement are: (1) Trenching, (2)
Straight poles, (3) Reciprocal angle measurement, (4) Comparison of images or
airphotographs taken in different time. Geodetic positioning is the accurate method to
measure the relative movement along the fault indirectly. Temporal variation of GPS
locality of established benchmarks across the fault is the valuable baseline
information useful for determining not only the displacement along the fault, but also
the absolute movement of both sides.
50. A master plan to study the tectonics and seismotectonics of the Myanmar territory is
proposed. Research projects on active faults in Myanmar other than the Sagaing Fault
should be performed in accordance with the fulfillments of qualified personnel,
technical know-how, and funding. Among the known and suspected active faults, (1)
Tuyin Taung – Gwegyo Thrust and southeastern extension, (2) Kyaukkyan Fault, (3)
Mahu Taung - Tangyi Taung – Chauk Thrust, (4) Kaladan – Mrauk-U Fault, (5)

x
 Papun Fault System are anticipated to perform structural geological research in order
of importance.
51. Other tectonics features such as active faults, active or sub-recent volcanism,
distribution and focal mechanism of earthquakes of all considerable depths and
activity of ductile crust denoted from geodectic positioning and other available
information have to be studied and watch throughout time to fulfill these tasks. In this
report, the author wish to propose to organize an Active Tectonic Research Center, to
be formed with concerning government departments, technical and scientific
organizations, and individual scientists to perform research in collaboration with
international scholars. The work could be initiated from a study group of such
components and expected to be extendable in accordance with available facilities and
international cooperation. Myanmar is a small country in view of political boundary
however, its situation on an active tectonic zone that is playing in an important role to
active deformation of the region; so our possible research studies are expected to
contribute tectonics and seismotectonics of the region.

xi
 Acknowledgments

Since I first got acquainted with the Sagaing Fault when I was a student about twenty
years ago, I became very much interested in the fault and the subject matter; hence I
conceived an idea of compiling the information on the Sagaing Fault. The long waited
opportunity was recently materialized when the Myanmar Earthquake Committee
requested me to do the job as I have already conceived. U Kyaw Htin, Dr Win Naing, Dr
Khin Maung Latt, Dr U Thein, U Ba Than Haq, U Min Swe, and U Win Naing are the
teachers who introduced and guided me in learning structural geology and tectonics.
Among the teachers who educated me the other branches of geology are my late
professor Dr. Win Htein who is unforgettable to inscribe here. I could learn an account of
scholastic ideas and intuitive thinking from him not only throughout my graduate studies
but also as colleagues in establishing a geology department in a new campus.
During the present task, Dr Win Swe critically read, corrected an account of grammatical
as well as ideological errors in this manuscript, after regular brainstorming between us.
Dr Sone Han, Kyaw Linn Oo, Hla Myo Htun, Thura Aung, Yin Yin Latt, and Daw Ni Ni
Lwin helped me in locating all necessary literature and illustrations. Anne Socquet and
C.K. Morley also made discussion on particular topics in this work and provided their
recent publications. Wanna Htoon helped me throughout the work, especially in drawing
figures and typing part of the manuscript. U Than Myint, Tint Lwin Swe and all my
colleagues in the Myanmar Earthquake Committee gave invaluable encouragement
through its completion.
This work is supported by research fund of the Myanmar Engineering Society (2005).

xii
 Contents

Summary i
Acknowledgement xii
Contents xiii

Part I Geology and Geotectonic Background 1

Chapter 1 Tectonics of Myanmar in general 2
1.1 Regional Tectonics 2
1.2 Myanmar in the Tectonic Framework 2
1.3 Tectonic Domains of Myanmar 4
1.4 Neogene Adjustments 5
Chapter 2 Review on active structures 6
2.1 General Statement 6
2.2 Major Faults in Myanmar 6

Par II History of Study of the Sagaing Fault 11

Chapter 3 Myanmar literature that firstly described the fault 12
3.1 General Statement 12
3.2 Early Studies 12
3.3 Demarcation of the fault line 12
3.4 First Description and Nomenclature of the Sagaing Fault 16
Chapter 4 Work on the Sagaing Fault after 1980 23
4.1. General Statement 23
4.2. Myint Thein and others (1991) 23
4.3. Khin Maung Latt (1991) 26
Chapter 5 Regional tectonic ideas 29
5.1 General Statement 29
5.2 Tapponier, Le Dain and others, Extrusion Model 29
5.3 Rotation and Slippage Model 31
5.4 Strata-based Tectonics 31

Part III Recent Studies 34

Chapter 6 Geodetic positioning 35
6.1. General Statement 35
6.2. Objectives of the GEODYSSEA Project 35
6.3. Task in Myanmar territory 35
6.4. Results: velocity configuration in Myanmar 36
Chapter 7 Structural geological studies of international workers 40
7.1. General Statement 40
7.2. GIAC Cooperation Project 40
Chapter 8 Structural geological studies of local (academic) workers 45
8.1. General Statement 45
8.2. Lei Lei Min (2003) Thongwa to Bago-Desunpa 45
8.3. Thura Aung (2005) Pyu to Thazi-Wundwin 48

xiii
Part IV Geology of the Sagaing Fault 54
Chapter 9 Salient geomorphic features 55
9.1. General Statement 55
9.2. Linear and offset ridges 55
9.3. Pressure Ridges 60
9.4. Transtensional Features 61
9.5. Other Geomorphic Features 61
Chapter 10 Lineament patterns 63
10.1. General Statement 63
10.2. Segment 1: Putao–Indawgyi Segment 63
10.3. Segment 2: Tagaung - Sagaing Segment 66
10.4. Segment 3: Thazi - Pyinmana Segment 67
10.5. Segment 4: Taungoo – Bago Segment 70
10.6. Segment 5: Mottama Gulf Segment 72
Chapter 11 Structural interpretations 74
11.1. General Statement 74
11.2. Fault geometry and patterns 74
Chapter 12 Age and displacement of the Sagaing Fault 80
12.1. General Statement 80
12.2. Age estimation 80
12.3. Amount and rate of displacement 80
Chapter 13 Mineralization and the Sagaing Fault 83
13.1. General Statement 83
13.2. Seismic Pumping and Epithermal Mineralization 83
13.3. Mesothermal mineralization east of the Sagaing Fault 83
13.4. Allochthonous Mineralization 86

Part V Role of Sagaing Fault in the Seismotectonics of Myanmar 87

Chapter 14 Seismicity along the Sagaing Fault 88
14.1. General Statement 88
14.2. Historical seismicity 88
14.3. Present day seismicity of Myanmar 88
Chapter 15 Controlling factors and possibilities 94
15.1. General Statement 94
15.2. Factors possibly controlling the seismicity along the fault 94

Part VI Proposed Forward Program 101

Chapter 16 Tectonic studies 102
16.1. General Statement 102
16.2. Geological Mapping 102
16.3. Structural Geology in detail 102
16.4. Recording displacement along the fault 104
16.5. More academic work on structural geology 106
16.6. Suggestions 107
References 108

xiv
 PART I

GEOLOGY AND GEOTECTONIC

BACKGROUND

1
 Chapter 1

Tectonics of Myanmar in General

1.1. Regional Tectonics

As a component of southern Asia, Indochina Peninsula has been largely framed by
convergence tectonics between India and Eurasia mainland since the beginning of
Tertiary time. From west to east, the northern part of India is strikingly formed of the
Himalayan mountain ranges, the world’s highest and a continuation of the Alps of
Europe, displaying the world’s largest overthrust sheets namely Himalayan Sole Thrust
(HST), Main Frontal Thrust (MFT), Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), and Main Central
Thrust (MCT) over collision plate boundary; Trench complex of Indochina-Andaman-
Sumatra Subduction Zone in the center; and N-S to NE-SW trending curvature of
Sagaing-Sumatra transform fault system, Red-River, Papun-Wan Chao-Mae Ping, and
Three Pagoda fault systems in the east and southeast are major tectonic apparatus of the
region.
The convergence of India with Eurasia is believed to be expressed as major collision in
the north India-Nepal-northern Myanmar region, northeastward subduction and partial
dextral transform in the Bay of Bengal and in eastern Indian Ocean, Andaman Sea
spreading and associated dextral transform system in Myanmar, Andaman Sea and
western Sumatra, and east and southeastward extrusion and clockwise rotation along the
sinistral transform systems in the mainland China, and Indochina (Fig. 1.1).
The old school of thought considered Eurasia as main segment of the Laurasia, except for
its peripheral trench suite, which was as that of the remnant of the Paleo-Tethys Sea. The
India Plate, with Africa and Australia, its respective western and southeastern
continuation, was also accepted as that of the Gondwanaland. In well-accepted tectonic
concept for this realm, southeastern part of Eurasia is known as Sunda Plate or
Sinbumasu Block (China, Burma, Malaysia and Sumatra) that comprises much of the
Indochina. A Sub-Plate namely Shillong Plate which has a northeasterly pointed chisel
shape, and Indian Oceanic Plate of the northeastern segment of the India-Australia Plate
collides with the western boundary of the Burma Plate, which is a sliver plate between
India and Sunda Plate. In this aspect, most of the major tectonic features in Myanmar and
surrounding are believed to have formed progressively since the beginning of the
Cenozoic Era.

1.2. Myanmar in the Tectonic Framework

Tectonically, Myanmar lies in the frontier zone where two major plates namely India
Plate which is composed of the Indian continent and Indian Ocean, and Eurasia Plate
comprising Europe, part of Asia including Eastern Highlands of Myanmar, and South
China Sea, congregate. The Sagaing fault has been suggested as plate boundary, having
transform activity, between them and about it the country is divided into two different
tectonic terrains viz. Sunda Plate (or Sibumasu Block, by some authors) comprising the
Eastern Highlands of Myanmar; and the Burma (Myanmar) Plate (Curray et al., 1979)

2
 Fig. 1.1 Tertiary tectonic and structural features of Southeast Asia (compiled by
Morley, 2002)

(West Burma Block, by some authors) which composed of Myanmar west of the Sagaing
Fault. The Burma Plate is a sliver platelet bounded by convergence boundary with India
Plate in the west, by a transform boundary with Sunda Plate in the east. A spreading
center, namely the Andaman Spreading Center divides the Burma Plate from Sumatra
Plate, tectonically similar platelet, recognized by some authors as South Burma Plate. As
almost all the morphotectonic features in Myanmar follow the tectonic trend that
originated by the plate convergence between India and Asia, Neogene or Recent active
tectonic activity seems to be subjective to rearrange the physiography as well as geology
of the country.

3
1.3. Tectonic Domains of Myanmar
Though the recent or Neogene activity modified the older tectonic elements in Myanmar,
present day physiographic provinces that can be observed are thought to have been the
expressions of early Tertiary tectonics that are largely influenced by eastward Bengal
subduction and related magmatism. Several authors approved this arc-trench magmatism
and island arc model to explain north-oriented distribution of the high-pressure low-
temperature metamorphic belt along Indoburman Ranges, the calc-alkaline Wuntho-Popa
volcanic arc, distribution of granitoid bodies and the low-pressure high-temperature
metamorphic belt along the western margin of Shan Plateau and uplifted Shan massif
(e.g. Maung Thein, 1983; Khin Zaw, 1991; Mitchell, 1993; etc.). This model, considered
as late Mesozoic to early Cenozoic event, could also explain the formation of Tertiary
sedimentary basins such as shallow marine clastic foreland of Rakhine coast, deltaic and
shallow marine forearc and backarc sediments of the central Myanmar basin. In
accordance with their interpretation, Myanmar can be subdivided into four main tectonic
provinces namely Eastern Highland, Central Myanmar Basin, Western Ranges, and
Rakhine Coastal Strip.
Maung Thein (1973, 1983) described a concise work on tectonic features of Myanmar
that are approximately in the north–south trend, following the general orientation of the
Himalayan-Indonesian orogeny, which is an eastern segment of the Alpine-Himalayan
Orogenic Belt. His descriptions are herein recited with slight modifications.
The Eastern Highlands include the eastern frontier ranges of Kachin State, the Shan
Plateau in the middle, and the Tanintharyi Ranges and the Myeik shelf in the south. The
Eastern Highland includes rocks of Precambrian (4500 to 570 Ma), Paleozoic (570 to 225
Ma), and Mesozoic (225 to 65 Ma) ages, all of which are correlative to those of Thailand
and western Malaysia, indicating that they lay on a single continental block during this
time.
The Eastern Highlands and Central Myanmar Basin are divided by Shan Scarp Fault,
which is expressed as a topographic scarp. About 10 to 15 km in the west, the Sagaing
Fault exists in significant right-handed separation (the western side relatively displaced to
the north and the eastern side to the south). Both of these faults are trending NNW-SSE
but not parallel to each other. Prominently among these two faults, a series of granitoid
plutons, interpreted as subduction-related magmatic arc, and Mogok Metamorphic Belt
(MMB) (Searl and Haq, 1964), an extension of Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis (Bertrand et
al., 1999; Searl et al., 2005) composed of Cenozoic metamorphic rocks are observed.
West of the Shan Scarp Fault is the Central Myanmar Basin, which is composed of two
sub-basins, the eastern trough and the western trough, divided by central volcanic line, a
north south trending chain of volcanoes from Wuntho-Monywa in the north, Mt. Popa in
the middle and some volcanic areas around Ayeyarwaddy Delta in the south.
Sedimentary rocks in the Central Myanmar Basin were deposited in the Cenozoic (65 Ma
to Recent) time. Considering central volcanic line as a subduction-related volcanic arc,
north-trending sub-basins are recognized as back arc and fore arc basins respectively.
Western Ranges is in the west of the Central Myanmar Basin where the highest peaks
exhibit more than 3000 m (9000 feet) in altitude. These consist of a narrow strip of
Mesozoic to early Cenozoic sedimentary and metamorphic rocks with occasional exotic

4
limestone blocks and some sporadic ultramafic igneous bodies and bedded chert; all of
the units of the Western Ranges are comprehensively deformed, weakly metamorphosed
and highly folded.
The Rakhine Coastal Strip is in the west of the Western Ranges. In this area, shallow
marine sediments of younger Tertiary are underlain by deep sea trench complex of
Cenozoic age.

1.4. Neogene Adjustments

Though the model of subduction-related volcanic and (or) magmatic arc could explain
much of the geological features, including mineral resources distribution, compositional
polarity of igneous rocks, and existence of paired metamorphic belts in the country, there
occur some of the facts that could question the previous idea.
1. non-existence of active volcanism along the inland Central Volcanic Line in
Myanmar;
2. influence of simple-shear deformation in central Myanmar sedimentary basin that
exhibited by northwest trending sub-basins, basin center thrust sheets and dextral
activity along the Sagaing Fault;
3. presence of petroleum resources in the fore-arc basin that is dissimilar to the
regions of similar tectonic models where the petroleum has been largely extracted
from the back-arc basins;
4. occurrence of dextral shear-sense indicators along the Pa-pun and Three Pagodas
faults that overprinted the sinistral sense of shear;
5. evidence of sinistral shear along the Momeik Fault that have an effect on older
dextral shear and(or) extensional sense; and,
6. demonstration of dextral strike slip activity in recent seismic moment tensor
solutions along the large back-arc thrusts like Kabaw Fault in the western ranges.
Though there may be much more observations to perform, aforementioned particulars
suggest that active deformation in Myanmar, especially in the Burma Plate, is prejudiced
by non-coaxial strain rather than coaxial strain (simple shear rather than pure shear, for
finite model) and it is believed to occur after change in direction of convergence between
India and Eurasia, from northeastward to northward or counterclockwise rotation.
Beyond this account, subduction of Indian oceanic crust beneath the Burma Plate might
have stopped or at least remarkably weakened during Neogene time and dextral strike
slip systems and related en echelon pull-apart basins overwhelmed the central Myanmar
basin in place of volcanic arc, and active uplifting of Bago Yoma Ranges in harmony to
the northwest trending, predominantly east-verging thrust sheets.

5
 Chapter 2

Review on Active Structures

2.1. General Statement

Fundamentally, without applying direct measurements to structures for judging whether
they are active or not, is a difficult chance. Recognizing deformed rocks in the fields,
contact relationship of stratigraphically and (or) genetically different rocks, analyses of
lineaments through airphotos and images, we could map structures throughout the
country however, knowing which are inactive or which are still active recently has been
possible to determine by study of seismicity and logical thinking until a few decades ago.
Recently, geodectic positioning and other instrumentation that need watching throughout
for an hour to several years are applied to identify as well as record the active
deformation of structures. In this chapter, geological structures, mainly faults, in
Myanmar are tried to point out by reviewing seismicity data and available instrumental
information.

2.2. Major Faults in Myanmar

As already illustrated in the previous chapter, major faults in the Myanmar territory,
some of which also partly extend out to other political regions are listed here in west to
east order.
1. Kaladan – Mrauk-U Fault System
It is a north-trending fault, oriented in accordance with the subduction-induced
trench complex. It is possibly an old forearc thrust plane and recent seismicity
exhibits both sinistral strike-slip and west-verging thrust focal mechanism.
2. Kabaw Fault System
It is also a north-trending older thrust fault which is the largest one among similar
tectonic features in the western (Indoburman) ranges. In the southern part of the
Rakhine Yoma Ranges, the fault is also described as Seindaung Fault. Hla Maung
(1987) introduced the fault as a dextrally reactivated old thrust fault and some
later observers considered it as comprising strike slip component to accommodate
an account of the rate of northward motion of the Burma (Myanmar) Plate. In the
opinion of the present author, Kabaw Fault is not only a single strike-slip fault,
but also a composite system of discontinuous faults having oblique slip along
which. Seismic moment tensor solutions occurred indicates dextral slip
component (Curray et al., 1984; Hla Maung, 1987). Naga-Diseng Thrust is one of
its closed associates.
3. Pyay Fault System
It is a northwest trending, west-verging thrust system bounded the Pyay Range
(Pyitaungdan) oil-hosted structure. For the presence of east-dipping fault plane,
the fault would probably be an association of faults with similar orientation in the

6
 Rakhine Yoma (IndoMyanmar) Ranges. It is also an older fore-arc thrust system
reactivated during Neogene deformation.
4. Tangyidaung-Yenangyat-Chauk Thrust
One of the east-verging thrust faults which accommodate a considerable amount
of oil and gas in central Myanmar is observed in northwest trend. Pivnik et al.
(1998) described such kind of faults as Central Basin Thrust Sheets. It is also an
oblique slip fault probably reactivated dextrally on a west incline older thrust
plane.
5. Tuyin Taung-Gwegyo Thrust
It is a large thrust that occupies part of the eastern limb of Salin sub-basin
synclinorium. Viewing the geological maps, its northern segment, namely
Tangyidaung thrust, and southern segment known as Gwegyo thrust, are
considered as different faults however; the present author wishes to suggest them
as a continuous one that probably offset and buried in part. It is distinguished to
be an active structure having transpressional movement along and well known
Pagan (Bagan) earthquake of 1976 occurred after. Southerly, it is possible to have
been buried under the extension of the western limb of the Bago Yoma
anticlinorium, and the Taungdwingyi earthquake (2003) was interpreted to occur
about it (Soe Thura Tun et al., 2003). Not only Yenangyat and Gwegyo thrusts,
but also other faults having similar activity in the Central Myanmar Basin exhibit
Neogene inversion tectonics (Pivnik et al, 1998; Rangin et al, 1999).
6. Sagaing Fault System
It is evidently an active structure. Extending Andaman Sea Spreading in the south
to collision-related Himalayan thrust metamorphic ridges in the north; dextral
strike slip activity occurring recently produced noteworthy earthquakes in the
Myanmar territory. Though the major strike-slip fault is preeminently noted in
satellite images, it seems the youngest and well-pronounced lineament among the
group of buried N-trending faults.
7. Momeik Fault System
An ENE trending strike slip fault passing the Momeik city of the northern
Myanmar exhibits sinistral sense of shear that overprinted on an older dextral
sense of displacement that can also be seen on satellite images. Extending
eastward, its orientation changed to northeast. The fault is also known in Yunnan
as Namting fault, which included in the Namting – Ruili (Shweli) – Wanding
sininstral fault system (Socquet and Pubellier, 2003).

7
 Myitkyina

MANDALAY

YANGON

Fig. 2.1 Structural trace map of Myanmar

8
8. Papun Fault System
Northwestern termination, predominantly compressive positive flower fault zone,
of regionally known Wanchao or Mae Ping Fault overwhelms the tectonics of the
Shan Plateau. The most distinguished lineament is the Papun Fault, NW trending
sinistral strike slip fault passing the eastern part of Bago Division and Kayin
State. Adjoining its synthetic shear with the dextral Sagaing Fault, the strain after
Papun Fault would make the block in between to rotate in a counterclockwise
direction. Morley (2002, 2005) described the evidence of sinistral motion along
the fault until Early Miocene and approved present day dextral displacement.
During its older sinistral shear, the fault might have been branched and bent
northward and a group of oblique slip faults released the strain after. Well known
Shan Scarp Fault, Ingyi-Ingaung Fault, Pindaya-Kawngpo Fault, Kyaukkyan
Fault, and Ponchaung Fault are possibly the splays of Papun Fault System
exhibiting positive flower model. In the Recent dextral activity, those faults seem
to be reactivated and extensional (e.g. dextral normal for Shan Scarp Fault) stress
regime occurred. Some of these faults are seismically active (see Table 16.1, Fig.
16.2).
9. Three Pagodas Fault
It is also a NW trending dextral strike slip fault, roughly parallel to the Papun
Fault. The fault passes the Three Pagodas Pass of the southern Mon State and
extended southeastward into Thai territory. Though there is no prominent record
of historical earthquakes along, it could be suggested to be an active one because
of its harmonized nature and position in the recent tectonic activity.

9
Fig. 2.2 Structural Trace Map of the Shan Plateau and tectonically related region
significantly affected by the Papun and Three Pagodas fault systems.
Numerous branching, splaying and duplex geometries, affect a large area
(unlike the more discrete Sagaing and Red River faults), possibly
indicating a transpressional setting during the Palaeogene. (Adopted from
Morley, 2004)

10
 PART II

HISTORY OF STUDY OF THE SAGAING

FAULT

11
 Chapter 3

Myanmar Literature that described the fault in early stage

3.1. General Statement

The Sagaing Fault is a young tectonic feature in Myanmar and likewise its nomenclature
as we know it to day appeared only in 1970. Though some geological observers found the
trace of the fault at the Sagaing Hills since the turn of the last century (e.g. Noetling,
1900; La Touche, 1913; Chhibber, 1934), its extent, true nature and location several
miles to the west of the Shan Scarp fault, at the foot of the Eastern Highland were
convincely revealed only in the last three decades of the 20th century. Also, the fault
could fit in the regional tectonics as an active plate boundary became known only in the
last two decades, like the theory of Plate Tectonics has been developed recently in the
study of earth.

3.2. Early Studies

Part of the trace of a major fault that approximately coincided with the present Sagaing
Fault was shown in an illustration of Noetling (1900); however no description on that line
was recorded. La Touche (1913) accepted the existence of a boundary fault system on the
western edge of the Shan Plateau in the Mandalay area, including the one separating the
metamorphic rocks of the Sagaing Hills from the Central Tertiary Basin. Later, in
studying occurrence of earthquakes in Myanmar, Chhibber (1934) inscribed a trend line
joining the epicenters of the Swa, Pyu and Pegu earthquakes and described as a general
line of weakness. Though he could establish the existence of the boundary fault (later
known as Shan Scarp Fault), the present line of weakness as of a western boundary fault
or a result of the growth of an associated fault was not made certain.

3.3. Demarcation of the fault line

During the later years of 1960s, Dey (1967) photogeologically and Aung Khin et al.
(1970) geophysically determined the existence of a major fault in the line of the Sagaing
Fault, which they could recognized it as the original place of the boundary fault or Shan
Scarp fault and believed the present day Shan Scarp was just a fault line scarp.

3.3.1. Photogeological observation

3.3.1.1. First Description of the Part of Fault Trace by Dey (1968)
B.P. Dey (1968) described the trace of the present Sagaing Fault in the Yamethin-
Pyawbwe Quadrangle by Aerial Photo-interpretation. He applied the theoretical
consideration of Lattmann (1958) that discussed the significance and control of lineament
patterns on airphotographs. He gave the priority of its recognition to U Sein Myint who
noticed such lineament since 1965 but had never been published it.
Based on airphoto mosaic of the topographic maps 93 D-4, Dey interpreted a sixteen
miles long major lineament that strikes in a N10˚W direction. He described the
lineament, exhibited by scarps and rectilinear depressions marked by a series of marine
sedimentary rocks of possible Peguan (Oligo-Miocene) age. He could produce not only a

12
lineament map of the Yamethin-Pyawbwe Quadrangle (Fig. 3.1) but also that of Pegu to
Meiktila, along the fault trace (Fig. 3.2). Dey (1968) named it as ‘Hninzee Fault’ to be
distinguished from the previous names like ‘the Boundary Fault’ or ‘the Shan Scarp
Fault’. He mentioned several geomorphic features along the fault zone and interpreted the
strike slip nature of the fault which would have occurred as a renewed activity of the old
fault zone.
3.3.1.2. Remark
Though there are some drawbacks like mentioning the fault as an original fault trace of
the Shan Scarp Fault, and presentation of the fault in sinistral (left-lateral) sense in his
illustrations (though he described the occurrence of dextral offset of streams, in the text);
the work of Dey (1968) is undeniably the first scientific work that could pin-point the
Sagaing Fault line. For the weakness of the name for the fault he proposed, that had no
strong reason enough to represent this major structure, the name “Hninzee Fault” was
discarded by later workers.

3.3.2. Geophysical observations

In 1967, Peoples’ Oil Industry (present day MOGE) conducted a regional gravity survey
along the vicinity of Taungoo – Mandalay highway up to Thabeikkyin to investigate the
existence and nature of the so-called Boundary Fault or the Shan Scarp Fault, and the
team published an article in 1970. A clear manifestation of the fault was produced by this
survey. Estimates on the throw of the fault were attempted by profile analyses and it is
considered that the fault is a high angle fault. They accepted the fault as of Shan Scarp
Fault and called the Boundary fault because of its demarcation between the Tertiary and
older rocks.

3.3.2.1. Observatory task

- Bouger Gravity survey carried out from Taungoo (1850N) to Thabeikkyin
(2225N) along highway; EW transverse lines 15 miles apart and extend between
long 9530E and 9630E
- Gravity line spacing 1 miles apart, total 1280 stations;
- Working period: 214 days; covered 5864 sq. miles.
- Magnetic Survey was also done contemporaneously.

3.3.2.2. Contributions
Aung Khin et al. (1970) described the nature of the Sagaing Fault (in their words, Shan
Scarp Fault or Boundary Fault) by integrating all available geological and geophysical
data into the gravity data. Some of the outlines they denoted to approve the presence of
the fault are as follow.
(1) The presence of a general line of weakness (Chhibber, 1934) manifested by the
earthquake activities of Ava (Innwa), Amarapura, Mandalay, Sagaing, Swa, Pyu
and Pegu (Bago).

13
Fig. 3.1 Map showing the major lineament from Bago, north to Meiktila and
associated major fractures (Dey, 1968)

14
Fig. 3.2 Map of Yamethin-Pyawbwe area, showing the major lineament and associated
fracture trends (Dey, 1968)

15
 (2) Occasional manifestation of igneous (volcanic) activity north of Mandalay and in
Thaton region.
(3) The abrupt termination of the structures of the Shan Massif and the Tennesserim
(Tanintharyi) area trending in a NNW - SSE direction against the line coinciding
with the so-called Boundary Fault.
(4) Some geological survey teams of People's Oil Industry have recorded the
existence of a number of north-south trending faults between Sagaing and latitude
23°N which are considered to be part of the Boundary Fault.
(5) The straight course of Irrawaddy River north of Sagaing and of Sittaung Valley in
the south are attributed to the presence of the Boundary Fault.
(6) Indication of the existence of a major north - south trending fault as observed
from the lineation pattern in the aerial photos. Incidentally, this fault trace
coincides quite well with that indicated by the present gravity survey.
(7) The results of east - west seismic survey lines conducted by People's Oil Industry
in the vicinity of Wetlet indicate a north - south trending vertical fault near
longitude 95° 55' E where the present gravity survey has indicated the Boundary
Fault.
(8) Pre - war regional gravity survey data which extends as far south as the Gulf of
Martaban (Mottama) indicates into two trends in the vicinity of Nyaunglebin, of
which, one continues towards Kyaikto and Thaton and the other towards east of
Pegu (Bago). Seismic survey conducted near Thanatpin also revealed the north -
south trending faults which are also considered to be part of the Boundary Fault
that extends towards east of Pegu (Bago).
(9) The presence of a linear zone of hot springs along the east side of the Gulf of
Martaban (Mottama) and Sittaung Valley which are common to juvenile tectonic
zone indicative of recent activity.
This survey also agreed the concept that Ayeyarwaddy River once flowed straight to the
south along the contemporary Sittaung River Valley. The sudden sharp turn towards the
west, at south of Mandalay, was considered to be influenced by the uplift at about the
latitude of Kyaukse due to which it probably takes the present course along a large
transverse faulting south of Sagaing.

3.4. First Description and Nomenclature of the Sagaing Fault

3.4.1. Work of Win Swe (1970, 1972, 1980)
Consequent to the works of Dey (1968) and Aung Khin et al. (1970), Win Swe
recognized the characteristic features of strike-slip faults that he mapped in the Sagaing
Hills and the ridges northward and published a report ‘Rift features at the Sagaing
Tagaung Ridge’ and read at the Fifth Burma Research Congress in 1970. It was the first
geological description and systematic nomenclature of the Sagaing Fault. Later, this
paper was revised and title changed for publication in Contribution to Burmese Geology
(1980). He also published some of these data entitled “Strike-slip faulting in Central Belt
of Burma” in abstract form in 1972 in Malaysia.

16
Fig. 3.3a Gravity survey along the Sagaing Fault in Taungoo-Thabeikkyin area
(reduced and simplified here)

17
Fig. 3.3b Gravity survey along the Sagaing Fault in Pegu (Bago) area by MOGE
(reduced and simplified here)

18
3.4.2. Contributions
Unlike the previous authors, Win Swe (1970) considered the Sagaing Fault to be a
separate younger fault, but may be related to the Shan Scarp Fault or Shan (Burma)
Boundary Fault which lies about 15 km to east at the foot of the Eastern Highlands.
After taking into account the evidence of a strike slip fault in the vicinity of Sagaing, a
central Myanmar city, he made a rather complete geological description and proposed its
facts and figures to be best fit with its true nature. We could make an account of his
contributions here.
1. Describing its difference from Shan Boundary or Shan Scarp
As mentioned in previous records, authors (e.g. Chhibber, 1934) describing geology
of the central Myanmar Tertiary basin and its relationship with Paleozoic-Mesozoic
rocks of Shan Plateau thought a boundary fault as a contact. While the fault line in
the position of Sagaing fault was noticed, they also noted that it might be of the
previously considered Boundary of Shan Scarp Fault. However, Win Swe (1970)
recognized the line of the Sagaing Fault to be a separate one, quite different in age,
nature and/or sense of displacement.
2. Naming and first drawing on its actual position
Though there have been approximate sketches on this fault line since Noetling
(1900) (from Mandalay northwards), Chhibber (1934) around Pegu (Bago) to
Mandalay, Dey (1968) around Yamethin, and Aung Khin et al. (1970) from
Taungoo to Thabeikkyin, full extent of the fault on shore (from the Gulf of
Mottama northward to the Hukawng Valley area) that could not later be modified or
corrected as to its nature and location was proposed by Win Swe (1970). Moreover,
the existing names such as the “Boundary fault” and the “Shan Scarp Fault” were
rejected as misnomers for the fault which is actually located several miles west of
the Shan Scarp. Also, Hnizee Fault (Dey, 1968) which is in no way connected with
the fault was rejected, and “Sagaing Fault” after the Sagaing Hills where the fault
zone is superbly displayed (Fig. 3.4) and where it is easily accessible was
established, and that name has been accepted and used in tectonic related studies of
international workers since then.
3. Describing its true geological nature i.e. strike slip fault
Finding the wide fault zone, steep shear planes, lack of consistent vertical
component of displacement and presence of big sag pond like Yega-In, north of
Sagaing and other characteristics of strike-slip faults along the Sagaing Fault were
described for the first time.
4. Mentioning its relationship with historical earthquakes occurred along
Win Swe (1970) noticed the record of several severe earthquakes that have occurred
along the fault zone along the western flank of Sagaing-Gangaw Range and along
the eastern flank of the Pegu (Bago) Yoma indicating the fault to be currently
active. Chhibber mentioned such condition on his classic work “Geology of Burma”
in 1934 however; he could demarcate that line only as ‘a general line of weakness’.

19
 5. Pointing out young and active nature of the fault on an old fracture
The fault zone was noticed as an older structural feature as indicated by the
upheaval of crystalline metamorphic rocks along. It was also pointed out that the
fault probably was reactivated only during late Quaternary time with dominantly
strike-slip movements as indicated by undissected scarp lines and scarcely
weathered fault gouge along the fault zone.
6. First Structural Geology of the fault
Mapping geologically, a 36 mile segment of the fault between Sagaing and
Yalamaw villages in Shwebo district and a 12 mile segment near Thabeikkin were
done. To trace the whole lineament of the fault, aerial photographs and one-inch
topographic maps were used and lineament noted by Dey (1968) was also referred.
Structurally, nature and rocks along the fault zone, displaced strata, topographic and
geological evidence of recent faulting, drags, stream offsets, and exotic blocks were
categorized and described in his work, which has been the first structural geology of
the Sagaing fault (Fig 3.5).
3.4.3. Remark
Work of Win Swe (1970) was a noteworthy one in geology and geotectonic consideration
on Myanmar as well as those of the region, except for its weakness in some aspects like
inferiority in measurement of displacement, for the lack of Satellite image facility and
difficulty for field work at that time.
Myint Thein et al. (1991) described this classic work of Win Swe as:
“Although its existence between the Sagaing and Minwun ridges was noted by
Noetling as early as 1900, its true nature and scale was known only after 1970 when
Win Swe, based partly on the works of Dey, and Aung Khin et al, and mainly on his
field and airphoto studies published a report entitled ‘Rift features at the Sagaing
Tagaung Ridge’. He not only delineated precisely the entire trace of the fault, but also
demonstrated the fault to be an active, right-lateral, strike-slip fault. Later works by
Mitchell (1981), Curray et al. (1979), Le Dain et al. (1984), and Hla Maung (1987)
are in support of Win Swe’s finding, however.”

20
Fig. 3.4 An early illustration of the Sagaing Fault by Win Swe (1970) (only southern
half of the map is shown here)

21
Fig. 3.5 Sketch Map showing location of the Sagaing Fault (Notice Shan Scarp and its
associated faults) (Win Swe, 1970)

22
 Chapter 4

Work on the Sagaing Fault After 1980

4.1. General Statement

After the first and monumental descriptions of Sagaing Fault during the period of 1970 to
1980, work on it in Myanmar geological literature was unfortunately fainted out possibly
because of lack of ground to publish works, and also of the interest of the government
policy. In that period, almost all the prime tasks of geology specialization were
considered for the mineral resources development and structures like fault, fold and
fracture were studied only to be described so that the kinematic and dynamic structural
geology had been neglected. Unlikely, there occurred a lot of publications and citations in
international foreground of regional geology and tectonics (e.g., Hutchison, 1989). In the
last years of 1980s, some students from Yangon University organized a structure,
tectonics and sedimentology study group (STS) and such specializations were promoted
in seminars, internal publications and discussion groups. The first and the only formal
publication of the team was published in 1991 and two articles concerning study on the
Sagaing fault were included.

4.2. Myint Thein and others (1991)

4.2.1. Total Displacement Estimation
Based on the displacement of previously continuous metamorphic units viz., Mayathein
metamorphics, 26 km north of Tagaung, and Sagaing metamorphics of the Sagaing ridge,
a total displacement since late Oligocene or early Miocene was calculated by Myint
Thein et al. (1991) at 203 km. They conducted an extensive geological mapping work
along the Sagaing Fault from south of Mandalay to Tagaung during 1980s and their
article was based on the some of the outcome from it. According to their map(s)
(reproduced here in Fig. 4.1), two metamorphic units they pointed out were highly
suggestive of having been continuous before the faulting. When these two metamorphic
units were brought together and juxtaposed along the Sagaing fault, the petrographic
units as well as the structural trends show a considerable degree of correlation, suggesting
that they had been once contiguous. From this direct method, they proposed a 203 km of
total displacement, and rate of motion along the fault at 20 mm yr -1 by accepting the age
of the fault as of late Oligocene, or early Miocene.
Moreover, Myint Thein and others could also present displaced ‘source’ and ‘sink’ of a
young rudaceous deposit i.e., Mezalichaung Fanglomerate, as indirect evidence of the
fault and 20 km of displacement since Post-Pliocene.
Furthermore, dextral bending of the Myitnge River near Ava (Innwa) for a distance of 3.7
km was pointed out as result of Recent and Sub-Recent movements along the fault.
Aside their studies on the lateral displacement, Myint Thein and others also discussed the
earlier estimations made by Mitchell (1978; 1981), Curray (1979), and Hla Maung
(1989).

23
4.2.2. Remarks
The work of Myint Thein et al. (1991) is evidently a reasonable common procedure
among the authors who proposed the displacement of a fault by surface geological
mapping. Though the rate of displacement they estimated seems reasonably close to the
amount obtained by GPS measurement of later workers, some problems still exist as
follows.
(1) Juxtaposition of metamorphic units is highly problematic as they are too much
susceptible to be changed both laterally as well as vertically. Not like sedimentary
units, noting a horizon as a ‘marker bed’ is much unreliable in such kind of rocks
even though we could find a certain zone of a mineral. Also, we need not to
neglect that the metamorphism has occurred in the ductile crust, more than 10 km
beneath the surface. To see such rocks as surface exposures, a considerable
amount of time and processes had to be consumed in the geological time, and also
such processes might have occurred at different rate in different places. In this
concept, we could not know their vertical position (depth) relative to the fault in
late Oligocene, or early Miocene. So structural continuity among them is
controversial to determine to be a single unit. Also, we could not say with
confidence on these metamorphic units and their associated rocks (Sagaing-
Minwun metamorphics and Katha metamorphics) are of Mogok Series or of a
single metamorphic category.
(2) As the calculation was largely laid on accepting the age of the fault as late
Oligocene or early Miocene, which is also controversial as mentioned in Curray
(2005) (see chapter 12), the rate of motion could not be accounted with full
confidence for such a long term displacement.

24
Fig. 4. 1 Map showing the location of metamorphic rocks along the Sagaing fault. The
matched position of Mayathein metamorphics and Sagaing metamorphics is
shown on the left. Extracted from Myint Thein et al. (1991); explanation of
units are omitted here.

25
4.3. Khin Maung Latt (1991)
A Megasausage Tectonic model was proposed for local structural features observed
between Sagaing fault and Shan Scarp fault by Khin Maung Latt (1991). He studied well
bedded siliceous limestone units in the fine clastic rock sequences of early to late
Mesozoic age which occur as laterally extensive discontinuous lentils and as small
hillocks along the region.
He defined the word "sausage" as a structure, commonly observed in strongly deformed
sedimentary or metasedimentary rocks in which the original continuous competent layer
or bed sandwiched in between less competent layers has been aftermath stretched,
thinned out and later broken at regular intervals into separate bodies resembling sausages
or simply known as boudins. The term "Megasausage" for this tectonic model was
directly adopted from the word afore mentioned.
The mechanism of sausaging (as he defined) was explained by E-W shortening and N-S
stretching effects by surface forces facilitated by the subduction of the Indian plate from
southwest against the resisting Shan Plateau Mass. This tectonism could have
commenced at the time of post Mesozoic, because those limestone units were set in the
units of Lebyin Group (Carboniferous?), the Loi-an Group (mid-Jurassic), the Panlaung
Formation (Jurassic-Cretaceous), the Pyinnyaung alternations (mid-Jurassic), and by the
Indian plate during its late Oligocene collision with the Burma Plate possibly caused the
dextral transform movement.
As the evidence of his model, Khin Maung Latt (1991) pointed out the occurrences of the
megasausages on various stratigraphic horizons (ranging from early Mesozoic to late
Mesozoic), such as the en echelon folding system of the Central Tertiary Basin (Hla
Maung, 1983), the small scale en echelon fault system along the eastern and western
margins of granite intrusions (Maung Thein et al., 1972), and tightly folded and sausaged
rock units of the early to late Mesozoic.
In addition to proposing his model, he explained tectonics of the Sagaing-Shan Scarp
region as the following paragraphs:
(a) Not a single straight fault
The Sagaing fault seems improbable to be regarded as a single straight dextral-slip fault.
It was traversed by several offsetting strike-slip faults. The associated dextral-slip
structures, such as pressure ridges (lying nearly E-W direction) and sag ponds (¼ to 1 sq.
miles in size) were formed in close relation with the predominantly strike-slip motions
along these en echelon fault systems.
(b) Another shear faults
Previously it was considered that the northward movement of the Burma (Myanmar)
Plate along the present Sagaing fault was the result of the spreading of the Andaman Sea
and northward dragging of the Indian plate during mid-Miocene (Mitchell et al., 1976;
Currey et al., 1979; Hla Maung, 1987, 1989), or late-Oligocene (Acharyya, 1986, 1989).
Khin Maung Lat (1991) questioned these arguments, why the earlier surface forces
created by the oblique subduction of the oceanic crust of the Indian plate adjacent to the
stable Asian plate, did not effect to form shear faults like the present Sagaing fault.

26
Fig. 4.2 A diagrammatic model for the region between the Sagaing Fault and the Shan
Scarp Fault; Sausage tectonites could be found in the highly deformed zone.
Not to scale. (Khin Mng Latt, 1991)

(c) Possible Reactivation of Shan Scarp

The Shan-Scarp fault was previously thought as an older normal fault. If it was so, the
older plane of the Shan-Scarp fault can reactivate relatively to the shear movement. In
this way, the westward splaying of the fault can form the transpressional zones in
association with their related structures like pressure ridges and local thrusting. Likewise
the local transtensional zones and their related structures such as sag ponds and small-
scale pull-apart basins are likely to form in this en echelon fault system. He approved
evidences of those structures were documented in Myint Thein et al., (1987) and a
hypothetical model for dextral-slip fault system and its related structures were drawn
(Fig. 4.2).
(d) The Course of Ayeyarwaddy River
Khin Maung Latt (1991) explained the presence of limestone lentils (sausage structures,
as he described) traceable along the western flank of the Minwun Range or along the
western side of the Sagaing fault, near Sagaing, and the change of course of the
Ayeyawaddy River, running from north to south along the Sagaing fault, abruptly to the
west near Sagaing, in a hypothetical model constructed as shown in Fig. 4.2. A
transtensional zone with two potensive offsetting strike-slip faults could permit
extensional structures as series of normal faults and folds and if while the extensional
fault became widened, weakened the zone, and deviated the channel, heading towards the
newly formed normal fault.

27
(e) Rotational shear
The region between Sagaing fault and older Shan-Scarp fault was suggested to have
experienced both compressional and tensional stresses with rotational shear or simple
shear. The westward splaying wrenching system of the present Sagaing fault (referred to
as a boundary transform fault) was considered to be formed in this region in conjunction
with the continuous events of granitic intrusions along this zone. He applied this concept
in explanation for the absence of granite intrusions in the northern extremity. His idea on
this absence is unclear as a series of granitoid plutons are known in the northeastern
Kachin State and the Yunnan border.

28
 Chapter 5

Regional Tectonic Ideas

5.1. General Statement

After 1970s, the first decade that studied and described Sagaing Fault by local scientists,
the fault was mentioned and interpreted by international workers in their publications
concerning regional tectonics. Distinguished and referred among them are Tapponier,
Ledain and others who characterized the tectonics of India-Asia convergence as
extrusion-prominent model, and A.H.G. Mitchell who conducted a lot of works on
tectonics of Myanmar and surrounding region. C.S. Hutchison, R. Hall and C.K. Morley
are workers who also performed research on tectonics of the region.

5.2. Tapponier, Le Dain and others, Extrusion Model

Tapponier and his co-workers performed the tectonics of the collision between India and
Eurasia since the early development of Plate Tectonic Theory. Generally, their works are
known as Extrusion Model i.e., a novel way of understanding faults – because of the
collision of India, Southeast Asia escaped from the point of maximum indentation (The
Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis). The major faults are wrench and the mechanism came to be
known as “extrusion” or “escape” tectonics.
They produced a famous plasticene experiment, in which, block made of plasticene
having similar rigidity to present day continents was collided with a rigid block and
displacement along fractures were recorded, to demonstrate the escape tectonics (Fig.
5.1). Similarly, wrench faults (here in referred to as strike slip faults having occasional
thrusting or oblique-slip faults) in the Eurasia Plate was suggested to allow blocks to
rotate, and these rotations were tested by paleomagnetism. Actually the wrench faults
changed their displacement in time, as the blocks rotated. e.g., the Red River Fault
(sinistral to dextral).

Fig. 5.1 Plasticene Model of Peltzer and Tapponier (1988) in which block in the
east were extruded and rotated and exhibiting escape tectonics

29
Fig 5.2 A simplified escape tectonic model on geology of east and Southeast Asia
by Tapponier’s doctrine; important abbreviations are SFZ (Sagaing Fault
Zone, Sumatra Fault Zone), RRFZ (Red River Fault Zone), MPFZ
(Maeping Fault Zone or Papun Fault Zone in Myanmar), TPFZ (Three
Pagodas Fault Zone) (compare with figure 5.1)

30
According to their description on escape tectonics, the idea was attained based on
estimation of uplifted earth mass in Tibet Plateau after collision between India and
Eurasia. Calculating bulk volume of possible lithosphere reduced after erosion since the
time of convergence, there required another way to equilibrate as the calculated volume is
far more than actual condition. Their idea to solve such problem is logical and the
plasticine model is impressive because the experiment has been surprisingly coincided
with present day fracture system of the Eurasia.
However, some schools of thought suggested that their idea on plate tectonics was relied
on rigidity of plates and seems neglected the underlying ductile crust; that meant the
theory considered emphatically on brittle deformation.

5.3. Rotation and Slippage Model

Another model, based on shear tectonics, was proposed by Hutchinson. In his studies of
paleomagnetic data in the Malay peninsular (Hutchinson, 1996) suggested disagreements
with the model of Tapponier and others. He studied real trend lines, mostly representing
the regional strike of regional folds or strike of beds in a northeast-faced curvature. The
regional pattern swings south-eastwards. As this bending can be achieved only by
slippage on each vertical plane, he expected the existence of many right-lateral wrench
faults followed by rotations, trans-extension and transpression.

5.4. Strata-based Tectonics

Before the Plate Tectonic Theory has been approved, geologists with high experience in
regional stratigraphy and distribution of rock units over the region could contribute
episodes of geological evolution. For the tectonic evolution of Myanmar and surrounding
region, several authors published their ideas and well-known works among them are
Searl and Ba Than Haq (1964), Win Swe (1972, 1981), Maung Thein (1973, 1983),
Mitchell (1977, 1981, 1993, 1998), Bannert and Helmcke (1981), Hla Maung (1983,
1987), and Khin Zaw (1990). For the limitation of the present work, all the work of such
authors could not be criticized here however; generalized idea will be reviewed to
recognize part of the history of tectonic concepts on this region.
Searl and Ba Than Haq (1964) discussed the occurrence of metamorphic rocks and
igneous bodies along the western margin of the Shan Plateau and placed all of them in
‘the Mogok Metamorphic Belt’, having possible extension to southwest of Yunnan,
eastern Himalayan Syntaxis. They proposed its western linkage as the thrust bounded
metamorphic belts of the southern periphery of Tibet Plateau. They contributed the age of
deformation of this belt as Eocene to late Miocene. Recently, Searl et al. (2005)
correlated these rocks with those of the deep levels of south Tibet and further west to the
Karakoram and the Hindu Kush terranes around the northwestern frontier of the Indian
plate.
Win Swe, Maung Thein, Mitchell, Bannert and Halmcke, and Khin Zaw explained the
tectonic features observed on our land with trench complex, back arc and fore arc basins,
calc-alcaline volcanic arc and marginal plutons as the consequences of subduction of
Indian oceanic plate beneath the Eurasian plate. Though there are dissimilarities among
the models they proposed, ‘the subduction model’, generally agreed by them, has been

31
well known to local as well as international scientists. In fig. 5.4, the subduction model of
Mitchell, generally agreed by above authors is shown as an example.

Fig. 5.3 Rotation and slippage model of C.S. Hutchison

32
Fig. 5.4 Tectonic model of subduction tectonics (Mitchell and McKerrow, 1975)
exhibits probable Paleogene activity

33
 PART III

RECENT STUDIES

34
 Chapter 6

Geodetic Positioning

6.1 General Statement

In 1998, Christophe Vigny and coworkers from the ENS (Ecole Normale Supérieure)
started to perform the monitoring work of crstual deformation around Sagaing Fault, as
part of the GEODYSSEA (Geodynamics of South and Southeast Asia) project which
covers Southeast Asia and Yunnan. In accordance with their description, the project has
been performed in northern and southeastern surrounding regions since 1993 under
funding by cooperating universities and institutions from 14 European and Asiatic
countries. Since 1997, funding was made by the GFZ (Potsdam) and BKG (Bundesamt
für Kartografie und Geodäsie, Frankfurt) and then entered into Myanmar in the
sponsorship of the GIAC project supported by Total Myanmar Exploration Private
Limited and CNRS/INSU contribution.

6.2 Objectives of the GEODYSSEA Project

GEODYSSEA is an interdisciplinary and multi-national initiative to investigate the
current kinematics, earthquake deformation and geodynamics of the plate triple junction
area in Southeast Asia. In addition to studies including seismic tomography, earthquake
geology, and seismic hazard assessment, the major focus of the program is to investigate
ongoing block-motion as well as the complex accommodation of deformation in the area
using modern space-geodetic techniques.

6.3. Task in Myanmar Territory

In the preconception on Sagaing fault which accommodates all or part of the differential
motion between India and Eurasia (more precisely the Sunda platelet) in this area, to
study the fault and analyze the local deformations and seismic hazards, a local GPS
network was installed in the area. This local network is tied to the main GEODYSSEA
network, in order to be able to analyze local displacements in the frame of large scale
plate tectonics. This is particularly important around faults where a reference velocity is
needed for the interpretation of the local deformations.
The local network is made of three transects across the Sagaing fault at the latitude of
Mandalay. One long transect (10 points, 150 km) sample the deformation in between the
2 north points of the GEODYSSEA network. Two shorter transects (4 points, 60 km
each) sample the deformation 30 km north and south of the main transect. The
displacements between points from one given transect will allow to localize the position
and constrain the locking depth of the active fault. The displacements between points
along the fault will allow detecting active segments of the fault and measure co-seismic
motions, in case of an earthquake in this area of the fault.
The markers, provided by IFAG (now BKG, Frankfurt, Germany), are 12 cm thread
marks made of brass and copper. They are fixed in the rock using a special stone-metal

35
adhesive. The top of the marker is designed in the form of a screw thread protected by a
removable cap. During the occupation of a site, the cap is removed and the GPS antenna
is screwed on top of the marker, by means of a threaded adapter, which enables the
antenna to be attached directly to the monument. In this way, antenna can be relocated
with an accuracy of about 0.1 to 0.2 mm, so that eccentricity errors are not a concern.
Whenever possible, the markers were sealed in hard bedrock outcrops. Unfortunately, in
some areas around Mandalay (mostly on the western part of the fault), bed rock is almost
non-existent. In such situations where bedrock could not be found, concrete benchmarks
were built (dug into the ground), and the marker was sealed on top of the benchmark.
The site locations were chosen so that the final transects are as close as possible to
straight lines running perpendicular to the fault. The interval between points is smaller
when close to the fault since the maximum relative displacement gradients are expected
there. On the main transect, the end points are around 70 km apart from the fault which is
expected to be far enough to represent long term tectonic motions, unaffected by visco-
elastic effects.
Complete site descriptions were written for all sites, based on information collected in the
field. Those descriptions include the site position, precise directions to the site, detailed
access information, and a brief geological description of the environment. At all places,
the local responsible person was contacted, informed and given the responsibility for long
term protection and conservation of the monument.

6.4. Result: velocity configuration in Myanmar

A summary of results of the GEODYSSEA work in Myanmar is published in Socquet et
al. (2006).
In their description, the relative motion between Indian and Sunda plates is
accommodated along discrete structures located within a 500 km wide band. Fig. 6.1
shows the constrains allowing the construction of velocity vector diagrams, such as the
EW transect of GPS stations (YWEN, KWEH, MIND) and the mapping of the main
active structures in Myanmar enlightened by focal mechanisms. In Central Myanmar
(~21N), east of the Sagaing Fault, YWEN station moves at 6 mm yr-1 with respect to the
Sunda Plate. This motion can be explained by intracontinental deformation evidenced in
the northern part of the Indochina peninsula. Further west, the relative motion between
KWEH and YWEN infers that the Sagaing fault accommodates 18 mm yr-1 of right-
lateral strike slip, in agreement with both the previous geodetic solution (Vigny et al.,
2003) and the long term velocity (Bertrand et al., 1998). In western Myanmar, the station
at Mindat (MIND), located in the Arakan (Rakhine) Range, displays a velocity of 24 mm
yr-1 oriented north with respect to the Sundaland. In the Indian reference frame, this
station moves 14 mm yr-1 toward the south-west (Fig. 6.2). It is noticeable that MIND,
KWEH and India are aligned in the velocity vector diagram constructed at this latitude.
In south-western Myanmar, the point at LAUN is located south of the Rakhine Yoma
Ranges, close to the trace of the Andaman trench. In this area the trench displays a dog-
leg shape with both strike-slip segments oriented N 30, and thrust segments oriented N
120 (Nielsen et al., 2004). LAUN displays a velocity of 8 mm yr-1 with an azimuth of
N203 in the Indian reference frame (Fig. 6.2).

36
However, if the measured velocity across the Sagaing fault is extended in its Central part
to its southern part (18 mm yr-1 oriented N-S), and if the HPAA station belongs to the
Sunda Plate (no residual velocity with respect to Sunda), 20 mm yr -1 oriented
approximately N30 remain to be accommodated west of the Sagaing fault.

Fig. 6.1 Accommodation of the relative India/ Sunda motion in Myanmar. The map
shows main Myanmar structures, shallow CMT focal mechanisms, GPS
velocities with respect to Sunda (black arrows) and the motion to
accommodate between GPS points. The velocity diagrams show the
distribution of deformation across central (top) and southern (bottom)
Myanmar (after Socquet et al., 2006)

37
 Table 6.1 Approximate coordinates of the Myanmar GPS network sites in WGS84

STATION LATITUDE LONGITUDE ALTITUDE

GEODYSSEA large scale network

A MIND Mindat 21° 22' 58" N 93° 53' 48" E 1844 m
B TAUN Taunggyi 20° 45' 02" N 97° 05' 39" E 1250 m
C LAUN Launggyo 17° 41' 32" N 94° 32' 12" E -85 m
D HPAA Hpa-An 16° 56' 18" N 97° 42' 54" E 0m

Mandalay Main transect

01 KWEH Kwehtaing Taung 22° 02.965' N 95° 17.179' E 130 m
02 HTIS Htisaung 21° 57.666' N 95° 35.720' E 160 m
03 LEGY Legyi 21° 59.138' N 95° 45.430' E 170 m
04 SAYE Saye 21° 59.478' N 95° 55.171' E 20 m
05 TNYO Taungnyo 21° 56.025' N 95° 58.851' E 180 m
06 LEPA Lepan 22° 00.186' N 96° 00.670' E 130 m
07 MDPG Mandalay Polo-Ground 22° 00.550' N 96° 05.840' E 30 m
08 YANG Yangin Taung 21° 59.341' N 96° 10.315' E 150 m
09 ZIBI Zibingyi 21° 53.370' N 96° 19.270' E 650 m
10 YWEN Ywenge 22° 03.575' N 96° 32.113' E 1020 m

Mandalay North transect

11 THIT Thitsar Shwegu 22° 09.686' N 95° 48.541' E 230 m
12 WETL Wetlet 22° 22.025' N 95° 46.670' E 50 m
13 BODA Bodaw Taung 22° 21.596' N 96° 06.637' E 130 m
14 KUNT Kun Thwae Kyauk 22° 19.461' N 96° 19.042' E 140 m

Mandalay South transect

15 MYOT Myotha 21° 41.460' N 95° 42.974' E 145 m
16 CHAU Chaunggwa 21° 40.280' N 95° 55.160' E 130 m
17 NYAN Nyaung Ywe 21° 38.136' N 96° 04.870' E 110 m
18 KINV Kin 21° 28.376' N 96° 19.405' E 180 m

38
Fig. 6.2 GPS velocities in India, Western Myanmar with respect to India (black
arrows). (Socquet et al., 2006)

39
 Chapter 7

Structural geological studies of International workers

7.1. General Statement

On the Sagaing Fault, structural geological articles that have been published in
international journals during the time span of 1995 to 2005 are recited and discussed in
this part. Among them, the most influential and strongest ones are works of the GIAC
cooperation project which composed of French scientists from the Ecole Normale
Supérieure (ENS), geoscientists of Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE), and
geology departments of the Yangon, Dagon and Mandalay universities.

7.2. GIAC Cooperation Project

7.2.1. Project Overview
GIAC (Geodynamics of India – Asia Collision) is a cooperation project sponsored by
TMEP (Total Myanmar Exploration Private Limited) with partial support of MOGE and
UNOCAL. The team conducted their field excursions in the Rakhine, Chin, Kachin
States and Central Myanmar and in the western part of the Shan State during the open
seasons of 1997, 1998 and 1999. In their earlier part of the project, the collaborative work
included geologists of Chiang Mai and Chulalongkorn universities of Thailand. Their
studies have been focused mainly on Neogene and active tectonics of Myanmar to
contribute geodynamics of collision between India and Asia.
For the tectonics of Sagaing fault, they dealt with the problems of superimposed tectonic
features (Mogok Metamorphic Belt, Shan scarp and Sagaing fault), all formed during the
Cenozoic time, as well as their significance for strike-slip motion and oblique
convergence of India relative to Indochina. To decipher this tectonic history, the GIAC
have chosen a multidisciplinary approach that includes
(1) Observation of structures in the field and on satellite images to infer their geometry
and spatial relationship,
(2) Determination, by inversion of fault population measurements, of the stress tensors
responsible for the formation of the brittle structures,
(3) Radiochronological analyses, to establish the chronology of the ductile fabrics, and
(4) Paths of plate motion, to place their data in a wider geodynamic context.
Radiochronological results were presented and discussed in detail in Bertrand et al.
(2001) and geotectonics is discussed in Bertrand and Rangin (2003).

7.2.2. Preliminary Comments on Sagaing Fault

The GIAC project studied the Sagaing fault as a possible marker for the new tectonic
regime, active in Myanmar since the late Miocene. In their geological survey in Myanmar
for the first year, they made the following comments on the Sagaing Fault in a
preliminary report.

40
 (1) Rate and amount of displacement along the fault
They tried to demonstrate motion along the fault by combining SPOT, Landsat
and tectonic studies of the volcanic rocks in the Singu area (approximately 40 km
north of Mandalay) with precise K/Ar dating. The study of the offset of Singu
lava flows by Bertrand et al. (1998), a publication of GIAC, indicated a velocity
of 10–25 mm yr-1 on the Sagaing fault during the last 0.3 Ma. This velocity is far
less from the expected motion along the fault deduced from kinematic data (3 to 4
cm yr-1) if this fault would accommodate the whole or part of the northward
motion of India with respect to Eurasia.
(2) Accommodation of the Plate Motion
They suggested that the Sagaing Fault is accommodating less than two thirds of
the plate motion, the remaining part being absorbed into the CSB (Central
Sedimentary Basin), the Arakan (Rakhine) Yoma, and the Shan Plateau, as
indicated by the estimated 2.5 cm yr-1.
(3) Extension of the Oceanic Crust
At the southern end of Sagaing Fault in the Gulf of Mottama, the dextral motion
was found totally absorbed along N80E trending normal faults into a classical
horse tail fault termination.
This horse tail basin connects south-westward with the first segment of the
Andaman spreading centre, but they found no evidence for the presence of
oceanic crust into the Gulf of Mottama. However the crust is probably
considerably thinned as indicated by the strong heat flow and a maximum
extension ratio ( 2.5) can be expected.
Taking into account the distribution of the extended crust from the Yadana height
in the NW to the coast of Mawlamyaing in the SE, a maximum of 250 km was
denoted as affected by the extension. A maximum of 150 km was then deduced
for the total displacement along the Sagaing fault and associated subsidiary faults
in the Gulf of Mottama.
(4) Age of the Fault
Considering the rate of 2.5 cm yr-1 along this fault, they proposed that the Sagaing
fault was initiated around 6 Ma.
Conclusively, the Sagaing Fault was recognized as a recent fault probably
emplaced after the plate reorganization in the Indian Ocean, 10 to 8 Ma.

7.2.3. Later Work

During the three-year project of field work, they expended their study in collaboration
with GEODYSSEA (previous chapter) and perform GPS data collection for plate
kinematics to watch the present day deformation pattern. Also, extensive field trips were
done in various parts of Myanmar excluding eastern Shan State and Kayin-Mon-
Tanintharyi regions. Some articles were internationally published, and some Abstracts

41
were read at research congresses. After the interpretation of final results, most of their
preliminary comments were confirmed and new ideas were added.
7.2.4. The Andaman Cruise
In April and May of 2000, a team which has been composed of GIAC members and some
oceanographers performed observations across the Andaman Sea. They conducted a
couple of seismic lines and other instrumentation work over Andaman spreading center,
Coco Island and Ninety East Ridge. They published the results in Chamot-Rooke et al.,
(2001) and Nielson et al., (2004) and followings are the salient outlines of them.

 The present-day Andaman Spreading Center is young, between 4 to 5 Ma, and

superimposed onto a long pull-apart basin history initiated in Eocene time (Proto-
Andaman Spreading Center)
 The Andaman Spreading Center connects to a series of grabens located at the
termination of the East and West Sagaing faults
 The spreading rate in the Andaman Sea (magnetic anomaly) is compatible with
the rates of motion onto the northern Sumatra Fault in Indonesia and the Sagaing
fault in Myanmar (GPS)
 Oblique shear between India and Sundaland (of the order of 4 cm yr -1) is
accommodated by oblique subduction in the south (partial partitioning) and
frontal subduction in the north (full partitioning)
 Jumping of the Proto-Adaman Spreading Center to the Andaman Spreading
Center was precisely dated at 8 Ma and fits perfectly in time with the kinematic
reorganization of India and Australian plates.
 The Proto- Andaman Spreading Center extends largely into Myanmar Central
Basins which are floored by ductile crust exhumed between 40 and 15 Ma.
 Intraplate deformation in the Indian Ocean started around 7-8 Ma, based on ODP
drilling
 The western border of the Andaman Sea shows strong inversion at that time (7-8
Ma), based on numerous oil company profiles and drillings
 This inversion is the direct consequence of the change of motion of the India plate
when it detached from the Australia plate. The net effect around Andaman is an
increase of about 1 to 1.5 cm/yr of the eastward component of motion of India
 The extension system was probably re-organized at the same time, with rifting of
the Alcock-Sewell volcanic province followed by oceanic accretion in the
Andaman Sea in Pliocene
 The eastward motion of Sundaland obtained by GPS now partly compensates the
extra-eastward motion of India

7.2.5. GIAC conclusion on the Sagaing Fault

(1) The study of the offset of Singu lava flows (approximately 40 km north of
Mandalay) by Bertrand et al. (1998) indicated a velocity of 10–25 mm yr-1 on
the Sagaing fault during the last 0.3 Ma, while Myint Thien et al. (1991)
proposed an average velocity of 18.5 mm yr-1 since 11 Ma.

42
(2) A recent GPS survey around Mandalay and Sagaing (Vigny et al., 2001)
reveals a 20 mm yr-1 instantaneous motion.
(3) A study of the Andaman Sea spreading center in Myanmar (ANDAMAN
Cruise, Chamot-Rooke et al., 2001) shows this basin has generated oceanic
crust only in the last 4 or 5 Ma. This localized deformation along the
Andaman spreading center probably followed a phase of rifting and stretching
of the continental crust. If the linear Sagaing Fault was also initiated 5 Ma ago
with the Andaman spreading center, when deformation was localized on a
single boundary, and if the 20 mm yr-1 instantaneous motion from Vigny et al.
(2001) was extrapolated, approximately 100 km of total displacement on the
fault should be expected. From the study of the southern termination of the
fault, in the Gulf of Mottama, Bertrand (1999) proposed a maximum value of
150 km. Their estimate did not account for the rifting phase in the Andaman
Sea which remains difficult to constrain in the present state of knowledge.
Some extension could have been accommodated there since the Middle
Eocene, if the rifting in the Andaman basin can be demonstrated to be coeval
with rifting in the MCB. If this assumption is valid, it suggests a continuous
extension in the MCB and the Andaman Sea since 45 Ma. This long rifting
stage could be responsible for the observed flat schistosity and N20˚W
trending stretching lineations locally observed along the MMB and possibly
existing at depth below the MCB.
(4) Considering the middle or late Miocene as the time of cessation of stretching
of continental crust in Myanmar and beginning of tectonic inversion in the
MCB, and the Plio-Quaternary (4–5 Ma) as starting age for motion along the
simple and linear Sagaing fault, this inversion that shaped the MCB and the
Shan scarp region, could have been long enough to explain the observed
structures.
(5) The Shan scarp area suffered a major change in tectonic regime during middle
or late Miocene time. A transtensional regime that generated NNW–SSE
stretching ductile structures and N70˚E striking brittle normal faults was
followed by a transpressional regime that generated right-lateral strike slip
structures; first, the Shan scarp and second, the Sagaing fault. This change in
tectonic regime is summarized on (Fig. 6.2).
(6) Ductile deformations could only give information on the strain tensors.
However, the normal faults in shallow levels of the crust, associated with the
deeper ductile stretching allow us to propose a stress tensor for this tectonic
regime. This tensor would be characterized by NNW–SSE-trending 3;
orthogonal horizontal 2 and vertical 1: Subsequent brittle structures (Shan
scarp then Sagaing fault) were generated by a stress tensor characterized by
NW–SE trending 3; orthogonal horizontal 1 and vertical 2.
(7) Accepting a limited clockwise rotation of Indochina, these tensors can be
considered as coaxial. Stress regime transition was that 3 remains unchanged
while 1 and 2 exchange orientation. Several mechanisms can be invoked to
explain this change.
(8) The first could be the collapse of a thickened crust. A pre-existing topography
induces a vertical stress component that disappears after its collapse. As 1

43
 stress component decreases, it finally reaches the value of 2 and they change
position. Collapse of a pre-existing topography would also explain the
exhumation of high-grade metamorphic rocks along the MMB. This model
should imply that the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis was migrating northwards
with India. It is supported by the apparent decreasing ages of the Mogok
metamorphics towards the north, that have been interpreted by Bertrand et al.
(2001) as the trace of the northward migration of the syntaxis. It also implies
younger ages for the MCB in the same direction, as it was formed by
relaxation of the crust behind the migrating syntaxis. No data, however, are
available from these basins to support this hypothesis.
(9) A second possible mechanism would be, instead of decreasing the 1 stress
component, to increase 2: This could be achieved by increasing horizontal
stress along the 2 direction. It suggests that such a mechanism may have
taken place as a result of the Miocene regional kinematics, widely
documented in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia.

Fig. 6.3 Synthetic representation of the tectonic regimes that affected central Myanmar
from Oligocene to Present day (Bertrand and Rangin, 2003)

44
 Chapter 8

Structural geological studies of local (academic) workers

8.1. General Statement

After the first publication of the STS Group (see section 4.1.), there occurred problems to
produce new technical publications in this academic atmosphere; new works met several
difficulties including absence of local ground to present, other than the regular problems
like poor funding, insufficient time to perform among the heavy work load, and
deficiency of literature as well as routine equipments. As a lot of staff left their mother
department for their survival, the study group became fainted out for about a decade. It is
acknowledgable to MOGE and international oil companies that brought some
academicians to conduct seminars and fieldworks concerning tectonics in the late years of
20th century, to encourage tectonic research of the university staff in a rather high
momentum. In the Geology Department of the University of Yangon, Professors Min
Swe and Win Naing tried to initiate graduate works in structural geology and tectonics,
under the guidelines of Emeritus Profs. Win Swe and Maung Thein, and with the
assistance of the present author in the period of 2002 to date. Among the graduate works,
those of Lei Lei Min (2003) and Thura Aung (2005) have focused specifically on the
Sagaing Fault.

8.2. Lei Lei Min (2003) Thongwa to Bago-Desunpa

8.2.1 Area Coverage
Lei Lei Min (2003) conducted a study on the southern part of the onshore Sagaing Fault
i.e., Segment 5 of this study. Geographically, it is bounded by Lat. 16˚45′N and 18˚00′N,
and long. 96˚20′E 96˚50′E, occupying the southern part of Bago Division, extending from
Desunpa, northwest of Bago, to Hpale-Thongwa area in the south.
8.2.2 Work Conducted
About 50 vertical air photographs of 1:24000 scale were interpreted to trace the
lineaments along the Sagaing Fault. Also, Landsat 7 ETM images were applied in
studying regional structural pattern.
8.2.3 Analytical Work
Lei Lei Min produced aerial photo maps of Bago – Shwedan-In – Desunpa area and
Thongwa – Hpale area. Lithologic boundaries, off-set topographic features, vegetation
patterns and lineaments were accounted and a drainage map was produced.
Transpressional ridges and transtensional basins in local scale were denoted in
accordance with represented typical fracture systems (Fig. 8.1).
8.2.4. Field Structural Analysis
Field data was collected at Desunpa Ridge, north of Bago, where coarse-grained clastic
sediments of the Irrawaddy Formation cropped out. A structural geological map was
produced.

45
A well-pronounced structural pattern, exhibited in NW trending discontinuous and
continuous series of minor asymmetrical folds, cut across by NNE extensional fractures
is suggested to be related to the Sagaing dextral motion.
Her measurement of slicken lines in a dextral strike-slip fault in the GPS locality
(17˚30.92′N, 96˚29.99E), 1 at 20˚/N20˚E, 2 at70˚/S20˚W and 3 at 04˚/S70˚E, which
meant maximum principal stress and minimum stress positions have been closer to
horizontal and the intermediate stress is nearly vertical. Extensional joints and preserved
shear plane at a locality (17˚33.943′ N and 96˚29.997′E) also indicate that nearly
horizontal maximum and minimum principle stress positions and vertical intermediate
stress occur in the area.
8.2.5. Interpretation
Brittle deformation formed in the shallow crust typified by closely spaced faults, joints,
shear fractures, brecciation and crushed zone was recorded in the field. According to the
TM image and aerial photo interpretation, in combination with field structural data
analysis, structural deformation pattern exhibits simple shear, brittle deformation pattern
or noncoaxial strain. Shortening during the simple shear deformation was suggested to be
accommodated by transpressional and transtensional deformation giving rise to uplifting
to form pressure ridges or linear highlands and sagponds or linear lowlands, respectively
in the area. Their trends occur slightly oblique to the main shearing.

Fig. 8.1 Structural Sketch Map of the Desunpa area (Lei Lei Min, 2003)

46
Fig. 8.2 An airphoto interpretation map of Desunpa Ridge showing simple model for
the transpressional and transtensional behavior for the southern segment of
dextral Sagaing Fault (Lei Lei Min, 2003)

47
8.3. Thura Aung (2005) Pyu to Thazi-Wundwin
8.3.1 Area Coverage
The work of Thura Aung (2005) covers the middle part of the onshore Sagaing Fault i.e.,
Segment 4 and part of the Segment 3 of this study. Geographically, it occupies the
eastern limb of the Bago Yoma, northern part of the Bago Division and southern part of
the Mandalay Division. Geodectically it is bounded by Lat. 1815N to 2115N and
Long. 9600E to 9630E.
8.3.2 Work Conducted
Satellite Image interpretation of Landsat TM images comprising UTM zone 47 were
applied to trace lineaments and fractures. Consequently, interpretation of 1:24000 scale
airphotographs was done for detail studies. For data recording and representative sample
collection after the selection of points in image and airphoto interpretation, fieldwork was
conducted in some specific areas. Microstructures were examined from the oriented
samples in laboratory study.
8.3.3 Analytical Work
In his image and photo interpretation work, the fault was studied in 3- divisions and 5
sub-divisions, depending on distribution of fractures and lineament patterns that would
possibly reflect structural regime in accordance with progressive deformation. For the
present work, his description on each of them is tabulated in Table 8.1 to portray the
actual picture and later interpretations. Interpretation maps are also configured in Figs.
8.3 and 4.
8.3.4. Field Structural Analysis
Field data of Thura Aung (2005) was concentrated in the Kun Chaung area (around GPS
locality 18˚25.101′N, 96˚23-410E), west of Pyu. Generally, sedimentary rocks exposed
strike mainly NNW-SSE and inclined toward SW. Local NE dips were also seen.
Asymmetrical folds, possibly formed after the dextral motion of the Sagaing Fault were
recorded. In eastern part of the fault zone, NE trending fractures were dominant.
Large Bago Yoma anticlinal folding was concluded to have occurred in NNW-trend and
SSE-plunge. In his field data: -
(i) NNE-trending strike slip faults were followed by the activation of NE-
trending normal faults
(ii) NW oblique slip fault was probably older than the other faults.
He measured three strike slip faults and calculated the principal stress directions from
field measurement of shear-sense indicators. He denoted the maximum stress 1 as
horizontal, N 21 E; intermediate stress 2 as 72˚/S 70 W; and the least principal stress
3 as 18˚/S 61 W.
Moreover, Thura Aung (2005) recorded ENE-, NE-, and NNE-facing normal faults, a
litric fault, and oblique slip faults. By using oblique slip faults, he suggested the
maximum principal stress directions as 6/N21W and 9/N39W and 5/N79E. All of
these directions indicated the 1 has been nearly horizontal.

48
Fig. 8.3 Simple model for the progressive deformation patterns along the Sagaing
Fault zone in the Pyu – Wundwin area (Thura Aung, 2005)

49
 PYINMANA

PYU

Fig. 8.4 Stress tensor determination of the middle segment of Sagaing Fault, Pyu-
Wundwin area (Thura Aung, 2005)

50
8.3.5. Microscopic Structural Analysis
Thura Aung (2005) studied a collection of deformed rocks along the Sagaing Fault,
showing typical evidence of brittle deformation represented by fragmentation or crushing
of mineral grains, with characteristic microfractures between the NE aligned grains and
antithetic offsets in feldspar grains in sandstone of the Upper Pegu Group (Miocene).
Also, bent mica grains, curvilineaments of the microfractures between mineral grains,
and irregular or distorted twin-bands of feldspar grains were observed as evidence of
semi-brittle deformation mechanism.
8.3.6. Interpretation
Based on image interpretation, field data, and microscopic analyses, Thura Aung (2005)
made conclusions on nature and distribution of deformation patterns along the Sagaing
Fault. He suggested that the Sagaing Fault zone between Pyu and Wundwin exhibits
sequential deformation of structural features: semibrittle deformation at the middle
crustal level and brittle deformation at the upper crustal level. He also determined the
possible stress position at the upper crustal level as NE-SW and that of the lower crustal
level as NNW-SSE.

51
 Table 8.1 Structural analysis by airphoto interpretation (Thura Aung, 2005)

Location

Fault trace

Dominant
divisions
Division

fracture
Fault zone

(mile)
Sub-
Minute

Cross-cutting Step Distinguished

Degree

width Topographic features

Relationship over characters
(mile)

21 0

NW & NNW
50 N NE curved; NW
2-3 N part disturb the main
III III 34 NNW curved into Z- alluvial plain and small ridges
1-2 S part NE zone; NE is
40 shape
older than NW
30
20
20 NE prominent in
N dog-leg pattern controlled by NW
the west side;
IIC 40 2 NE NE by NW and NE; Sinthe Chaung by NW
10 NW NW prominent in
system
the east side
0
II
50 stretched fractures bounded two
N Left step isolated small ridges; join the main
NE by N; NE
IIB 28 1 NE restrai- NE curved fault as wedge possibly of dextral
19 40 NW by ENE
ning motion; NE fractures control Yobin
and Yeni Chaungs
30
II 17 1-2 NNW NNE curved to be fault being the boundary between

52
Location

Fault trace

Dominant
divisions
Division

fracture
Fault zone

(mile)
Sub-
Minute
Cross-cutting Step Distinguished
Degree

width Topographic features

Relationship over characters
(mile)

A NNE NNW hilly and lowland regions;

20 NE Chaungmagyi and Yane Chaungs
are controlled

10

NOT STUDIED
0 ?

50

40
NE two elevated regions in the south
NW NE by N&NW; NE curved, S-
IB 25 3.5 N
controlled stream; Kun and Pyu
18 30 ENE by N shaped
I ENE Chaungs

20 N
NW cross-cut N NE fractures
IA 11 2-3 NE Left step no topographic difference
NW and NE show curvilinear
10

53
 PART IV

GEOLOGY OF THE SAGAING FAULT

54
 Chapter 9

Salient Geomorphic Features

9.1 General Statement

As the Sagaing Fault is a young tectonic element or the one that is being active recently,
an account of geomorphic features are notable along the fault line and are prominent
among the rocks having their particular exhibitions. Out of the criteria of the existence of
faults and those of strike-slip ones, the following land forms like: - linear and offset
ridges, pressure ridges, sag ponds and transtensional basins, straight river alignments, and
dragged streams are distinguished and observable for the people who are interested in
structural geology and tectonics.

9.2 Linear and offset ridges

9.2.1. The Sagaing and the Minwun Ridges
Among those landforms along the fault, the Sagaing Ridge, where the name of the fault
has been counted after, lineament of hillocks and scarps are distinguished both in the
view of Ayeyarwaddy River and its western side where the fault passes through (Fig.
9.1). In the mountainous area near Sagaing, the Minwun Ridge is demarcated by a North
trending fault valley (Fig. 9.3) from the Sagaing Ridge and extends northward along the
Ayeyarwaddy River.
These features extend to the north, to the small town of Male (Lat 23) which lies in the
western side of the same river (Fig. 9.2) and then to Tigyaing City area (Lat 2330)
where the river Ayeyarwaddy added its channel into the weak fault line.
In this part, not only linear ridges after the fault, but also pressure ridges of transpressive
regime where the dextral fault system meets left step-over of localized en enchelon
nature. The Taungpilar ridge trending normal to the local trend is a well-known pressure
ridge among the Sagaing Hills.
9.2.2. The Bago Yoma Ranges
Around the area west of Pyinmana to Bago, the fault passes through the eastern flank of
the Bago Yoma Range to exhibit rather linear scarps and triangularly-faceted topography.
In occasion, approximately one to three kilometer wide fault zone of crushed or shattered
rocks are found as foothills in the west of Pyu. In places, sand rocks of the Irrawaddy
Formation (Upper Miocene-Pliocene) are restricted in the fault zone and observed in
contact with harder sandstone of Pegu Group (Oligocene-Miocene) structurally.
9.2.3. The Kumon Range
The Kumon Range, west of Myitkyina of the northern Myanmar is the classic example
for the topographic feature disturbed by fault. Not only the main metamorphic ridge has
been prominently cut and also a set of smaller ridges are found to have been offset by
curvilinear trace of the eastern bifurcation of the Sagaing Fault. The older fault zone
seems to be rather wide in the southwestern part where the dragged linear ridges are

55
 Male

Yega-In

Minun Ridge
a typical
sag pond

A small
Minun Ridge

Sagaing Ridge

channel
offset

The longest
stream offset
in the area

3 km
Sagaing

Fig. 9.1 (Left) Sagaing and Minwun Ridges, demarcated by the fault valley near the City
of Sagaing; river in the east is the Ayeyarwaddy which flows roughly along the
fault line
Fig. 9.2 (Right) Minwun Ridge near the town of Male

56
Fig. 9.3 The Minwun Ridge (behind) apart from the Sagaing Ridge (front) by a fault
valley north of Sagaing City (Photograph by Win Swe)

Male

Fig. 9.4 The Minwun Ridge near Male exhibiting positive flower structure associated
with dextral Sagaing Fault System (Incline DEM with Landsat Band 742 color
composite of Google Earth, 2005, is applied as base map)

57
 Taungoo

Pyu

Moyongyi-In
Reservoir

BAGO

Fig. 9.5 Bago (Pegu) Yoma Ranges west of Bago, Pyu, and Taungoo cities where the
fault line is in NNW-SSE to N-S trend

58
Fig. 9.6 Kumon Range built up with medium to high grade metamorphic rocks; after
cutting by curvilinear fault line (shown by white arrows at ends), right limb
(southeastern part) exhibits a wide, wedge-shaped valley formed of transtension
(see diagram inset)

59
 TRANSPRESSION TRANSTENSION

A B C
C
Fig. 9.7 Mechanism of transpression and transtension: pressure ridge (A), flower
structures (B) and transtensional basin (C); Block Arrows indicate movement of
blocks, small arrows in (A) and (C) symbolize strain vectors, and dotted small
arrows in (B) represent inclination of beds

observed apart from the main ridge by a rather wide valley, possibly because of the
transtensional nature of the fault (fig. 9.6).

9.3. Pressure Ridges

9.3.1. Development of Pressure Ridges
Theoretically considering, pressure ridges are the product of restraining bands along the
strike slip faults where left or right step-over of the main fracture occurs. For the dextral
Sagaing Fault, such kind of structures has to be formed after left step-over or left-handed
en echelon offsets. This mechanism is known as transpression and not only isolated
pressure ridges, but also thrust duplexes in strike slip zone, namely flower structures can
be created about it in local to regional scale (Fig. 9.7 A and B).
9.3.2. Pressure Ridges along the Sagaing Fault Zone
Though almost all of them have not been geologically mapped, a lot of pressure ridges
occurred along the Sagaing Fault Zone from Bago northward. Desunpa Ridge (25 km

60
north of Bago) is a distinguished and accessible uplifted block in the restraining band
along the fault (Lei Lei Min, 2003). Similarly, isolated, locally transverse hillocks can
also be found sporadically along the fracture, from Pyawbwe to Thazi town areas.
Taungpila is also well known for its transverse nature among longitudinal hillocks of the
Sagaing Ridge.
Larger pressure ridges, formed of sets of thrust sheets are observed in the northern
extension of Minwun Ridge near Male (Fig. 9.4). Moderately to highly dipping strata,
lensoid of pre-Tertiary limestone ridges in the core of the ridge which meant originally
deeper or older rocks, and several discordant structural units exhibit positive flower
structure of the Sagaing Fault.

9.4. Transtensional Features

9.4.1. Development of Transtensional Basins
Transtensional basins are developed in releasing bands along the strike slip faults. En
echelon nature plays major role in both transpressional and transtensional structures and
is not uncommon among large transform faults. For Sagaing Fault, afore mentioned
structures were formed in the place of right step over or right-handed offset along the
main fracture. Depending on depth to the basement, spacing between faults and overstep
distance, small sag ponds to large pull-apart basins are observed along the Sagaing Fault.
9.4.2. Transtensional features along the fault
Considering Sagaing Fault and Great Sumatra Fault as offset faults of single mobile zone,
Andaman Sea Basin is the largest transtensional basin of southern end of the present
focus. Onshore small basins or sag ponds are numerous, being observed from Bago to
Myitkyina, and Shwedan-In, Thazi Min Hla Tank, Yega-In, and Indaw are well-known.
The northernmost and largest among onshore transtensional features is Lake Indawgyi
having more than 150 square kilometres coverage and typical lazy ‘s’ shape (Soe Thura
Tun, 1999).

9.5. Other Geomorphic Features

9.5.1. Straight River Alignments
Ayeyarwaddy River, one of the largest channels in the region flows approximately 175
km in a straight weak zone along the Sagaing Fault. The in-line flow was disturbed
around the Singu lava field north of Mandalay, where it turns away for about 20 km in its
length.
9.5.2. Dragged Channels
As it is a tectonic feature as young as Quaternary, several rivers and stream channels have
been offset to cross cut the fault. A lot of streams flowing from Bago Yoma Ranges into
Sittaung River are found to be dragged northward as their source is in the west of the
fault line. Kun River, near Pyu is the largest one among them, having 13 km recent offset
(from the first bent downstream in the plain). To the north, Samon, Zawgyi and Myitnge
rivers which initiated in the Shan Plateau also exhibit right lateral offsets in filling the
Ayeyarwaddy River.

61
In the area between Mandalay to Tigyaing, where the Ayeyarwaddy River channelized
along the fault, streams on both side shows dextral drags while the older ones display
longer offset and younger channels exhibit shorter offset. In the east bank, Chaung Magyi
stream, having 20 km offset is the large one. In the west bank, several streams among
which Kokkoaing, Khodaung, Zin streams and Meza River are dragged tributaries of the
Ayeyarwaddy River. Meza River, flowing along the fault valley, exhibits as much as 70
km offset, as it lies in the region of old basement rocks, and also situated in the oldest
place of the fracture. Further north, streams descended from Kumon Ranges are also
found in dragged channels.

62
 Chapter 10

Lineament Patterns

10.1. General Statement

Geology of the Sagaing Fault is here theoretically considered on the basis of some
measurements using air photographs and satellite images and reviewing previous works.
As mentioned in the previous chapters, almost all the structures developed along the
Sagaing Fault are the result of convergence between India and Eurasia Plates. Judging the
different style and magnitude to respond to the bulk of the stress in the Neogene
tectonics, structural features along the fault is classified in five segments viz., (i) Putao–
Indawgyi Segment (between Lat 24˚ and 30˚N), (ii) Tagaung–Sagaing Segment (between
Lat 21˚ and 24˚N), (iii) Thazi–Pyinmana Segment (between Lat 20˚ and 21˚N), (iv)
Taungoo – Bago Segment (between Lat 18˚ and 20˚N), and (v) Mottama Gulf Segment
(between Lat 12˚ and 18˚N), based on fracture patterns, historical seismicity, fault plane
solution of seismic focal mechanism and basement rock types.

10.2. Segment 1: Putao – Indawgyi Segment

10.2.1. Structural Overview
This part of the fault is observed prominently with compressive regime as its alignment is
bent or changed largely (approximately 20 clockwise and then 40 counterclockwise).
An account of large fractures is notable and strain after the main fault is distributed in
different quantity in them.
10.2.2. Fracture patterns
The most distinguished pattern in this segment is branching. Main fracture of the Sagaing
Fault which extends northward from Sagaing-Mandalay area changed its orientation
northeastward and a subsidiary fracture, namely Kyauktan Fault continues northward
lineament. A set of 10 km-wide zone of mega-tension gashes occurs within the fault zone
in the south of 25˚ latitude, as a text-book example. The largest lake in Myanmar, Lake
Indawgyi, is also a classic example of lazy ‘S’ shaped pull-apart basin bounded by
extensional fractures. Farther to the north, the main fracture bifurcates into Namyin (East)
and Taikri (West) fault systems. Namyin Fault passes the eastern limb of Kumon Ranges
and then in the south of the Putao Valley transfers its strain into its NW trending fracture,
i.e., possibly an extension of Main Boundary Thrust of the eastern Himalayan.
10.2.3. Basement rock types
Metamorphic rocks of medium to high grade are the typical basement rocks that the
Sagaing Fault passes and for that reason branching and change in orientation
characterized the segment. In places, Paleogene sedimentary rocks and ultramafic
igneous rocks have also been disturbed. In the east of the Lake Indawgyi pull-apart basin,
these sedimentary rocks are found to have been shattered by Sagaing-Taikri Fault Zone.

63
 30

Putao–Indawgyi
Segment

24

Tagaung–Sagaing
Segment

Thazi–Pyinmana
Segment
20

Taungoo–Bago
Segment

Mottama Gulf
Segment
16

12

Fig. 10.1 Approximate coverage of structural segments along the Sagaing Fault

64
 Putao

Lake
Indawgyi

20 km

Fig. 10.2 Satellite image showing Structural Segment 1 of the Sagaing Fault;
distribution of lineaments are illustrated in red lines among which bold
ones are fractures, and thin ones are exposure lines of consistent bands
(mainly foliations)

65
10.2.4. Historical seismicity
A lot of historic earthquakes occurred in this segment. Among them, 1931 Kamaing
earthquake (R.M. 7.6), and 1946 Wuntho earthquakes (M=7.5 & 7.75, in a day) are well
known, all of them exhibited close relationship with the Sagaing fault.
10.2.5. Fault plane solution and earthquake proneness
Taking into account of fault plane solutions of seismic focal mechanism, both of strike
slip and thrust are observed as sources of rupture. In comparison with other segments,
seismicity is rather high. Epicenters are fall mainly in the northern part, while large
earthquakes recorded in previous century occurred in its southern half. Perhaps normal
seismicity is the result of the fault which runs parallel to the metamorphic foliations; and
soft ultramafic rocks also give support to release its stress. Otherwise, occurrence of large
earthquakes in the southern part was probably caused by branching and related
extensional shearing.

10.3. Segment 2: Tagaung – Sagaing Segment

10.3.1. Structural Overview
It is the region where the fault runs nearly N-S straight and the River Ayeyarwaddy takes
its path along the main fracture.
10.3.2. Fracture patterns
The most prominent fracture pattern is observed in the eastern side where antithetic
Momeik-Shweli fault system is intersected by the Sagaing Fault at about latitude 23˚ N
(Fig. 10.2). These faults, having sinistral displacement, extend into Chinese territory as
Ruili-Gaoligang and Nanting faults respectively (Socquet and Pubellier, 2005). The
NNW trending Shan Scarp Fault, an associate of the Papun Fault, is also stopped its
activity by Sagaing Fault near Singu City. In the western side, sets of reverse faults,
possibly inverted after transpression along the fault, can be seen near Male (Lat. 23˚02′N,
Long. 95˚59′E) (Fig. 9.4).
10.3.3. Basement rock types
In the area north of Sagaing, Sagaing Fault is notable as a boundary of medium to high
grade rocks of Mogok Metamorphic Complex in the east and folded sedimentary rocks in
the west. Peculiarly in the southern area around Mandalay, metamorphics of Sagaing and
Minwun ridges are also observed in the western side while basement of the eastern side,
including Mandalay city seems to be metamorphic rocks of the same belt (MMB).
10.3.4. Historical seismicity
Though the segment is structurally rather simple than Segment 1, damage caused by
historical earthquakes is tremendous, as large (major) earthquakes (M>7) occurred near
the city of Sagaing and Innwa (See Table 16.1).

66
10.3.5. Fault plane solution and earthquake proneness
Focal mechanism of earthquakes exhibits pure strike slip motion in most places and
occasionally oblique slip mechanism as source of earthquakes (Fig. 16.2). Generally, this
segment indicates low recorded seismicity excluding Mogok-Momeik area where there
occurred high seismic risks, as shown in Fig. 10.3. However, numerous earthquakes of
large destruction are known to occur around Mandalay, Sagaing and environs.
It suggests that, southern half of this segment has long recurrence interval of earthquakes,
so the resultant strain to release may be rather big.

10.4. Segment 3: Thazi – Pyinmana Segment

10.4.1. Structural overview
Shan Scarp Fault and its associates are the prominent structures in this area while the
trace of the Sagaing Fault is remarkably indistinct. A few evidences like sag ponds and
low-lying pressure ridges near Thazi and Pyawbwe towns are the only indicators of its
existence.
10.4.2. Fracture patterns
NNW-trending Shan Scarp Fault system is the most striking in this segment. As the Shan
Scarp (Panlaung Fault) is one of the NNW oriented branches of proto-Sagaing (Papun)
fault system, dextral activity is observed in the dragged pattern of the Myitnge
(Doktawaddy) River initiated in the Shan Plateau. The river, showing no distinguished
turn between Shan Scarp and the Sagaing faults, suggests that there was no notable
difference in rate of displacement along them in this area. In the Pyinmana area, some
tributaries filling the Sittaung River exhibits dragged nature in the Bago Yoma Ranges.
10.4.3. Basement rock types
The Sagaing Fault cuts the clastic sedimentary rocks, mainly of Neogene age in this
segment. Only around the city of Pyinmana, granitoid bodies are observed as basement in
the eastern side and the fault marked the boundary between them and sedimentary rocks
of the Bago Yoma Ranges.
10.4.4. Historical seismicity
No accessible record exists for the occurrence of large earthquakes in this segment.
10.4.5. Fault plane solution and earthquake proneness
This segment shows very low seismicity or scanty of recorded earthquakes, so some
schools of thought (e.g., GIAC project) suggest as seismicity gap on it. Generally saying,
it would be possible that no particular disturbance occurs along and so the main fracture
could have taken almost all the strain to run smoothly in the area of thick alluvial
sediments and (or) unconsolidated Neogene rocks. Another possibility is that strain along
the fault may have been absorbed by a subsurface locked structure for a couple of years
that records could be produced. Between these two ends, creeping along the fault i.e.,
releasing strain by slow and weighted movement along the main fracture can occur as the
third possibility.

67
 Tagaung

Momeik

Sagaing
MANDALAY
20 km

Fig. 10.3 Colour composite satellite image showing Structural Segment 2 of the
Sagaing Fault

68
 30

29

28
(i) Putao–
Indawgyi 27
Segment
26

25

24
(ii) Tagaung -
Sagaing
23
Segment
22

(iii) Thazi– 21
Pyinmana
Segment 20

(iv) Taungoo – 19
Bago
Segment 18
Latitude N

17

(v) Mottama
16
Gulf
Segment
15

14

13

12

11

10
95 96 97 Longitude E

Fig. 10.4 Distribution of historical earthquakes (1900-1993) along the Sagaing Fault
(ANSS Catalogue; magnitude >3.0); See the variation in different
structural segments

69
The fourth possibility is on nearly parallel faults in the Shan Scarp to accommodate all
the displacement between the Burma Plate and Shan Plateau of the Sunda Plate in this
area. The last option is possible to occur simultaneously with each of the formers. If the
second statement is true, this segment has possibility to occur large earthquake in the near
future.

10.5. Segment 4: Taungoo – Bago Segment

10.5.1. Structural overview
In this segment, synthetic shear system of Papun Fault Zone plays a major role in
connection with the Sagaing Fault. Sagaing Fault is seen rather straight in NNE direction
and turn slightly near Bago to follow the North-South trend.

10.5.2. Fracture patterns

NW-trending fracture is predominant. In the growth of the Bago Yoma Ranges which is
the most distinguishing structure of the Neogene inversion of the Central Myanmar Basin
(Pivnik et al., 1998), west verging thrust sheets of NW trend are observed to be cut by the
Sagaing Fault. In the same trend, Papun Fault System occurs as synthetic or dextral shear.
Regional scale tension gashes can be studied in the system of NW-trending Shwekyin,
Papun and NNW-trending Shan Scarp (Panlaung) fault zone, and the shear zone covers
an area of 60 x 100 km parallelogram.
10.5.3. Basement rock types
The eastern flank of the Bago Yoma Ranges is built up with sedimentary rocks of mainly
Miocene age, and within the fault zone are the rocks of Irrawaddy Formation (Upper
Miocene – Pliocene). The eastern side has a basement of the metamorphic rocks of the
Mogok Belt (Searl and Haq, 1964) and granitoids of the western margin of the Shan
Plateau, which are covered by a narrow (30 km wide) alluvial plain.
10.5.4. Historical Seismicity
A record of large earthquakes (M>7) occurred in this area. Swa earthquake (1929), Pyu
earthquake (1930), Pyinmana earthquake (1931) and several large earthquakes in Bago
are notable. Shwemawdaw Pagoda, about 100 meters high stupa in Bago City, has fallen
at least four times after earthquakes during 16th century to date.
10.5.5. Fault plane solution and earthquake proneness
Strike slip focal mechanism is observed for Sagaing Fault as well as for Shan Scarp Fault.
Peculiarly, solution of normal or extensional fault plane is also recorded and it is possibly
related with the counterclockwise rotation of the block between dextral activity of
Sagaing and Papun faults. It is interesting why there occurred several large earthquakes in
this segment where there is no notable surface disturbance (e.g., pressure ridges) except
the NE aligned Papun and west verging thrust system in east and west respectively. In
accordance with moment tensor distribution, strike slip components in the Gwegyo-
Satthwa Thrust would be one the source of previous earthquakes. For the Bago area, a

70
 MANDALAY

Kyaukse

Meiktila
Thazi

10 km

Pyinmana
Fig. 10.5 Structural Segment 3 where the Shan Scarp Fault system is more
prominent than the Sagaing Fault

71
branch of Sagaing Fault (East Sagaing Fault) is known to exist in the evidence of gravity
survey, and strike slip focal mechanism is also recorded along this trace (Fig. 16.2). Both
of these branches of the Sagaing Fault would accommodate the northward motion of the
Burma Plate in different quantity; so junction of them is considerable as one of the
probable sources of large earthquakes.

10.6. Segment 5: Mottama Gulf Segment

10.6.1. Structural overview
It is the segment where northward motion of the Burma Plate initiated and extensional
horsetail termination occurs after spreading in the Andaman Sea Basin. An account of
normal faults trending ENE are typical of this part.
10.6.2. Fracture patterns
N 64˚ trending spreading center propagate a series of roughly parallel normal faults and
produced dextral shear along Sagaing Fault System comprising East and West faults.
According to seismic survey conducted by MOGE, both fractures of the Sagaing Fault
(East Sagaing Fault and West Sagaing Fault) exhibit flower structure like faults in the
inverted Salin Basin (Pivnik et al., 1998).
10.6.3. Basement rock types
Curray (2005) described an account of turbiditic mudstone, pelagic limestone, sandstone
and conglomerates of Cenozoic age on the Mesozoic ophiolite basement as stratigraphy
of the Andaman Sea area. In the Gulf of Mottama, a thick sequence of unconsolidated
fine sediments transported by Sittaung River is notable.
10.6.4. Historical Seismicity
Earthquakes which occurred around Yangon and Bago areas during the years of 1927 to
1931 were considered as the active mechanism of the Sagaing and associate faults.
Chhibber (1934) suggested the 1930 earthquake (RF 9; M = 9.3) of Bago has been caused
by isostatic adjustment of deltaic load. Though the epicenter of this record had not been
known, his interpretation indicates that origin of such seismicity would exist in the farther
south of Bago, and probably in the Gulf of Mottama. Also, 1927 Yangon earthquake (RF
7; M = 7.0) was recorded as had been felt in Hanthawaddy, Insein, Tharrawaddy, Maubin
and Dedaye; so it can be concluded that the epicenter would have been somewhere west
and northwest of Yangon.
10.6.5. Fault plane solution and earthquake proneness
According to recorded moment tensor solutions during last three decades (Fig. 16.2),
there occurred two different types of sources of earthquakes in this area. Generally,
normal fault-induced earthquakes were focused in the Gulf of Mottama, and strike slip
fault-induced earthquakes have been originated onshore, south of Bago and west of
Yangon. Magnitudes of earthquakes seem not too large however; higher intensity was felt
possibly because of the unconsolidated basement and high groundwater table that
strengthen the seismic waves.

72
 Taungoo

20 km BAGO

Fig. 10.6 Map of Structural Segment 4 (left) and Landsat image (right); note that
dextral Papun Fault (east side) and thrust (west side) have similar trend
with different structural style to have been partitioned by the Sagaing
Fault

73
 Chapter 11

Structural Interpretations

11.1. General Statement

As none of the structures have been formed after its unique event, the term structural
association is applied for a structure and its neighbours which were possibly the product
of single tectonic stress regime. In this chapter, Sagaing fault is made relative with other
(probably) contemporaneous structural features occurred in the region, emphatically in
Myanmar territory, in accordance with theoretical and recent structural concepts.

11.2. Fault geometry and patterns

An account on geographical and geometrical information is tabulated here. In collecting
basic data, Prof. Dr. U Thein is worthy of credit for his contribution in MGS Colloquium
on Sagaing Fault (2005).

11.2.1. Geometrical Data

(1) Orientation (Strike) of the Fault

The fault trend is generally N-S, but depending possibly on the rocks accommodate,
changes in orientation occur throughout between N 357˚ to N7˚ azimuth directions. It is
remarkably straight between latitudes 17˚ N (near Bago) to 24˚N (Tigyaing – Tagaung)
for a distance of 750 km.
(2) Dip and Sense of movement along the fault
The fault is approximately vertical that exhibits in geophysical and seismological data.
Displacement is almost lateral. Vertical displacement is occasionally observed in its
northern and southern ends where alignment of host fracture has changed. Minor vertical
components are also seen in associated nearly parallel faults along the main fault because
of its releasing and restraining bands occur along.
(3) Length (on shore)
About 1180 km (740 miles)
(4) Type of Fault
Right-lateral (dextral) strike-slip fault
(5) Fault zone and locking depth
Width of the fault zone is variable; generally 2 to 5 km; wider up to 250 km zones in its
(southern) extensional horsetail termination and up to 100 km in the (northern)
compressional termination.
Locking depth of the fault is estimated to be about 15 km, shallower in the south than in
the north (Vigny et al., 2003).

74
Fig. 11.1 Compressional horsetail termination of the Sagaing Fault in the eastern
Himalayan Syntaxis (after GIAC, 1999)

Fig. 11.2 Extensional horsetail termination of the Sagaing Fault in the Andaman Sea
(after GIAC, 1999)

75
11.2.2. Fault Patterns
1. Extensional horsetail termination
Propagation of the fault is found as extensional 250 km-wide horsetail in the Andaman
Sea. A series of NE-trending half-grabens are observed to be linked with two main
southern bifurcation of the Sagaing fault (Bago Fault or East Sagaing Fault and Sagaing
Fault or West Sagaing Fault).
2. Compressional horsetail termination
The fault ceases its lateral activity in the Segment 1 around the locality (Lat 27˚00′N,
Long 97˚30′E) south of the northern city of Putao; and seems transferred its strain into
Mishmi Thrust, an eastern continuation of Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). The disrupted
ophiolites and metamorphic suite of the Western (Rakhine-Chin) Ranges are also
restricted by the northernmost segment of the fault.
3. Patterns of fault where the main fracture is rather linear in the Central Myanmar
Fundamentally, patterns along the fault in the Central Myanmar Basin are accepted as of
typical simple shear deformation occurred after a certain amount of strain during India-
Asia Plate Convergence. To resolve the structures occurred, the following principles are
applied.

(1) Displacement between 2 semi-rigid blocks is accommodated by deformation

within a prevailing mobile zone.
(2) Pattern of history of strain ellipse in simple shear deformation path is predictive
guide to variety of structures that form within the shear zone.

To negotiate the theoretical considerations and what we found in reality, the basic
question is how can elongation of major strain ellipse axis and shortening of minor axis
be accommodated by distinct structures (inhomogenous deformation)? We could not
neglect an underlying ductile shear zone with a major component of simple shear
influencing the pattern of brittle structures in the overlying crust.
After studying several examples of simple shear deformation both in the field, and in the
laboratory experiment, structural geologists accept the following sets of en echelon
features in isolation or in combination that are possible to form.
Structure within Fault Zones (Simple Shear Deformation)
R Reidel shear (synthetic shear)
P P-shear
X X-shear (not common)
R´ Conjugate Reidel shear (antithetic shear)
Y Y-shear (Plane parallel shear)
These structures are illustrated in the fig. 11.3. This basic scenario is to be taken through
an evolution and getting significant complexity. Key aspect of this is rotation component.
Again, faults can rotate out of an appropriate position for slip and new faults develop.

76
 45°
X 3
1 R´

R
Y
P

1
3

Fig. 11.3 Structures in the Plane of 1 and 3 (the plane in which all deformation
occur) of a Dextral Shear Zone (see explanation in the text)

However, some problems and shortcomings associated with this model exist.

 It assumes to start out with homogeneous material. What happens if faults

localizes along previously existing structure?
 It does not address history of linkages that must develop with time. This model
can be well applied to explain the early formational history of a transcurrent zone,
but not the 90% or so of the activity afterwards.
They are also true for interpreting tectonics contemporaneous with the Sagaing Fault in
which changes in style of displacement of some associated faults like Momeik Fault
(older right-lateral separation and younger left-lateral separation are found) and Papun
Fault Zone (older left-lateral displacement and thrusting to younger right-lateral
propagation and normal faults). In fig. 11.4, a new model of progressive strain for the
simple shear deformation (after Waldron, 2005) is illustrated with structures around the
Sagaing Fault. Considering the rotational component as a key factor, and Sagaing Fault
as one of an exhibition of the dextrally shearing mobile zone, at least three stages of
deformation, which might have occurred progressively in Myanmar territory.
(1) Initial convergence of Indian Ocean and Eurasia, subduction and thrust sheets
verging to both sides (duplexes), including Shan Scarp and Proto-Sagaing Fault
Zones, took place normal to the 1, granitoids in the western margin of Shan
Plateau emplaced as core to the mountain belt; sinistral displacement in Ruili
(Shweli), Kyaukme, Papun (Maeping) Faults in Sunda Block occurred in
antithetic riedel shear; opening of Andaman Sea Basin
(2) Clockwise rotation of the Burma Plate and thrust faults in the eastern (Shan Scarp,
Papun) and western (Kabaw, Disang) margin of central Myanmar Basin started to

77
Fig. 11.4 Structures commonly associated
with progressive simple shear
deformation (bottom to top)
(reproduced from Waldron,
2005), and comparative study on
Sagaing Fault and associated
structures in Myanmar territory
(Older activity are shown in blue
color and younger activities are
indicated in red color)
R´

(3) R

R´

3

1

R´

78 R
 occur dextral displacement; blocks along the Momeik fault moved sinistrally;
(4) Progressive rotation; dextral activity along longitudinal faults in the western
ranges, Sagaing Fault, Shan Scarp, Papun and Three Pagodas faults; sinistral
activity continue in the Momeik, Kyuakme and Ruili (Shweli) fault system,
thrusting in central Myanmar Basin and progressive development of Bago Yoma
Ranges
It is true that more field observation and geochronological works are required to
neutralize the above sequence, which has tried only to preliminarily solve the distribution
patterns of lineaments in our territory. Moreover, many problems still exist, such as strain
partitioning of a single shear (NW trending central Basin Thrust sheets and NW oriented
Papun Fault) across the Sagaing Fault; and distribution of continuous structures in
Yunnan and Thailand.

79
 Chapter 12

Age and Displacement of the Sagaing Fault

12.1. General Statement

By knowing geology in detail of a fault, its age and displacement can be estimated. For
the Sagaing fault, several workers made assessment on such data since the first work of
Win Swe (1970). As contact relationship is the most appropriate ways to perform this
judgment, geologists tried to find offset equivalent across the fault firstly, and then
referred the youngest unit among them is applied to suggest the age and the oldest, to
calculate the displacement. In this chapter, resultant data of workers on the Sagaing Fault
are reviewed despite no conclusion is made as it is possible that more findings and (or)
perhaps new and better approaches will contribute better results closer to the truth.

12.2. Age Estimation

Since the early work of Win Swe (1970), the fault was recognized as an active one, which
had probably reactivated along the old fracture. He suggested the age of strike slip
activity as late Quaternary, by studying geology of Sagaing Ridge. Curray et al. (1979)
postulated the age as 11 Ma which was also the time of postulated first rifting in the
Andaman Sea.
Bertrand et al. (1999b) suggested the age of metamorphism along the Mogok
Metamorphic Belt as Oligocene to Lower Miocene though they could not determine the
possible temporal relationship between this belt and the Sagaing Fault. Later, Bertrand
and Rangin (2003) estimated the possible age of the fault as 5 Ma, based on their finding
of the oldest oceanic crust in the Andaman Sea spreading center.
Curray (2005) determined the age of the fault as 32 Ma, after extensive works in the
Andaman Sea. Also, he reviewed suggestion of Tankard et al. (1998) and proposed the
age of the fault perhaps middle to late Eocene (44 Ma) after some plate rotation had
already occurred and the convergence direction became increasingly more oblique.

12.3. Amount and Rate of Displacement

Mitchell (1981) described the displacement in the name Hninzee-Sagaing Fault, in
studying ophiolite bodies along the western ranges and those of the Tagaung-Myitkyina
Belt as of offset equivalents, and attributed to excess of 300 km of offset. As the
estimation was based on assumption of separately distributed outcrops of similar rock
types, it is highly controversial as these rock bodies are not yet confirmed to be of single
origin or continuous one (see Hutchison, 1975; Myint Thein et al., 1991; Soe Thura Tun,
1999; Hla Htay, 2001).
Based on opening of the Andaman Sea, Curray et al. (1979, 1982) suggested that the total
offset of the Sagaing Fault might be as much as 460 km. Their consideration was well-
equipped and factual however, the measurement they obtained may belong not only on
the Sagaing Fault, but also to Great Sumatra Fault and its associates, which are the

80
southern extension of the Sagaing Fault in similar displacement as both of them were
produced by the opening of the Andaman Sea as a pull-apart basin.
Ba Than Haq (per. Comm., 1986, in Curray, 2005) observed offset of a Permo-Triassic
limestone of 444 km across the fault.
Hla Maung (1987) also estimated the displacement along the fault to be between 425 and
460 km his idealistic reconstruction of Chindwin and Ayeyarwaddy rivers as previously
of a single channel and present day offsets. The sequence of events he suggested are: (1)
right-lateral bending of the river (in the form of a "Z-shaped" course) across the fault; (2)
lengthening of the right-lateral bend for a distance of 425 km by continuous dextral slip
on the fault; and (3) rejoining with the original Chindwinn river by either stream piracy,
or avulsion process. His idea on displaced channels has been interesting though it is
highly hypothetical. Khin Zaw (1989) and Myint Thein et al. (1991) criticized the
weakness of his interpretation; mainly for speculation relied on river channels which are
Quaternary geomorphic features.
Myint Thein et al. (1991) stated that the Mayathein metamorphics and Sagaing
metamorphics north of Sagaing were continuous until late Oligocene or early Miocene
and were now offset 203 km (see Chapter 4). Their work was the result of fairly detailed
geological mapping along the fault line and had been impressive on several later workers
to apply as measurement the best possible to date though there were still some questions
to solve.
Guzman-Speiziale and Ni (1993) calculated rates of opening of the Central Andaman
Basin and offset along the Sagaing Fault from earthquake seismic moments. Using
earthquakes from 1964 to 1986, it exhibits rates of only 0.5 and 5mm yr-1, respectively.
Using earthquakes back to 1908, they obtained a rate of 57 mm yr-1, for the Sagaing
Fault.
Pivnik et al. (1998) suggested that Burma (Myanmar) Plate would have originated during
the early Tertiary as a west-facing continental margin of Southeast Asia. This margin was
later detached by oblique subduction and moved mostly northward with respect to
Southeast Asia, while most likely moving southward with respect to the approaching
India plate. Because of possible movement of the Burma Block during the collision
process, the Sagaing Fault was expected to have initial left-lateral motion before the
long right-lateral separation throughout its history.
Bertrand (1999a) estimated the amount of motion of the Sagaing Fault at about 150 km
and velocity at 10 to 25 mm yr-1, after completion of the GIAC project.
Vigny et al. (2003) concluded that the Sagaing Fault motion today is less than 20 mm yr-1
of the total of 35 mm yr-1 of the India/Sundaland strike-slip motion. The remainder of the
motion is accommodated by distribution of deformation over a wide zone.

81
Curray (2005) explained the spreading history along the Sagaing Fault. In his words,
northward motion of the Myanmar sliver plate occurred as a result of the oblique
convergence, and westward extension occurred as a result of the component of normal
convergence like other backarc extensional basins. The relative northwest motion of the
block west to the sliver fault was oblique, a resultant vector of the normal extension and
the north-south sliver faulting. Total offset of the Sagaing Fault during this spreading
history should be just the northward component, 332 km, rather than the vector sum of
the sliver block of 389 km toward 327. These reconstructions, therefore, predict total
offset of the Sagaing Fault as somewhere between the extremes previously published of
203 (Myint Thein et al., 1991) and 460 km (Curray et al., 1979).

82
 Chapter 13

Mineralization and the Sagaing Fault

13.1. General Statement

Though the Sagaing Fault has been known in bad reputation because of its nature in
association with highly destructive earthquakes, occurrence of precious metals, mainly
gold, along and near it has been thought to be related to tectonism. Origins of such
occurrences have been still in debate however, in this chapter some schools of thought
that mentioned the possible relationship of mineralization and the Sagaing Fault are
discussed. In accordance with published and unpublished papers and report that are
accessible for the present author, (i) Seismic pumping and epithermal mineralization,
having higher possibilities to be related with the Sagaing Fault (ii) Intrusions east of the
Sagaing Fault and probable mesothermal mineralization, and (iii) Allochthonous
mineralization, are listed here, as they have at least spatial and (or) temporal relationship
with the Sagaing Fault. There have been rather strong ideas and evidences explaining
some of these deposits to have separate origins to the present structure, and also much
more studies are still requiring to approve these speculations, the present work is
dedicated just as an outline for later observations.

13. 2. Seismic Pumping and Epithermal Mineralization

In the northern Myanmar, primary gold occurrences have been reported in or near the
Sagaing fault zone since last few decades. Specifically, Kaw Lin City which situated 200
km north of Mandalay is well-known for its gold deposit(s) around. Wilson (1987)
performed a photogeological work and interpreted structural control on gold
mineralization. Ye Myint Swe (1991) conducted a detailed study in the Kyukpahto area is
that of mineralogy and petrology in the Kyaukpahto gold mine (approximate Lat. N
23˚47´, Long. E 95˚58´).
According to their contributions, epithermal gold mineralization has been controlled by
NE extensional fractures in the transtension of Sagaing Fault Zone. Ye Myint Swe
(submitted) described other two gold prospects south of Kyaukpahto where similar
structural environment occurs. Wilson (1987) suggested such mineralization that
“Seismic Pumping” meaning that gold-bearing hydrothermal fluids rises through
transtensional fractures toward shallow depths where they mineralized epithermal
deposits.

13.3. Mesothermal Mineralization east of the Sagaing Fault

13.3.1. Other gold occurrences closed to the Sagaing Fault
Other gold occurrences, reported to be formed of mesothermal mineralization fluids, are
observed along the east side of the Sagaing Fault significantly (Mitchell et al., 2004).
(Fig. 13.1). Reported occurrences of gold veins along Sagaing Fault Zone such as
Thabeikkyin (approximate Lat. N 22˚53´, Long. E 95˚58´), Pyinmana (approximate Lat.
N 19˚44´, Long. E 96˚12´) and Taungoo (approximate Lat. N 18˚56´, Long. E 96˚25´)

83
 Kyaukpahto Thayetsu
Kabani
Phayaung Taung

Lebyin
Modi Taung
Thayetkon

Mokpalin

Fig. 13.1 Approximate location of primary gold occurrences along the Sagaing Fault
(Base map: Microsoft Encarta 2005)

84
areas have possibilities to have mutual relationship with transtensional fractures of the
Sagaing Fault though confirmation could not have been done. Though almost all of them
are accepted as of mesothermal origin by exploration geologists, it is undeniable that they
are confined to the zone of brittle deformation.
Although no detailed study has come out like that of Kyaukpahto, the present study
suggests most of them have been emplaced in structural control of the Sagaing Fault in
accordance with following remarks.
(1) all the mineralized localities are found closely, in a zone about 50 km east of the
main fracture of the Sagaing Fault;
(2) in all the localities, gold is found in hydrothermal quartz veins, distinctly not
related to the type of host rocks except for the accommodation;
(3) general trends of mineralized veins are parallel to the synthetic shear planes of the
Sagaing Fault i.e., NW, NNW and NNE; and cross-cut by antithetic faults;
(4) mineralization occurred in rocks of different ages (ranging in pre-Paleozoic to
Tertiary);
(5) veins are not confined to a unique terrain but are observed in a variety of hosts
like sandstones, slate belt, intrusive rocks, and particularly in carbonate rocks.

13.3.2. Other Possibilities

To explain the gold mineralization without considering present day active Sagaing Fault
system, and also to be harmonized with above facts, two following origins have to be
proposed in present study.
1. Proto-Sagaing (older) shear zone that influenced the eastern area of the present
day Sagaing fault system
Papun Fault system (Wanchao or Mae Ping Fault in Thai territory) has been
evidenced to occur in sinistral separation and a rather large zone of positive
flower faults have been formed about in the Shan Plateau. If present
mineralization system would have been older than Neogene, Papun Fault System
would be the main actor to produce fractures forming pathway for mineralizing
fluids. As discussed in the previous chapter, in accordance with rotation in the
progressive simple shear, previous extensional fractures became shear and
compressional ones, hence structural control of gold mineralization could not
clearly be determined whether it occurred in proto-Sagaing or Sagaing fractures,
unless sufficient radiochronological data are available.
2. Granitoid and related intrusives along the western marginal zone of the Shan
Plateau
Granitoid bodies, mainly of Mesozoic and (or) somewhat younger in age, which
occur east of the Sagaing Fault (Central Granitoid Belt of Khin Zaw, 1990) are
considered here as root of an eroded volcanic arc (see also, Bertrand, 1999a;
Mitchell et al., 2004) and possible source of mineralizing fluid.

85
13.4. Allochthonous Mineralization
Further to the gold mineralization, some mineral occurrences are also reported to have a
closed spatial relationship with the Sagaing fault. A distinguished one is diamond, which
occurs in young sediments at Momeik, Taungoo and Theindaw (Myeik) areas (T.T. Win
et al., 2001), all of which are found in an arbitrary line having north-south trend, a few
kilometers east of the fault, despite the last one is out of the reach (further south) of the
Sagaing Fault.
Though we cannot say whether they were related to Sagaing Fault or to other mechanism,
and also there are some reported occurrences of similar minerals in Myanmar (e.g., Tanai
area), their occurrence in alluvial sediments without distinct provenance suggests that it
could be associated with a young and North-trending tectonic boundary.

86
 PART V

ROLE OF SAGAING FAULT IN THE

SEISMOTECTONICS OF MYANMAR

87
 Chapter 14

Seismicity along the Sagaing Fault

14.1. General Statement

As a major active tectonic feature, as well as a tectonic plate boundary, the Sagaing fault
has a rather large record of seismicity. In this part, a compilation of historic earthquakes
and present day seismicity along the fault are tabulated (see Table 14.1).

14.2. Historical Seismicity

Several severe earthquakes occurred along the Sagaing fault zone, especially in the
Segment 1 (Putao-Indawgyi), Segment 2 (Tagaung-Sagaing), and Segment 4 (Taungoo-
Bago). Here, a compilation report (Table 14.1) is produced mainly based on the records
of Chhibber (1934), Gorshkov (1961) and U Thawbita (1976), and also review of Win
Swe (1980), and Le Dain et al. (1984).

14.3. Present day Seismicity of Myanmar

Contemporaneously, weak to moderate earthquakes occurred along the Sagaing Fault
during last 13 years, out of the 3792 events in Myanmar territory recorded by USGS (Fig.
14.1). In the period of last 30 years, 26 earthquakes (M>3) have been detected by world’s
seismograph and indicated their epicenters to fall along the Sagaing Fault (Fig. 14.2).
Epicenters of the earthquakes also show that Structural Segments 1, 2, 4 and 5 are
seismically active, and Segment 3 seems rather inactive at least for a while. We could not
know whether this segment is a low seismicity area or just a seismicity gap for a certain
period of time (see also Chap. 10).
Maung Thein and others (2003) proposed a Seismic zone map of Myanmar and revised in
2005 (Fig. 14.3). in their words, the map has been constructed based on regional and
local seismotectonics with special reference to major active faults, past earthquake data,
records, and information including intensity maps in MM scale, distribution and density
of earthquake epicentres with M ≥ 5.0, and spatially correlated peak horizontal ground
acceleration (PGA) computed for various seismic events. Out of this work, they presented
a statistical illustration of distribution of epicenters along the Sagaing Fault region (Fig.
14.4) (Maung Thein and Tint Lwin Swe, 2005).
After the Sumatra Earthquake (M=9.3, 26 December 2004), earth scientists of the
international universities have given comments on possible seismic risk for Myanmar
territory. Vigny et al. (2005) suggested the Sumatra earthquake increased stress on
adjacent segments, further south on the Sumatran trench, but also further north on the
Arakan (Rakhine) trench in Myanmar. The Mw 8.7, (28 March 2005) earthquake was
noted as a first consequence of that. In addition, strain favoring future rupture was
denoted to have probably been added on the strike-slip system behind the subduction: the
Great Sumatran fault in Sumatra and the Sagaing fault in Myanmar. However, Stein and
Okal (2005) explained the variation of convergence direction along the Sumatra rupture

88
Fig. 14.1 Map of earthquakes occurred in Myanmar territory (depths are shown in
colors) NEIC rectangular grid search (1993 to March 2006); total 3792
events

89
 28.00

27.00

26.00

25.00

24.00

23.00

22.00

21.00

20.00

19.00
Latitude N

18.00

17.00

16.00

15.00

14.00

13.00

12.00

11.00

10.00
94.00

95.00

96.00

97.00

98.00

Longitude E

Fig. 14.2 Shallow Seismicity along the Sagaing Fault (1976-to date). Focal
Mechanisms are from Harvard CMT Catalogue

90
Fig. 14.3 Seismic Zone Map of Myanmar revised by Maung Thein and others
(2005)

91
Fig. 14.4 Apparent segmentation of the Sagaing Fault into three parts on mainland
Myanmar as indicated by the cluster of earthquake epicentres (left) and
relative frequency of earthquake occurrences (right).Two seismic gaps in
the Yamethin-Meiktila and Bago areas can be noted. (Earthquakes with
magnitude ≥ 5 for the period 1964-2004) (Maung Thein and Tint Lwin
Swe, 2005)

zone and cessation of the rupture because of the strike-slip motion at the north end
around the southern tip of the Rakhine Ranges of Myanmar. In fact, they concluded that
strain accumulated from subduction of India beneath Myanmar on the northern part of the
rupture has also been released as the entire aftershock zone slipped, and left no
immediate danger of a large tsunami being generated by slip on this segment of the plate
boundary, because such earthquakes should be at least 400 years apart.
Rangin et al. (2005) suggested that the Sunda trench segment located between Coco
Islands and Bangladesh has been elastically loaded and could be the source for the next
major earthquake in this region. Kerry Sieh (California Institute of Technology) and
Satoru Ohya (Oyo Corporation) personally gave similar comments that Sittway area
(Northern Rakhine Coast) had serious seismic risk for the near future.

92
 Table 14.1 List of historical earthquakes recorded along Sagaing Fault
Date Location Magnitude or brief description
868 Bago Shwemawdaw Pagoda fell
875 Bago Shwemawdaw Pagoda fell
1429 Innwa Fire-stoping enclosure walls fell
1467 Innwa Pagodas, solid and hollow, and brick monasteries destroyed
24, July, 1485 Sagaing 3 well known pagodas fell
1501 Innwa Pagodas, etc. fell
13, September, 1564 Bago Pagodas including Shwemawdaw and Mahazedi fell
1567 Bago Kyaikko Pagoda fell
1582 Bago Umbrella of Mahazedi Pagoda fell
1588 Bago Pagodas, and other buildings fell
1590 Bago The Great Incumbent Buddha destroyed
6, June, 1620 Innwa Ground surface broken, river fishes were killed after quake
10, September, 1646 Innwa
11, June, 1648 Innwa
1, September, 1660 Innwa
3, April, 1690 Innwa
15, September, 1696 Innwa 4 well known pagodas destroyed
8, August, 1714 Innwa Pagodas, etc. fell; the water from the river gushed into the city
4, June, 1757 Bago Shwemawdaw Pagoda damaged
April, 1762 Innwa
27, December, 1768 Bago Ponnyayadana Pagoda fell
15, July, 1771 Innwa
9, June, 1776 Innwa A well known pagoda fell
26, April, 1830 Innwa
21, March, 1839 Innwa Old palace and many buildings demolished;
23, March, 1839 Innwa pagodas and city walls fell; ground surface broken; the river's flow was reversed
for sometime; Mingun Pagoda shattered
23, July, 1884 Yangon
8, October, 1888 Bago Mahazedi Pagoda collapsed
6, March, 1913 Bago Shwemawdaw Pagoda lost its finial
5, July, 1917 Bago Shwemawdaw Pagoda fell
10, September 1927 Yangon
17, December 1927 Yangon M=7; extended to Dedaye
8, August, 1929 Near Bent railroad tracks, bridges and culverts collapsed, and loaded trucks
Taungoo overturned (Swa Earthquake)
5, May, 1930 Near M=7.3, Imax=IX; in a zone trending north-south for 37 km south of Bago (on
Khayan the Sagaing Fault line)
3, December, 1930 Nyaunglebin M=7.3, railroad tracks twisted (Pyu Earthquake)
27, January, 1931 East of M=7.6, Imax=IX; numerous fissures and cracks
Indawgyi (Myitkyina Earthquake)
10, August, 1931 Pyinmana
27, March 1931 Yangon
16, May 1931 Yangon
21, May 1931 Yangon
12, September, 1946 Tagaung M=7.5
12, September, 1946 Tagaung M=7.75
16, July, 1956 Sagaing Several pagodas severely damaged

93
 Chapter 15

Controlling factors and possibilities

15.1. General Statement

As much as we have known to date, predicting earthquake for a specific location and time
has not been possible. Though the scientists concerning this subject, specifically
seismologists, structural geologists, geodesists, and geophysicists tried for a few decades
to successfully perform this task, no proved and evidenced forecast has been a success.
However, they could bring out the possible origin for each of almost all earthquakes, and
contribute factors controlling the region for earthquakes to occur, and become successful
to predict the possibility of earthquake for a specified quadrant after detailed studies, in
spite of being unable to know specific time and magnitude. The Sagaing Fault (and
related structures) has been known to play a major role for large earthquakes in
Myanmar. The following discussions are made in the background of available data on
structural geology, tectonics, and seismic moment tensor solutions of the area along the
fault to interpret controlling factors and earthquake possibilities. Detailed observations
are still required.

15.2. Factors possibly controlling the seismicity along the fault

15.2.1. Nodes: pressure ridges

As we studied in the previous sections, the Sagaing Fault is composed of associated
parallel fractures, en echelon or overlaps, inverted thrust sheets, diagonally aligned folds,
and several structures representing typical wrench faults other than the straight and
prominent main fracture seen on geological maps and satellite images. Moreover, as the
fault itself is one of the strain releasing elements in India-Asia convergence, other
elements like synthetic and antithetic riedel shear fractures should not be neglected in
view of seismicity. However, if we take into account the main fracture as a source of
earthquakes, pressure ridges and (or) structures formed in restraining zone are one of the
considerable points in generating seismicity. In Table 15.1, some historical earthquakes
and their structures acted as sources for earthquakes are extracted from Bonilla (1979) to
be food for thought.
Locking or Restraining bands are commonly originated in
(a) linkage of en echelon or overstepping structures
(b) heterogeneity of the basement and
(c) changes in kinematics.
A lot of pressure ridges known to occur along the Sagaing Fault may owe their origin to
one of the three causes mentioned above (Figure 15.1). Among such causes, the third
possibility is the primary one we have evidenced with paleomagnetic patterns however; it
seems untrue for every feature because both restraining as well as releasing bands are
configured throughout the activity of the fault. Even in the Bago area, both of them were
well mapped (Lei Lei Min, 2003); it is proved not only this solution cannot explain the
problem but also the former two origins could not be rejected. Therefore, the cause of the

94
A. Linkage of en echelon or
overstepping structures
B. Heterogeneity of the basement

3

Restraining

Releasing

1

C. Changes in kinematics

Fig. 15.1 Illustrations on possible origins of en echelon structures in Sagaing right-

lateral strike slip fault

95
 Table 15.1 Some historical earthquakes and their source structures (Bonilla, 1979)
Name of Fault
Year Country R.M. Remarks
Earthquake Type*
1891 Japan Nobi unknown ss Large en echelon stepovers; selective
use of preexisting faults
1927 Japan Tango 7.6 ss Large en echelon stepovers; conjugate
fault
1930 Japan North Izu 7.1 ss Two parallel traces; conjugate fault;
appearance in tunnel
1943 Japan Tottori 7.4 ss Subsurface rupture apparently longer
than geologic fault at surface
1944 Turkey Gerede 7.4 ss Largest stepover reported for any
historic strike slip fault; parallel traces
1957 Mongolia Gobi-Altai 8.0 ss or Number of and displacements on
ros subsidiary faults, and their distance
from main fault; possible new faulting
locally
1959 U.S.A. Hebgen 7.1 n Irregular rupture pattern; relation of
surface faulting to focal mechanism
Solutions and aftershocks; possible new
faulting locally
1968 Australia Meckering 7.0 rv Irregular rupture pattern; subsidiary
faults on footwall as well as hanging
wall; new Faulting locally; discordance
between surface faulting and focal
mechanism solution
1970 Turkey Gediz 7.2 n Irregular rupture pattern; relation of
surface faulting to focal mechanism
solutions and aftershocks
*ss, strike slip; ros, reverse oblique slip; rv, reverse slip; n, normal slip

en echelon structures along the fault can be concluded here as, composite of such origins
and may have variation in participation or intensity of each of them place by place.
In considering seismicity for the Sagaing fault, having a lot of pressure ridges in a variety
of origins, composite of the former two causes is proposed here to generate the
earthquakes. Strain accumulation may occur in line with the heterogeneity of the
lithospheric plate, and in appropriate to the path given by antithetic oblique shear
fracture. The fault produces overstep to release the strain however; release of energy
during the moment of such transfer might be one of the sources of earthquake. Moreover,
as the path of stress transfer is an antithetic fault, it is considerable in estimating
earthquakes that not only lateral slip but also vertical or reverse slip can be accompanied
(see fig. 15.1 A) for such structures.

96
 Fig. 15.2 Map of Sagaing fault system in Taungoo – Pyinmana quadrangle where
two synthetic faults join to occur rotations in wedged blocks; moment
solutions of earthquakes (September 2003) indicates both strike slip
and thrust mechanisms of fault plane (data: Harvard CMT catalogue;
base map: Microsoft Encarta)

Fig. 15.3 Elastic loading across Sagaing fault (Vigny et al., 2003). Fault parallel
velocity component in mm yr-1 (dots) as a function of distance to fault
trace. Green, red and blue circles represent northern, central, and southern
transects fault parallel velocities, respectively. The solid curved line shows
the best fit profile obtained for a locking depth of 15 km. Vertical dashed
line shows location of the Sagaing fault, 17 km west of the elastic
dislocation.

97
15.2.2. Synthetic Faults

Along the Sagaing Fault, faults with similar displacement (dextral or right-lateral strike
slip) occur as synthetic fault sets (see also Chapter 11).
Some examples within this aspect are dextral shear along Papun Fault and Tayintaung-
Gwegyo thrust occurring in NW oriented fracture alignments. Seismic risk is possible
during rotation of blocks in between the junction of them in acute angles with the
Sagaing fault system. Possibility of seismic moment is thrust mechanism principally
because of compressional stress to occur during rotation of brittle lithospheric crust and
semi-brittle to semi-ductile upper asthenosphere.

15.2.3. Antithetic Faults

Antithetic faults commonly occur at an angle around 75˚ to the mobile zone (i.e. parallel
to the Sagaing Fault). Prominent example for Sagaing fault system is the Kyaukme-
Momeik-Shweli (Ruili) fault system having sinistral (left lateral) shear. As described in
chapter 11 (fig. 11.4), they might have been extensional (normal) faults in the early stage
of development of Sagaing Fault and later reactivated as oblique slip (sinistral reverse)
faults while the rotation of strain occurred. Seismic risk is due to such younger slip
component. Mogok Thrust is one of the seismically active faults in this system.

15.2.4. Control of basement rock types

As the Sagaing Fault is a rather long plate boundary, it passes terrains of various rock
types including Cenozoic sediments, granitoid bodies, medium- to high-grade
metamorphic rocks and young volcanic flows that were regionally mapped (Fig. 15.4).
Variation of such basement rocks in seismogenic zone (10-15 km; brittle-ductile
boundary) exists occasionally along its 1000 km distance and both en echelon overlaps
and variations in rate of displacement can occur at boundaries. Observable contacts
having contrast in competency and homogeneity of rock types are: -
(i) Taungoo – Pyinmana quadrangle where granitoids in the east side protrude
near the fault zone,
(ii) Sagaing – Mandalay area where basement of both sides are metamorphic
rocks
(iii) Singu – Thabeikkyin area where the fault passes volcanic field, sedimentary
rocks and metamorphic rocks
(iv) Kumon Ranges where the fault exists as contact of metamorphic rocks and
Cenozoic sediments.
Among them, granitoid terrain is the most interesting because of its ductility to
accommodate the strain in a certain degree, so accumulation before rupture may be
higher than that of the metamorphic areas.
15.2.5. Variation in rate of displacement along the fault
In general, displacement along the Sagaing Fault is 18 – 20 mm yr-1 however; variation
occurs periodically and rebounding elasticity may exist eventually for particular segment

98
of the main fracture. Recently, Vigny et al. (2003) proposed an elastic strain loading
observed in their annual GPS measurement in the area south of Mandalay (Fig. 15.3). In
their description, the rate of motion data collected from GPS points follow an arctangent
curve, and simultaneous inversion for the depth of locking, the velocity and the position
of the fault fit elastic model parameter corresponding to a fault plane locked at
approximately 15 km depth, with a far field velocity of 18 mm yr-1. It exhibits a
prominent example of elastic rebound theory which meant locking of the fault. It may
propagate an abrupt release of strain to produce an earthquake.
Also, the location of maximum shear strain is not centered on the surface geological fault
trace, but rather between the Sagaing fault and the Shan scarp that meant, the Shan Scarp
Fault might take a certain share of accommodation of the displacement along the plate
boundary in this area.
Not only in this Tagaung-Mandalay segment, but also other areas have possibility to take
different rate of displacement along the main fracture and accumulation of strain may
occur occasionally i.e., tending to produce earthquakes.

99
 97E

26N

24N 24N

22N

Sediments
Metamorphic outcrops
Granitoid bodies
20N Ultramafic bodies
Volcanic rocks

18N

96E 97E

Fig. 15.4 Simplified geological map along Sagaing Fault showing distribution of
major rock types

100
 PART VI

PROPOSED FORWARD PROGRAM

101
 Chapter 16

Tectonic Studies

16.1. General Statement

After reviewing previous works concerning Sagaing Fault, and its possible associates,
and their roles on regional geology and seismotectonics, works required to perform are
proposed in this chapter as preliminary outlines. Generally saying, two important
information i.e., bad and good results about the Sagaing Fault can be deduced such as (i)
possibility of present day seismicity and earthquake, and (ii) associated mineralization
and mineral resources potential respectively. To designate such interpretative data, detail
work on structural geology of the whole fault, recording activity or displacement of each
segment along the fault, collecting seismological data, mineralogy and geochronology of
structure-related rocks are required principally. Moreover, similar information on other
active faults, which are associated structures giving rise to release principal strain
occurring in this region are important to collect for interpreting threats and benefits of the
active tectonics of Myanmar.

16.2. Geological Mapping

As other studies concerning earth systems and earth resources, geological mapping is
essential not only in support of data collection and manipulation, but also for
interpretation and presentation purposes. Moreover, age and type of strata the fault pass
through or bounded within fault zone have to be focused for tectonic interpretations.
16.2.1. Present status of geological mapping along the Sagaing Fault
Win Swe (1970) has already mapped 70 miles along the fault zone from Sagaing to
Gwebinmaw Village, Thabeikkyin Township in scale of one inch to half mile (about
1:30000 scale). Myint Thein et al., (1981) mapped Sagaing to Zin about 100 miles and
Tagaung to Indaw covering 50 miles along the fault, in scale of one inch to four miles
(approximately 1:250000 scale) and Win Swe, Sone Han and San Lwin (1991) compiled
the segment from Bago to Madaya (about 300 miles) in the scale of one inch to four
miles.

16.3. Structural Geology in detail

As described before, only a few detail works have been performed on this fault.
Specifically, geological mapping of the whole fault system to configure its actual
position, related structures and basement it passes through are needed for further
interpretation and application for various purposes. In tables (16.1) and (16.2), types of
structural data to be collected and precise areas representing structural segments of the
fault are listed respectively.
To perform such works, cooperation with international organizations concerning
tectonics and seismology will be necessary to accelerate in various aspects, including
technical data collection, technical training for local participants, funding, and other

102
 Table 16.1(a) Types of structural data to be collected in studying the Sagaing Fault

No. Data Method(s) of data collection

(i) Lineament or fracture map
(ii) Distribution of principal stress
occurred
(iii) Basement rock types; and their
representative age
(iv) Distribution of en echelon
patterns
(v) Account of deeper structural
regime
(vi) relative displacement along
the main fracture and
associated active structures
Satellite images and airphoto interpretation
Field measurement of shear sense indicators, stereographic
projection and computer aided interpretation
Local geological mapping up to 1:25000 scale;
stratigraphic description and cross-cutting relationship;
paleontological or radiochronological data analyses
Detail geological mapping up to 1:10000 scale of
transtensional or transpressional features denoted from the
above map; measurement of rock cleavages
Analyzing folding: field data collection of ductile or brittle
or transitional behavior, measurement of stretching
lineations; collection of fault rocks and analyses of
structures in microscopic scale
monthly to annual measurement of pre-built monuments
on both sides, by high-precision GPS or angle
measurement instruments; comparison of old and present
day airphotos and images

Table 16.1(b) Other data to be collected in studying the Sagaing Fault

No. Data Method(s) of data collection

(i) Historical seismicity Reviewing historical records, including those of local
historical buildings like ancient pagodas and
monuments
(ii) Shallow seismicity Collecting data from all sources like NEIC (USGS),
ANSS, EMSC, Geofon, DMH and those from the
neighbouring countries etc.
(iii) Moment tensor solutions Collecting data from NEIC and Harvard CMT
catalogues
(vi) Tomography of cold and hot P-wave data collection and manipulation by using
crust beneath the territory, advanced software and mathematical modelling
especially along the fault zone
(v) Existence of hydrothermal Field checking, geochemical sample collection,
alteration zones laboratory test
(vi) Geophysical data All available geophysical measurements to be made
across and (or) along the fault line
(vii) Hydrogeological data Collection of hydrochemical data through tube well and
also of hand dug wells; and fluid dynamics by using
sensor in deep test wells

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 Table 16.2 Proposed sample areas for structural data collection along the Sagaing
Fault (2 km of both sides should be carried out to recognize the
macroscopic deformation)

Structural Geographic Populated place(s)

No. Brief Description
Segment Latitudes (N) in or nearby
(i) 5 16˚30˚ - 17˚15′ South of Bago to Southern end of the on-shore fault;
Khayan-Thongwa passes through alluvial sediments
(ii) 4 19˚00′ - 19˚45′ North of Taungoo, Junction with Papun fault (E) and
Thagaya, Pyinmana Gwegyo fault (W)
(iii) 3 20˚35′ - 20˚50′ Pyawbwe to Thazi En echelon features
(iv) 2 23˚00′ - 23˚15′ Male to Zin Inverted structures
(v) 1 2430 - 2445 Belumyo, Mohnyin Mega-scale tension gashes
District
(vi) 1 25˚15 – 25˚30′ North of Lake Western bifurcation of the fault
Indawgyi (Taikri Fault)
(vii) 1 25˚30′ - 2545 Kumon Range Eastern bifurcation of the fault
(Namyin Fault)
(viii) 1 2730 - 2745 Putao Change of fault type

available supports. The research should include encouragement on academic workers and
data collected by them is expected to be applicable for main project.

16.4. Recording displacement along the fault

As we have seen in the previous chapters, recording displacement along the fault by GPS
measurements of GIAC and extended GEODYSSEA projects could contribute a lot of
interesting and applicable data in estimation of the accommodation of India-Asia relative
movement along the fault as well as determination of the strain accumulated in specific
area. The latter is so much applicable to calculate probability of earthquakes, based on
type of basement and its variation with depth. In this section, methods applicable to
record the displacement are proposed.

16.4.1. Direct measurements

The methods that can be applied to measure the relative displacement directly are:

(1) Trenching: preparing a half to two meter deep trench across the fault where it
passes the consolidated rocks. This method is rather easy to use and low in cost
however is not possible to make precise and annual measurement as the
displacement is very small to be recognized.

104
 (2) Straight poles: preparing poles (at least two, preferably five with an interval of
twenty to fifty meters on both side of the fault) which have to be aligned
approximately perpendicular to the fault trace (depending on the alignment of the
fault for the area). A high precision theodolite should be applied in establishing
poles and biannual or annual measurement with precise angle measuring
instrument will result variation to calculate displacement. This survey should be
done at least once in a year. In case an earthquake strikes the area, we can get
displacements i.e. the effects of earthquakes quickly.

(3) Reciprocal angle measurement: establishing two or more poles roughly parallel to
the fault trace on both side and applying reciprocal survey method with angle
measuring instrument. This method uses the same instruments described above,
but wider angles are applied. Both of these methods (2) and (3) should be applied
for a certain area.

(4) Comparison of images or airphotographs taken in different time: if images or

airphotographs taken annually or in a certain range of time are available, direct
measurement of displacement between buildings or other landmarks across the
fault can be made in comparison. Generally, annual or seasonal images are not
easily available and also, limitation of scale deficits the accuracy of the
measurement. This method is useful especially to determine long range (30 to 100
years) displacement.

16.4.2. Indirect measurements

Geodetic positioning is the accurate method to measure the relative movement along the
fault indirectly. Temporal variation of GPS locality of established benchmarks across the
fault is the valuable baseline information useful for determining not only the
displacement along the fault, but also the absolute movement of both sides. Applying this
method by GEODYSSEA team, we could know both sides of the Sagaing Fault are
moving northward with different rates of motion, and could interpret ductile crust
beneath is moving to the north though the brittle fracture gives relative right lateral
displacement.

The following conditions have to be utilized in establishment of GPS points or

benchmarks.

(1) At least 4 points (2 for each side) have to be established for the same latitude (E-
W line)

(2) Stations must be in a straight line, and should be perpendicular to the fault line as
much as possible

(3) Stations close to the fault should be in narrow spacing (about 300 m interval) and
far from the fault can be in wide spacing (5 to 20 km interval)

105
 (4) For the main line of measurement to detect the long term tectonic activity and
movement of ductile crust, the stations should be established more than 50 km
interval, to avoid the errors after creeping and (or) slumping in the brittle crust.

(5) All the stations should be free from the shades of large trees, at least 15 m away
from them. The highest place in an area should be selected to establish the
benchmarks.

(6) Stations should be well guarded, to secure data collected each years, and should
not be interesting to children and rural peoples.

16.5. More academic work on structural geology

In Figure 16.1, a master plan to study the Sagaing Fault is proposed. To interpret the
tectonics and seismotectonics of the Myanmar territory, only studying the Sagaing Fault
could not cover the requirements. Research projects on active faults in Myanmar should
be performed in accordance with the fulfillments of qualified personnel, technical know-
how, and funding. Among the known and suspected active faults in Myanmar territory
(which are also described in Chapter 2), the author wishes to propose the followings to
perform structural geological research in order of importance.

(1) Tuyin Taung – Gwegyo Thrust and southeastern extension: This fault is one of
the east-verging thrust sheets undergoing the inversion of the Central Myanmar
Basin. Though the fault is not a large one, it passes the important and historic
cities like Bagan, Taundwingyi, and its southeastern extension is estimated to
extend into Taungoo-Pyinmana area until disruption by the Sagaing Fault.

(2) Kyaukkyan Fault: it is roughly parallel to the Sagaing Fault and recognized as a
branch of the Papun Fault Zone. An earthquake of large magnitude has occurred
on it in the early years of the last century and the fault passes near the cities of
Pyin Oo Lwin, Lawksauk, and Taunggyi.

(3) Mahu Taung - Tangyi Taung – Chauk Thrust: the fault is also one of the east-
verging thrust sheets in the Central Myanmar Basin inversion. Numerous oil
fields including Kyaukkwet, Lanywa, Chauk and Yenangyaung are situated on the
hanging wall of the fault.

(4) Kaladan – Mrauk-U Fault: it is one of the nearest associates of Sumatra –

Andaman Fault which accommodate subduction of Indian oceanic Plate beneath
Myanmar (Burma) Plate.

(5) Papun Fault: the fault is one of the largest faults in Myanmar and extends to the
southeast, into Thai territory. Though the fault lies along an old fracture, an
enormous amount of earthquakes occurred along the fault indicate its recent
activity. Important and observable faults in this fault zone are Panlaung Fault,
Kyaukkyan Fault and Pon-chaung Fault which has recognizable seismicity.

106
 Information Area of Working Results
Interest Group

Image Main Work

interpretation and (Project team)
geological mapping
On Main Joint Work
Structural Fracture (international  Data
Geological Studies (Sagaing cooperation) Compilation
Fault line) Individual  Interpretation
Reports  Group
Seismological Academic and Discussion
Studies work for scientific
On  Reporting
MSc, MRes articles
Associated  Publication
Geophysical Data and PhD
Fractures
collection students

Measurement of Individual
displacement along Project
the fault Assignments

Fig. 16.1 A master plan to study Sagaing Fault and related activities

16.6. Suggestions
As discussed in previous sections, to interpret the tectonics and seismotectonics of
Myanmar, studying the Sagaing Fault alone could not be completed. Other tectonics
features such as active faults, active or sub-recent volcanism, distribution and focal
mechanism of earthquakes of all considerable depths and activity of ductile crust denoted
from geodectic positioning and other available information have to be studied and watch
throughout time to fulfill these tasks. In this report, the author wishes to propose to
organize an Active Tectonic Research Center, to be formed with concerning government
departments, technical and scientific organizations, and individual scientists to perform
research in collaboration with international scholars. The work could be initiated from a
study group of such components and expected to be extendable in accordance with
available facilities and international cooperation. Myanmar is a small country in view of
political boundary however, its situation on an active tectonic zone that is playing in an
important role to active deformation of the region; so our possible research studies are
expected to contribute tectonics and seismotectonics of the region.

107
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