Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36

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Kinematics and dynamics of the Namche Barwa Syntaxis, eastern Himalaya:

Constraints from deformation, fabrics and geochronology
Zhiqin Xu a,⁎, Shaocheng Ji a, b, Zhihui Cai a, Lingsen Zeng a, Quanru Geng c, Hui Cao a
a
State Key Laboratory of Continental Tectonics and Dynamics, Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, PR China
b
Département des Génies Civil, Géologique et des Mines, École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada H3C 3A7
c
Chengdu Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources, Ministry of Land and Resources, Chengdu 610082, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Field observations, deformation and fabric analyses, and precise age data acquired by zircon SHRIMP, LA–ICP-MS
Received 27 January 2011 U–Pb and 40Ar–39Ar dating methods have yielded new constraints on the kinematics and dynamics of the
Received in revised form 24 June 2011 Namche Barwa Syntaxis (NBS) which is the eastern corner of the Himalaya. A two-stage model has been
Accepted 26 June 2011
established to explain the formation and evolution of the NBS. The northward indentation of the Indian plate
Available online 8 July 2011
beneath the Lhasa terrane began at 55–40 Ma, and crustal materials at this corner were subducted to depths
Keywords:
N 70 km where they experienced HP (UHP?) metamorphism. Since 40 Ma, large-scale, right-lateral strike–slip
Namche Barwa Syntaxis along the Sagaing fault has accommodated the rapid northward movement of the eastern Indian plate corner
Eastern Himalaya with respect to the Indochina block. This caused significant and progressive bending of the Indus-Yarlung suture
Tectonic deformation zone (IYSZ) such that it became the Dongjiu-Milin left-lateral, strike–slip, shear zone (DMSZ) in the west and the
Geochronology Aniqiao-Motuo right-lateral, strike–slip, shear zone (AMSZ) in the east. Both zones underwent strong
Geodynamics mylonitization. Meanwhile, the HP (UHP?) metamorphic rocks were rapidly exhumed, first into the deep crust
at 22–18 Ma and then to the shallow crust to form an antiformal dome at 6–2 Ma. Our model provides new insight
into the processes of post-collisional crustal thickening related to the formation of the Himalayan orogenic belt.
© 2011 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction western transpressional zone, which extends southward for ~1000 km

The Himalayan orogenic belt originated from the collision between
the Asian and Indian continents (Argand, 1924). The timing and
nature of metamorphism, deformation, denudation and uplift along
this belt and its lithospheric structure have been extensively studied
by many workers for several decades (e.g., Tapponnier et al., 1990,
2001; Harrison et al., 1992; Nelson et al., 1996; Hodges et al., 2000;
Yin and Harrison, 2000; Beaumont et al., 2001; Royden et al., 2008;
Replumaz et al., 2010; Aitchison et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2011; Zhang
et al., 2011). The Himalayan orogenic belt is a southward-protruding,
E–W trending, curved zone, ~2500 km long and 300–500 km wide. The
western and eastern terminations are named the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis
(NPS) and Namche Barwa Syntaxis (NBS), respectively (Fig. 1a). At each
of the syntaxes, Himalayan-parallel structures pass abruptly into
transverse transpressional zones. The eastern transpressional zone,
which extends N2000 km and joins the Indonesian arc belt, is composed
of the N–S striking, right-lateral, strike–slip Sagaing fault zone and the
Indo-Burman fold-thrust belt (e.g., Guzman-Speziale and Ni, 1996). The
⁎ Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Continental Tectonics and
Dynamics, Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, No. 26
Baiwangzhuang Road, Beijing 10037, PR China. Tel.: + 86 10 68999663; fax: + 86 10
68994781.
E-mail address: xuzhiqin@gmail.com (Z. Xu).
into Arabian Sea, consists of the NNE–SSW striking, left-lateral strike–
slip Chaman fault zone and the Kirthar-Sulaiman fold-thrust belt
(e.g., Wellman, 1966; Abdullah, 1979; Schelling, 1999). The wide region
lying east side of the NBS is characterized by southeastward extrusion
and escape of crustal materials through lateral movement along a series
of large, strike–slip fault zones, for example, the left-lateral Ailaoshan-
Red River shear zone, the right-lateral Lancangjiang shear zone and the
right-lateral Jiali-Gaoligong shear zone (Tapponnier et al., 1990; Leloup
et al., 1995).
The western and eastern Himalayan syntaxes are marked by
(1) steep topographic gradients; (2) changes in the Indus and Zangbo
Rivers that flow west and east, respectively, for hundreds of kilometers,
and then turn abruptly south to cut right across the antiformal
domes of Nanga Parbat and Namche Barwa (e.g., Brookfield, 1998);
(3) occurrences of rapidly exhumed, high pressure (HP) and ultrahigh
pressure (UHP) metamorphic rocks (e.g., Liu and Zhong, 1997; Ding
et al., 2001; Guillot et al., 2008), and (4) strong Cenozoic deformation,
metamorphism and magmatism that overprinted the Indian crystalline
basement (Burg et al., 1997; Seeber and Pêcher, 1998; Zeitler et al.,
2001a; DiPietro and Pogue, 2004; Xu et al., 2007, 2008; Booth et al.,
2009). Careful investigation of these extraordinary metamorphic
terranes can indisputably provide important constraints on the
kinematics and dynamics of formation and evolution of these syntaxes
since the beginning of the India–Asia collision at ~50 Ma.

1342-937X/$ – see front matter © 2011 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2011.06.010
20 Z. Xu et al. / Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36

Fig. 1. Simplified tectonic maps of the Himalayan orogenic belt (a) and the eastern Himalayan Syntaxis (b). NPS: Nanga Parbat Syntaxis; NBS: Namche Barwa Syntaxis; ATF: Altyn
Tagn Fault; IYSZ: Indus-Yarlung Suture Zone; HM: Himalaya; MBT: Main Boundary Thrust; SGF: Sagaing Fault; CMF: Chaman Fault; THU: Tethys Himalaya Unit; GHU: Great Himalaya
Unit; LHU: Lesser Himalaya Unit; SHU: Sub-Himalaya Unit; STD: South Tibetan Detachment; MCT: Main Central Thrust; MFT: Main Frontal Thrust; DMSZ: Dongjiu-Milin left-lateral
strike–slip shear zone; AMSZ: Aniqiao-Motuo right-lateral strike-slip shear zone; LTF: Lohit Thrust Fault; TSZ: Tidding Suture Zone.

The Indus-Yarlung suture zone (IYSZ) or the Indus-Yarlung Zangbo
suture, forms a sharply curved tectonic boundary between the
Gangdese continental margin of the Lhasa terrane and the NBS, and
is marked by dismembered ophiolites and mélange (Fig. 2). Available
data suggest that Cenozoic metamorphism and deformation reworked
the pre-existing Proterozoic rocks in the NBS. Peak metamorphism
(1.7–1.8 GPa, 870–897 °C) in the NBS occurred at ~60 Ma (Zhong and
Ding, 1996; Liu et al., 1998). Zircon SHRIMP U–Pb age data show that
the NBS has experienced at least 5 episodes of magmatic activity at
500–400 Ma, ~120 Ma, 70–40 Ma, 25–18 Ma and 10–3 Ma (Booth
et al., 2004, 2009; Zhang et al., 2010 a, 2011). The NBS was probably
initially subducted under the Lhasa terrane before ~40 Ma, and then
exhumed into the lower crust at 25–18 Ma and the upper crust in the
shape of an antiformal dome at 10–3 Ma. This dome is bounded by the
NE–SW striking, left-lateral, strike–slip Dongjiu-Milin shear zone
(DMSZ) in the west and the right-lateral, strike–slip Aniqiao-Motuo
shear zone (AMSZ) in the east (Zhang et al., 1992; Burg et al., 1998).
Tectonic models proposed for the development of the Himalayan
syntaxes include: (1) Crustal-scale folding under continental shortening
(Burg et al., 1998; 1999). This model was based on two-dimensional,
finite-element modeling of crustal shortening. Similarities between
geological data and numerical results allowed the authors to propose
that crustal buckling could be a basic response to the large-scale
continental shortening and thus an efficient process for mountain
building. (2) Indenter corner. The NBS is considered as an “indenter
corner” at the eastern edge of the Indian plate (Koons, 1995). Intense
deformation was mainly located at the original corner of the indenting
plate and propagated through time (Tapponnier et al., 1986; Royden et
al., 1997; Enlow and Koons, 1998). (3) Tectonic aneurysm. This model
assumes that erosion is one of the most important parameters driving
exhumation and that the middle and/or lower crustal rocks are
sufficiently weak to flow laterally and/or upward and consequently to
result in rapid exhumation (e.g., Beaumont et al., 2001; Zeitler et al.,
2001b; Koons et al., 2002; Royden et al., 2008). The fast exhumation
increases thermal gradients, moves the brittle-ductile transition to
shallower depths, causes decompressional partial melting, and allows
the rapid extrusion of middle and/or lower crustal rocks to the surface
(e.g., Zeitler et al., 2001b; Koons et al., 2002; Booth et al., 2009). The
above models have different predictions regarding the tectonic features
developed in the NBS.
Here we present our new results from detailed geological, petrolog-
ical and geochronological investigations of the NBS and its adjacent
areas. The data include field observations, tectonic reconstructions,
deformation and fabric kinematics, and new zircon SHRIMP, LA–ICP-MS
U–Pb and 40Ar–39Ar dates on a range of rocks. A new model is proposed
for the formation and evolution of the NBS based on the multi-

Fig. 2. Tectonic map (a) and cross-sections (b and c) of the Namche Barwa Syntaxis (updated from Geng et al., 2000). IYSZ: Indus-Yarlung suture zone; DMSZ: Dongjiu-Milin shear
zone; AMSZ: Aniqiao-Motuo shear zone; Unit I: Indus-Yarlung (IYSZ) suture zone; Unit II: Namche Barwa HP (UHP?) Complex or NBC (II1: Bilu slice; II2: Zhibai slice; II3: Qingqing-La
slice); Unit III: Duoxiong-La migmatitic dome (DMD); DF1: Ductile detachment between II1 and II2; DF2: Ductile thrust between II2 and II3; DF3: Ductile thrust between II3 and III. Unit
IV: Basement of Lhasa Terrane (LT).
 Z. Xu et al. / Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36 21

94.0 o E 95.0 E
o
A

LSZ
o
30.0 N LT 6-7
Layue 9
Polun
6-6
Dongjiu AM
6-4 SZ
II 1
6-2 River
6-1 Bilu
DF 1

bo
ng
05

Za
Lulang
II 2
Zhibai Namch Barwa
37
10
Gega DF2
12 11
Linzhi SZ 17
III
o
29.5 N DM 13
Pai
18
B 1 I Danniang I
24 15 Duoxiong-La
2 32
Gama 48 21 14

3 Baga DF2 LT
26 Qingqing-La
Motuo
27 II 3 B'
LT
F1

Milin
D

4 er
Riv
2
DF

o
gb
3
DF

n
5 Za

0 10 20 km
o
A'
29.0 N
DMM Bilu slice Zhibai slice Qingqing Basement of Upper Paleozoic Granite
IYSZ -La slice Lhasa terrain volcanic rocks

a HP-UHP
blocks
Left-lateral
strike slip fault
Right-lateral
strike slip fault Thrust Detachment A
A’
Cross-
section line
5

LT NBC DMD
AMSZ DF 1 DF 2 DF 3
A + A'
II 1 II 3
I II 2 III

b
ESE
LT NBC DMD LT
DMSZ DF 1 DF 2 DF 3 AMSZ
B + + B'
II 1 + + + + +
II 3
II 2 III
+ + I + + + + + +
+ + + + + + I
+ + + + +
c + + + + + + + + + + + + +

+ + + +
+ +
Granite Ophiolite Gneiss migmatites Thrust Detachment Right-lateral Left-lateral HP (UHP?) M
strike slip fault strike slip fault blocks
10 km
22 Z. Xu et al. / Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36
disciplinary constraints. Abbreviations for minerals in this paper follow
Whitney and Evans (2010): Amp—Amphibole; Bt—Biotite; Grt—Garnet;
Sil—Sillimanite; Ms—Muscovite; Pl—Plagioclase; Qz—Quartz.
2. Tectonic setting of the Namche Barwa Syntaxis (NBS)
The NBS is separated from the Lhasa terrane (LT) to the north by
the sharply curved IYSZ (Fig. 1) that contains ophiolitic remnants of
the Neo-Tethyan Ocean. The NBS extends southwestward to join the
Great Himalaya crystalline Unit (GHU). The latter is separated from
the Tethyan Himalaya cover Unit (THU) to the north by the south
Tibetan detachment fault (STD), and from the Lesser Himalaya nappe
unit (LHU) to the south by the Main Central Thrust (MCT). The IYSZ
has been replaced by the DMSZ in the west and the AMSZ in the east
(Zhang et al., 1992; Burg et al., 1998; Zheng et al., 2003a, b). The AMSZ
extends along the NW–SE trending Tidding Suture Zone (TSZ) or the
Lohit Thrust Fault (LTF) and the NNE–SSW-trending Mytkyian suture
zone, and is then cut off by the N–S trending Sagaing right-lateral
Fault Zone (SGF) in Myanmar.
The NBS area can be divided into three tectonic units (Fig. 2):
(I) the IYSZ that wraps around the NBS, (II) the Namche Barwa HP
(UHP?) Complex (NBC); and (III) the Duoxiong-La Migmatitic Dome
(DMD).
2.1. Indus-Yarlung suture zone (IYSZ)
The IYSZ, which is wider in the east than the west, consists of
dismembered ophiolites, including ultramafic rocks, metagabbro,
metadiabase, metabasalt and quartzite (formerly radiolarian chert).
There are two different views about the occurrence of the quartzite and
metabasalt within the suture zone. Geng et al. (2000) included these
rocks in the ophiolite suite, whereas Booth et al. (2009) considered them
to be part of the Early Mesozoic sequence in the Tethys Himalaya Unit,
which underwent low-grade metamorphism. Our observations show
that rocks in the IYSZ have been reworked by either the sinistral DMSZ
or the dextral AMSZ and underwent strong mylonitization, indicating
ductile deformation and strain localization.
2.2. Namche Barwa HP (UHP?) Complex (NBC)
The NBC occurs as a NE–SW striking belt, about 150 km long, within
the NW part of the NBS. Its width decreases southwestward (Fig. 2a).
The NBC consists of the Bilu (II1), Zhibai (II2) and Qingqing-La (II3)
tectonic slices (Fig. 2a). The Bilu slice is separated from the Zhibai slice
by DF1, a ductile detachment with normal sense of shear, whereas the
Zhibai slice is separated from the Qingqing-La slice by the DF2 ductile
thrust. In the south, the Qingqing-La slice overlaps the DMD along the
DF3 ductile thrust (Fig. 2b–c).
The NBC is dominated by high-grade gneiss, amphibolite, schist,
marble, quartzite and granulite. The main mineral assemblages are
garnet + sillimanite and/or kyanite+ perthite/ antiperthite + quartz +
biotite in felsic granulites or garnet + pyroxene + plagioclase + quartz
in mafic granulites. The peak metamorphic conditions for the mafic
granulites are estimated to be P = 1.4–1.8 GPa, T = 750–900 °C (Zhong
and Ding, 1996; Liu and Zhong, 1997; Liu et al., 1998; Ding and Zhong,
1999), corresponding to depths of 50–60 km. Garnet clinopyroxenite
and retrograded garnet amphibolite, olivine-bearing marble and garnet
schist occur as lenses or blocks within amphibolite-facies metamorphic
rocks. The garnet pyroxenite, whose protoliths are believed to be mafic
to ultramafic rocks, consists of Fe–Al-rich garnet, diopside, rutile and
quartz, without plagioclase or amphibole, indicating the presence of
eclogite-facies high pressure metamorphism at 2.6–2.8 GPa and
800–900 °C (Zhang et al., 2007), equivalent to depths of 80–90 km.
Microstructural observations on mineral decomposition and exsolution
show that the eclogite facies metamorphism was followed by HP
granulite to amphibolite facies retrograde overprinting (Zhang et al.,
2007, 2010a). Metamorphic conditions for a garnet amphibolite
(sample NB34 from slice II2) are 0.70–1.0 GPa and 600–800 °C (Burg
et al., 1998).
Geochronological data show that the NBC experienced multi-stage
tectonic events at ~ 2.5 Ga, ~1.6 Ga and ~ 1.0 Ga (Zhang et al., 2011),
suggesting that it is a reworked portion of the Indian continent.
Furthermore, zircon U–Pb age of N50 Ma in the HP mafic granulites is
probably related to oceanic subduction prior to the India–Asia
continental collision. The regional granulite-facies metamorphism
occurred at ~ 40 Ma (Ding et al., 2001) or 37–32 Ma (Zhang et al.,
2010a), and the retrograde metamorphism at ~ 22 Ma and ~9 Ma
(Zhang et al., 2010a).
2.3. The Duoxiong-La migmatitic dome (DMD)
The DMD, which is in fact an eastward extension of the Great
Himalaya Unit (GHU), is bounded on the north and west by DF2 and
DF3, respectively, and by the AMSZ on the east (Fig. 2). This unit is
composed of migmatitic gneiss and amphibolite with Proterozoic
protolith ages (Liu and Zhong, 1997; Burg et al., 1998; Ding and
Zhong, 1999). Migmatization is marked by widespread leucocratic
granitic veins occurring as ptygmatic and disharmonic folds, bands,
streaks or lenses, which were molten and mobilized during ductile
deformation. Because shortening caused the partially molten mass to
flow, and the contrasting parts of melt and solid (gneisses) had
different flow strengths, the resulting mixture deformed in a semi-
chaotic manner, and therefore structural analysis provides little
consistent information about the kinematics of regional deformation.
The peak metamorphic conditions for the migmatites are estimated at
0.5–0.9 GPa and 700–800 °C (Booth et al., 2009).
3. Deformation and kinematics of the IYSZ
Deformation along the IYSZ is complex and shows variations from
place to place, depending mainly on its orientation. The AMSZ, which
is the eastern segment of the IYSZ, consists of several parallel shear
zones, which have felsic mylonites with prominent right-lateral,
strike–slip shear features (Geng et al., 2000). The AMSZ extends
southward along the NW–SE trending TSZ and N–S trending Mytkyian
strike–slip shear zone, and is finally truncated by the N–S trending
Sagaing right-lateral, strike–slip shear zone (Fig. 1). The DMSZ, which is
the western segment of the IYSZ, is characterized by strong mylonitiza-
tion that produced a steep, west-dipping foliation and a variably-
oriented stretching lineation. From north to south, the DMSZ can be
divided into three segments: (1) The northern segment or the Dongjiu
shear zone (DSZ) is a nearly N–S trending, left-lateral, strike–slip shear
zone with horizontal or subhorizontal (plunging generally less than
10–15° to SSW) stretching lineation (Figs. 3a–c, 5a1–a2). (2) The middle
segment or the Gama shear zone (GSZ) is a NE–SW trending, left-lateral,
transtensional shear zone with SW-plunging (40–60°) stretching
lineation (Figs. 3d–f, 5b1–b2). (3) The southern segment or the Milin
shear zone (MSZ) is a N–S trending, normal shear zone with down-dip
stretching lineation (Figs. 3g–h and 5c1–c2,). Kinematic indicators such
as S/C structures, rolled feldspar porphyroclasts, rotational quartz
inclusions in garnet, asymmetrical folds and domino structures
(Figs. 3–4), suggest that the DMSZ had consistent left-lateral strike
slip in the northern segment (i.e., the DSZ), transtensional deformation
in the middle segment (i.e., the GSZ) and normal shear in the southern
segment (i.e., the MSZ).
In order to constrain the deformation mechanism, strain history and
sense of shear (e.g., Law, 1990, Zhao et al., 1997), lattice preferred
orientations (LPOs) of quartz were measured using SEM–EBSD
techniques (e.g., Ji et al., 2000; Toy et al., 2008; Prior et al., 2009).
Eleven samples of mylonitic rocks collected from the DMSZ were
measured: 4 samples (6-6-3, 6-6-6, 6-7-1 and 6-7-2) (site 6-6 and site
6-7 in Fig. 2) from the DSZ, 4 samples (3-4, 4-2, 4-4 and 24-5) (site 3, site
 Z. Xu et al. / Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36 23

Fig. 3. Observations from the Dongjiu-Milin shear zone (DMSZ). (a–c) Mylonitic orthogneiss at site 6-1 and site 6-2 within the Dongjiu shear zone (DSZ), showing subvertical
foliation (a) and subhorizontal stretching lineation (b, view parallel to the vertical foliation) with left-lateral, strike–slip shear sense (c, a horizontal outcrop surface with south on
the left); (d–e) Mylonitic amphibolitic gneiss at site 3 in the Gama shear zone (GSZ), displaying subvertical foliation and oblique lineation (d) with well-developed S–C structures
indicating left-lateral normal shear (e, XZ plane of the strain ellipsoid); (f) Mylonitic gneiss at site 4 in the Gama shear zone (GSZ), displaying subvertical foliation and oblique
lineation; (g–h) Tight folds (g) in interlayered quartzite and amphibolite with folding axes parallel to stretching lineation (h) at site 5 in the Milin shear zone (MSZ). Asymmetrical
folds (g, XZ plane of the strain ellipsoid) demonstrating normal shear. La: stretching lineation; S: foliation. See Fig. 2 for locality of each site.

4 and site 24 in Fig. 2) from the GSZ, and 3 samples (5-3, 5-4 and 5-5)
(site 5 in Fig. 2) from the MSZ. The LPO results are shown in Fig. 5. Quartz
from all the samples displays moderate to strong LPOs, indicating that
the predominant deformation mechanism is dislocation creep (e.g.,
Mainprice et al., 1986; Law, 1990; Zhao et al., 1997). Samples 6-6-6 and
6-7-1 from the DSZ (Fig. 5a3) are characterized by a partial girdle
subparallel to the foliation (XY-plane) with a maximum concentration
close to the lineation (X). This LPO pattern appears to result from a
combination of bcN slip (TN 650 °C) and b a N slip (550–650 °C) along the
prismatic planes (Blumenfeld et al., 1986; Mainprice et al., 1986). The
other samples all display a girdle or partial girdle subnormal to the
foliation (XY) and lineation (X). This LPO pattern, which is common, can
24 Z. Xu et al. / Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36

Fig. 4. Photomicrographs of microstructures in deformed rocks from the Dongjiu-Milin shear zone (DMSZ). (a–c) Typical mylonites from the DSZ (a, site 05), the GSZ (b, site 3) and the MSZ
(c, site 5). (d–e) Grt-Bt-Ms-Pl gneiss (sites 5 and 6) from the DSZ. Asymmetrical pressure shadows (quartz, muscovite and biotite) surrounding garnet with respect to foliation and lineation
indicate left-lateral strike slip. (f) Amphibole-bearing felsic gneiss (site 1) from the GSZ. Rolled feldspar porphyroclasts indicate a left-lateral normal shear. (g) Amphibole-bearing felsic
gneiss interlayered with quartzite from the MSZ at site 4 near Milin. S–C structures show a left-lateral, strike-slip, normal shear. (h) Porphyroclastic felsic gneiss from the MSZ at site 5.
Asymmetrical feldspar porphyroclasts suggest normal shear. See Fig. 2 for locality of each site.

be explained by baN slip along prismatic, rhombohedral and basal
planes. Such fabric transitions probably record progressive deformation
during cooling of the shear zone from moderate to lower temperatures
(i.e., 650 → 350 °C). All the samples from the DMSZ show a consistent
fabric asymmetry indicating non-coaxial deformation with left-lateral
strike slip in the DSZ (Fig. 5a3), transtensional shear in the GSZ (Fig. 5b3)
and normal shear in the MSZ (Fig. 5c3), consistent with the shear senses
yielded by other kinematic indicators such as S–C structures, rolled
porphyroclasts and pressure shadows.
Ductile deformation of the Layue shear zone (LSZ) along the
northern portion of the IYSZ is characterized by steeply north-dipping
foliation with a transverse stretching lineation (Fig. 5d1), intensive
mylonitization, sheath folds and kinematic indicators displaying a
top-to-south shear sense. Samples 9-3 and 9-4 are characterized by
 o
94 o00' E 95 00' E

(a3) DSZ S (d3) LSZ S DS Z N(Foliation) = 33 E

N(Stretching lineation) = 33 LSZ
N = 5853 Z Contours(%) N = 2676
Z
Contours(%)
4.0
N = 2601 Z Contours (x uni.)
1.0
1.5
N = 6117 Z Contours (x uni.)
1.0
1.5
N LT
3.5 2.0 2.0
4.0 3.0 2.5 2.5
3.0
3.0
X 2.0 X 2.5
2.0
3.0
X3.5
4.0 X3.5 LS Z (d1)
1.0 1.5 E La
1.0 Layue 9 7 0°
9-3 9-4
6-6-3 6-6-6 LS Z N(Foliation) = 9

>
o
° 70 ° 30
Max.D = 5.45 Min.D = 0.09 Max.D = 4.52 Min.D = 0.13 Max.D = 4.62 Min.D = 0.04 Max.D = 4.50 Min.D = 0.10 (a2) 76 N(Stretching lineation) = 9 00'

>
pfJ = 1.65 pfJ = 1.42 pfJ = 1.69 pfJ = 1.58 6-7 N

42
N = 2326 Z Contours(%) N = 11549 Z N = 7440 Z N

>
Contours (x uni.) N = 8464
Contours(%) Z
6-6

°
Contours (x uni.)
1.0 2.0 N
3.5
3.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
Dongjiu 66 °
2.5 5.0 2.5 5.0
4.0 E
X 2.0 X 3.0 X X 60°
1.5 2.0
1.0
6-7-1 6-7-2 9-5 9-6
II (d2)

DSZ
Max.D = 4.25 Min.D = 0.16 Max.D = 6.59 Min.D = 0.12 Max.D = 4.62 Min.D = 0.18 Max.D = 6.34 Min.D = 0.04 1 Bilu
pfJ = 1.24 pfJ = 1.90 pfJ = 1.38

La
pfJ = 2.29
D F1
GS Z N(Foliation) = 13 40
°
(b3) GSZ SW N(Stretching lineation) = 11 NE
DSZ
N = 892 Z Contours(%) N = 2725 Z
N
(a1) II

Z. Xu et al. / Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36

Contours (%) 2
Stretching
lineation Foliation Namch Barwa
2.5 2.5 E Zhibai
X
2.0
1.5
1.0
X
2.0
1.5 (b2) >
28°
Gega I
3-4 4-2 MS Z N(Foliation) = 11
Linzhi
> DF 2
SZ
N(Stretching lineation) = 8

La
Max.D = 3.26 Min.D = 0.19 Max.D = 3.35 Min.D = 0.25 N °
pfJ = 1.29 N 40
pfJ = 1.27
Z M o

GS 70° D Pai 29

SZ
N = 7908 Z Contours(%) N = 5601 Z

°
Contours(%) GSZ

50
Duoxiong-La 30'
4.0
(b1) Da n n i a n g
Z
3.5 E
N

AM
3.5

MS
3.0 3.0 24
2.5 2.5
Axial plane
X 2.0
1.5
1.0
X 2.0
1.5
1.0 (c2) Gama I 52 °
of folds
La

°
4-4 24-5 60
3 Baga
Max.D = 4.58
pfJ = 1.96
Min.D = 0.02 Max.D = 4.20 Min.D = 0.08
pfJ = 1.54 DF 2 Hinge of folds
(e) Motuo
II N(Axial plane of folds) = 14
>

(c1) DF
1 3
N(Hinge of folds) = 14
4
>

(c3) MSZ W Milin

N
45°

Z
N = 3523 Contours (%) N = 1771 Z Contours(%) N = 2985 Z Contours(%)
M SZ

5.0

3
4.5
III

DF
4.5
DF
2.25 4.0 2
4.0
3.5
X 3.0 X
1.75 3.5
3.0
X 2.5
5 LT
1.25
2.5 2.0
2.0 0.75 1.5
5-3 5-4 5-5
Max.D = 2.74 Min.D = 0.11 Max.D = 5.10 Min.D = 0.06 0 10 2 0 km
Max.D = 5.56 Min.D = 0.09
pfJ = 1.89 pfJ = 1.42 pfJ = 1.74 o
29
00'
N
IYSZ NBC DMD UP (UHP?) Folding Left-lateral Right-lateral Thrust
blocks axis strike slip fault strike slip fault
Detachment Streching lineation 60 ° 5 Sample location
Foliation by EBSD

Fig. 5. Simplified tectonic map of the Namche Barwa Syntaxis showing deformation characteristics in the ductile shear zones. a1, b1, c1 and d1: Schematic diagrams of mylonite in the DMSZ and LSZ; a2, b2, c2, d2 and e: Lower hemisphere equal-
area stereographic projections of structural data (stretching lineation, mylonitic foliation, axial plane of folds and hinge of folds) in the ductile shear zones; a3, b3, c3 and d3: LPOs of quartz from the DMSZ and LSZ. Fabric data were measured
using SEM–EBSD techniques. LT: Lhasa terrane; DSZ: Dongjiu shear zone; GSZ: Gama shear zone; LSZ: Layue shear zone; MSZ: Miling shear zone; AMSZ: Aniqiao-Motuo shear zone; I: Indus-Yarlung suture zone (IYSZ); II: Namche Barwa
Complex (NBC); III: Duoxiong-La migmatitic dome (DMD). N: number of measurements.

25
26 Z. Xu et al. / Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36

partial girdles with main concentrations of the c-axes in the Y-direction.
This fabric pattern can be interpreted as baN slip along prismatic planes
at moderate temperatures (550–650 °C) and rhombohedral and basal
planes at lower temperatures (550–350 °C). Sample 9-5 is dominated by
baN slip along rhombohedral planes. Sample 9-6 developed a single
point maximum of c-axes near to Y, indicating baN slip along prismatic
planes. All these samples yield a consistent top-to-south thrust sense of
shear for the LSZ (Fig. 5d3), that is, the NBC subducted northward
beneath the Lhasa Terrane.
4. Polyphase deformation within the Namche Barwa HP (UHP?)
Complex (NBC)
Subduction and exhumation of the NBC has resulted in a complex
history of deformation, metamorphism and migmatization. Deformation
during the early stage of subduction is difficult to recognize. However,
we mainly focus on the three phases of deformation at the exhumation
stage, which are distinguished based on detailed analyses of structural
elements and fabrics.
As shown in Figs. 2 and 5, DF1, DF2 and DF3 are ductile shear zones
that constitute the boundaries of tectonic units within the NBS. DF1,
which marks the boundary between the Bilu (II1) and Zhibai slices (II2)
shows, has a deformed S-shape on the geological map. Microstructural
observations at the west of Pai (site 13) indicate that DF1 was initially a
ductile detachment zone with foliation dipping gently to NW (b27–46°)
with a NW–SE or WNW–ESE trending stretching lineation. This
lineation is marked by elongate crystals of kyanite, sillimanite and
diopside, and boudinaged felsic veins in mylonitic Grt-Bt-Pl gneiss and
quartz schist. Asymmetrical folds and other indicators, such as rotated
porphyroclasts (Fig. 6a, e) and boudins, yield a top-to-NW or WNW
shear sense, that is, normal slip and ductile detachment for the DF1.
However, the ductile deformation structures related to the normal
detachment were overprinted by superimposed folding, which made
the structural pattern rather complicated. Both DF2 and DF3 are thrust-
related ductile shear zones with a transverse stretching lineation in the
foliation that dip moderately to the N or NW. These shear zones
developed mylonites with kinematic indicators displaying a top-to-ESE
or S shear sense (Fig. 6b–c and f for DF2, and d for DF3). The above

Fig. 6. Photographs of deformed rocks from DF1, DF2 and DF3 in the Namche Barwa Syntaxis (NBS). Each picture was taken from a section normal to the foliation and parallel to the
lineation. (a) δ-type rolled pegmatite material indicates a top-to-WNW detachment along DF1 (Site 13). (b) Asymmetrical quartzite boudinage (site 26) and (c) garnet pressure
shadows in mylonitic paragneisses (site 27) indicate a top-to-ESE thrust along DF2. (d) The NBC was thrust over the DMD along DF3 (site 14). (e) Asymmetrical porphyroclasts of
feldspar in the Grt-Sil-Bt gneiss indicating a top-to-NW normal shear in DF1 (site 21). Lineation is marked by elongate sillimanite. (f) Grt-Bt gneiss from DF2 (site 26) with a top-to-
ESE thrusting shear. Lineation is marked by elongate kyanite, biotite and quartz veins. See Fig. 2 for locality of each site. Thin section normal to the foliation and parallel to the
lineation marked by elongate sillimanite quartz and feldspar.
 Z. Xu et al. / Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36
Fig. 7. Superposed folds in gneisses from site 12, DF2. The first-generation recumbent folds (D1, a–d) related to right-lateral shearing (a) were refolded by second-generation upright
folds (D2, a–d) caused by regional north–south shortening. The third-generation deformation (D3) is characterized by folds with nearly N–S oriented axial planes and steeply-
dipping folding axes (d).
features suggest that tectonic units II2 and II3 were thrust above unit III
(i.e., DMD, Figs. 2, 5).
The second-generation of deformation (D2) is marked by refolding
of DF1 and formation of tight upright folds with nearly NW–SE
trending axial planes (Figs. 5 and 7), sub-vertical flow cleavage in
incompetent rocks and fracture cleavage in competent rocks. These
structures, which are particularly clear in the Danniang-Gega region,
were formed by regional nearly north–south shortening in the middle
and shallow crust during the second stage of exhumation.
The third-generation of deformation (D3), which mainly appears in
the Danniang-Gega region, formed gentle folds with nearly NS-oriented
axial planes and refolded fold hinge (Fig. 7d), reflecting nearly east–
west shortening in the shallow crust during the late stage of
exhumation.
5. Geochronology for the Namche Barwa Syntaxis (NBS)
In order to precisely constrain the timing of the deformational events
in the NBS, we obtained new SHRIMP and LA–ICP-MS U–Pb dates on
zircon, and 40Ar–39Ar dates on biotite and hornblende. Samples were
collected from the DMSZ, NBC and DMD. The SHRIMP U–Pb analyses
were performed at the Beijing SHRIMP Center, Institute of Geology,
Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, with analytical procedures
following those of Stern (1997). The LA–ICP-MS U–Pb analyses were
performed at the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and
Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, and the
40
Ar– 39Ar dating was undertaken in the Institute of Geology and
Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Science.
Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of representative zircon grains
used for U–Pb dating of metamorphic rocks from the NBS are given in
Fig. 8. SHRIMP dates were obtained for grains a to l in Fig. 8, whereas
grains m–p were dated by LA–ICP-MS. SHRIMP U–Pb data for zircon
27
grains from each sample are given in concordia diagrams Fig. 9. Samples
6-1-3 and 6-4-3 are mylonitic, garnet-bearing, felsic gneisses collected
from the DSZ (Fig. 5), the northern segment of the DMSZ (Fig. 2). Twelve
analytical spots on zircon rims for sample 6-1-3 (site 6–1 in Fig. 2)
yielded a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 25.5± 0.6 Ma (MSWD= 1.5;
Fig. 9a). The rims of metamorphic zircons from sample 6-4-3 (from site
6–4 in Fig. 2) yielded a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 53.9 ± 1.1 Ma
(MSWD = 1.3; Fig. 9b). Sample 48–4 collected from site 48 (Fig. 2),
which is a mylonitic Grt-Amp-Pl gneiss from the GSZ, the middle
segment of the DMSZ (Fig. 5), gives a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of
31.3± 0.3 Ma (MSWD= 1.1; Fig. 9c) (Table 1).
Sample 17-3 is a mylonitic Bt-Pl gneiss collected from DF1 at Pai in
the NBC (site 17 in Fig. 2). Thirteen analyses of metamorphic zircon rims
yielded a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 10.1± 0.3 Ma (MSWD= 2.0;
Fig. 9d). Sample 26-7 is a mylonitic gneiss collected from DF2 in the NBC
(site 26 in Fig. 2). Thirteen analyses of metamorphic zircon rims yielded
a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 23.2 ± 0.5 Ma (MSWD = 1.7; Fig. 9e)
(Table 1).
LA–ICP-MS U–Pb ages have been obtained for 2 samples. Sample
13-5 is a mylonitic Grt-Amp-Bt-Pl gneiss collected from DF1 in
northwest Pai (site 13 in Fig. 2). Zircons overgrowths yielded a weighted
mean age of 23.3 ± 0.4 Ma (MSWD = 1.8; Fig. 9f). Sample 14-2 is a
migmatized Amp-bearing gneiss from the DMD, and zircon over-
growths with Th/U b 0.01 yielded a weighted mean age of 4.8 ± 0.4 Ma
(MSWD = 3.8; Fig. 9g) (Table 2).
40
Ar– 39Ar dating of biotite and amphibole was carried out on 9
samples from the NBS and the results are given in Fig. 10. Among
these, five samples (2-3, 2-7, 2-8, 4-7 and 24-12) were collected from
the GSZ (Fig. 5). Amphibole from a mylonitic Amp-Pl gneiss (sample
2-3, from site 2 in Fig. 2) yields a plateau age of 18.7 ± 1.4 Ma
(Fig. 10a). Biotite grains from a migmatized amphibolite (sample 2-7)
and a mylonitic paragneiss (sample 2-8), both collected from site 2
28 Z. Xu et al. / Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36
Fig. 8. CL images of zircon grains used in SHRIMP (a–l) and LA–ICP-MS (m–p) U–Pb dating from metamorphic rocks in the Namche Barwa Syntaxis (NBS).
(Fig. 2), yield plateau ages of 19.7 ± 0.3 Ma and 22.0 ± 0.4 Ma
(Fig. 10b–c), respectively. Biotite from a mylonitic amphibolite
(sample 4-7, from site 4) and a mylonitic Amp-Pl gneiss (sample
24-12, from site 24) yield plateau ages of 9.6 ± 0.2 Ma and
5.4 ± 0.3 Ma (Fig. 10d–e), respectively. Samples 10-1 and 11-5 (both
mylonitic Grt-Bt-Pl gneisses) and 18-4 (Bt-Pl gneiss) were collected
from sites 10, 11 and 18 (Fig. 2) in the NBC at Zhibai, Gega and Pai,
respectively. Biotite grains from samples 10-1, 11-5 and 18-4 give
plateau ages of 2.5 ± 0.2 Ma, 1.7 ± 0.2 Ma, and 2.5 ± 0.2 Ma, respec-
tively (Fig. 10f–h). Amphibole and biotite of sample 14-1 (Bt-Amp
gneiss, site 14 in Fig. 2) from the DMD yield plateau ages of
12.8 ± 0.3 Ma and 4.5 ± 0.2 Ma (Fig. 10i–j), respectively (Table 3).
6. Discussion and conclusions
6.1. Interpretation of geochronological data
Most of the dated zircon grains are from mylonitic ortho- or para-
gneisses. Because zircon has a 206Pb/238U isotope closure temperature of
700–750 °C and is very resistant to thermal disturbance (Harrison et al.,
1987), the SHRIMP and LA–ICP-MS U–Pb ages of overgrowths should
accurately represent the ages of magmatic crystallization, peak
metamorphism and HT shearing. Closure temperatures for hornblende
and biotite are about 500 °C and 350 °C, respectively (McDougall and
Harrison, 1999), and the 40Ar–39Ar ages of these minerals yield the time
of cooling through these HT events.
The timing of high-grade metamorphism of granulite facies within
the NBS is still being debated: 40 Ma (Ding et al., 2001) or 37–32 Ma
(Zhang et al., 2010a), which are also considered to represent the
retrograde metamorphism of HP (UHP?) garnet-pyroxene (Zhang et
al., 2007). Thus the HP (UHP?) peak metamorphism is thought to have
corresponded with subduction of the Indian slab beneath the Asia
plate, which started prior to 40–37 Ma. Hence, it is reasonable to
consider that the metamorphic zircon U/Pb SHRIMP age of 53.9 Ma for
sample 6-4-3 (mylonitic garnet-bearing felsic gneiss with HT quartz
fabric style of deformation) (Fig. 5a3, sample 6-6-6 has same lithology
and deformation features as sample 6-4-3) from the DSZ (Fig. 2)
corresponds to the initiation of oblique collision between the eastern
corner of the Indian plate and the Lhasa terrane.
SHRIMP and LA–ICP-MS U–Pb dating on zircon shows that the
tectonic-metamorphic event occurred at 31.3–25.5 Ma (samples 6-1-3
and 48-4) in the DMSZ and at 23.3–23.2 Ma (samples 13-5 and 26-7)
within the DF1 and DF2 in the NBC. Zeng et al. (2011) presented SHRIMP
zircon U/Pb dating on sheared and migmatitic granulite-facies metape-
lite. Their data indicate that the metapelites were produced by
metamorphism at 24.5 ± 0.7 Ma and 21.8 ± 0.7 Ma, with the former
age being similar to the timing of partial melting and the formation of
Ca-rich leucosomes at 24.8± 0.3 Ma (Zeng et al., 2011). These data
imply that the granulite facies metamorphism, partial melting, and
shearing could be coeval. Although the tectono-metamorphic cycle
could have started somewhat earlier in the DMSZ than in the NBC, the
uplift and exhumation of the NBS were most likely related to
movement on the DMSZ and the AMSZ, because both shear zones
were responsible for the northward indentation of the NBS beneath
the Lhasa terrane.
Local temperatures of ~ 700 °C were reached around 4.8 Ma in
sample 14-2 from DMD and 10.1 Ma in sample 17-3 from DF1. These
young ages correspond to the emplacement of leucogranitic veins due
to crustal decompressional melting during late rapid exhumation. Our
SHRIMP and LA–ICP-MS U–Pb dates are consistent with those of Booth
et al. (2009) who obtained 10–3 Ma using ion microprobe on monazite
and titanite from the metamorphic rocks and leucogranitic veins.
 Z. Xu et al. / Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36 29

Sample 6-1-3 32 Sample 6-4-3

0.0048 DSZ 0.010 DSZ
64
30

0.0044 28 0.009
Pb/ U
238

0.0040 0.008
206

48
0.0036 Mean = 25.5 ± 0.6 Ma 0.007 Mean = 53.9 ± 1.1 Ma
44
22 MSWD = 1.5, N = 12 MSWD = 1.3, N = 14
a b 40
0.0032 0.006
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10

Sample 48-4 36 GSZ 0.00185 Sample 17-3 12 DF1

0.0055
0.0053 34 0.00175 11
0.0051 0.00165
Pb/ U
238

32
0.0049 0.00155
206

0.0047 30
0.00145
0.0045 9
28 Mean = 31.3 ± 0.3 Ma 0.00135 Mean = 10.1 ± 0.3 Ma
0.0043 MSWD = 1.06, N = 12 MSWD = 2.0, N = 13
c d
0.0041 0.00125
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.011 0.013 0.015 0.017

0.0042 Sample 26-7 DF2 0.0041 Sample 13-5 DF1

26
0.0040 26
0.0039
Pb/ U

0.0038
238

0.0037
0.0036
206

0.0035
0.0034 22

0.0032 Mean = 23.2 ± 0.5 Ma 0.0033 Mean = 23.3 ± 0.4 Ma

21
MSWD = 1.7, N = 13 MSWD = 1.8, N = 19
e 20 f20
0.0030 0.0031
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.017 0.019 0.021 0.023 0.025 0.027 0.029
207 235 207 235
Pb/ U Pb/ U

Sample 14-2 8 DMD

0.0011 7

6
U

0.0009
238
Pb/
206

0.0007

0.0005 Mean = 4.8 ± 0.4 Ma

3 MSWD = 3.8, N = 11
g
0.0003
0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 0.024
207 235
Pb/ U
Fig. 9. Concordia diagrams of SHRIMP (a–e) and LA–ICP-MS (f–g) U–Pb dated zircons from metamorphic rocks in the Namche Barwa Syntaxis (NBS). Samples 6–1–3 (a) and 6–4–3
(b) from the DSZ, 48–4 (c) from the GSZ, 17–3 (d) and 13–5 (f) from DF1, 26–7 (e) from DF2, and 14–2 (g) from DMD.

40
Ar– 39Ar dating on amphibole and biotite reveals 4 age groups at
22.0–18.7 Ma, 12.8–9.6 Ma, 5.4–4.5 Ma and 2.5–1.7 Ma, which can be
easily interpreted as the time of deformation and exhumation in the
NBS. Biotite 40Ar– 39Ar ages of 2.5–1.7 Ma represent the youngest
tectono-metamorphic event in the NBC. The denudation rate in the
NBC is estimated to be 6.0–8.8 mm/yr as the closure temperature for
40
Ar– 39Ar system is about 300 °C, corresponding to a depth of ~15 km
with a typical orogenic geothermal gradient of 20 °C/km. This is
consistent with the fact that the NBS has excessively high relief, with a
peak of 7756 m, and is the source for 45% of the sediment flux of the
Brahmaputra River that is upstream of the Ganga confluence (Singh
and France-Lanord, 2002; Garzanti et al., 2004). However, the
30 Z. Xu et al. / Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36

Table 1
SHRIMP U–Pb zircon data of metamorphic rocks from the Namche Barwa complex (NBC).
207
Sample U Th Th/U Pb/206Pb 207
Pb/235U 206
Pb/238U 206
Pb/238U

ppm ppm Ratio (±%) Ratio (±%) Ratio (±%) Age (Ma) ± (Ma)

Sample 6-1-3 (mylonitic garnet-bearing felsic gneisses)

Grain 1 1229 9.38 0.008 0.048 10.1 0.027 10.2 0.004 1.0 26.1 0.4
Grain 2 242 153 0.655 0.041 31.9 0.022 32.1 0.004 3.4 25.0 1.1
Grain 3 545 184 0.349 0.04 20.3 0.022 20.3 0.004 1.4 25.7 0.5
Grain 4 342 30.4 0.092 0.062 21.9 0.035 22.2 0.004 3.2 26.0 0.9
Grain 5 1111 6.53 0.006 0.036 33.7 0.019 33.8 0.004 3.2 24.1 1.0
Grain 6 387 68.2 0.182 0.052 10.0 0.029 10.7 0.004 3.7 26.3 1.0
Grain 7 257 92.5 0.372 0.038 48.6 0.022 48.8 0.004 3.8 27.4 2.1
Grain 8 1380 18.7 0.014 0.050 5.0 0.027 5.9 0.004 3.1 25.7 0.8
Grain 9 1052 8.05 0.008 0.036 66.5 0.02 66.6 0.004 3.3 26.4 1.3
Grain 10 859 6.89 0.008 0.053 19.6 0.028 19.9 0.004 3.2 24.4 1.0
Grain 11 1038 8.25 0.008 0.042 10.7 0.021 11.2 0.004 3.3 23.7 0.9
Grain 12 1215 8.82 0.008 0.044 6.6 0.022 7.3 0.004 3.1 24.0 0.8

Sample 6-4-3 (mylonitic garnet-bearing felsic gneisses)

Grain 1 285 23.8 0.086 0.080 7.0 0.069 9.8 0.008 2.1 53.8 1.5
Grain 2 165 8.68 0.054 0.037 11.0 0.044 10.9 0.009 2.1 55.2 1.3
Grain 3 181 18.9 0.108 0.048 8.3 0.057 8.7 0.009 2.5 55.0 1.5
Grain 4 187 17.6 0.097 0.047 8.6 0.05 9.0 0.008 2.7 50.1 1.5
Grain 5 596 23.9 0.038 0.054 3.3 0.054 4.4 0.008 2.2 52.9 1.3
Grain 6 295 2.97 0.01 0.047 5.6 0.054 5.9 0.008 1.8 53.9 1.0
Grain 7 550 57.9 0.109 0.049 7.2 0.052 9.1 0.008 5.6 50.1 2.9
Grain 8 241 46.8 0.200 0.040 12 0.048 12.7 0.009 4.5 55.5 2.7
Grain 9 281 28.8 0.106 0.046 33.0 0.054 33.1 0.008 6.0 53.8 5.5
Grain 10 211 20.5 0.100 0.049 10.0 0.06 11.5 0.009 5.3 57.1 3.2
Grain 11 203 9.86 0.050 0.031 64.0 0.037 63.8 0.008 3.8 54.4 5.3
Grain 12 567 17.7 0.032 0.045 7.5 0.055 7.9 0.009 2.4 57.0 1.5
Grain 13 183 14.6 0.082 0.059 14 0.067 15 0.008 4.1 52.7 2.6
Grain 14 709 53.8 0.078 0.032 9.1 0.036 10 0.008 4.1 53.4 2.4

Sample 48-4 (mylonitic Grt-Amp-Pl gneiss)

Grain 1 401 103 0.266 0.037 24.2 0.025 24.4 0.005 2.8 31.2 0.9
Grain 2 289 65.4 0.234 0.06 14.3 0.042 14.7 0.005 3.3 32.6 1.1
Grain 3 663 225 0.350 0.039 37.6 0.025 37.6 0.005 1.9 30.8 0.6
Grain 4 543 213 0.406 0.033 19.9 0.022 19.9 0.005 1.4 30.9 0.4
Grain 5 780 224 0.296 0.061 3.7 0.041 3.8 0.005 1.0 31.2 0.3
Grain 6 252 93.4 0.382 0.063 31.1 0.043 31.2 0.005 2.9 31.8 0.9
Grain 7 411 111 0.279 0.059 20.3 0.04 20.4 0.005 1.9 31.8 0.6
Grain 8 433 136 0.324 0.054 33 0.037 33.1 0.005 2.5 31.3 0.8
Grain 9 260 72.5 0.288 0.041 79.1 0.027 79.3 0.005 4.4 30.8 1.3
Grain 10 369 95.2 0.266 0.04 22.5 0.027 22.7 0.005 2.9 31.1 0.9
Grain 11 501 197 0.406 0.035 16.7 0.023 16.8 0.005 2.0 30.9 0.6
Grain 12 266 60.3 0.234 0.062 15.2 0.044 15.3 0.005 2.3 33.3 0.8

Sample 17-3 (mylonitic Bt-Pl gneiss)

Grain 1 2668 17.3 0.007 0.054 9.3 0.012 9.8 0.002 3.1 10.8 0.3
Grain 2 1935 13.4 0.007 0.033 7.2 0.007 7.9 0.002 3.2 10.2 0.3
Grain 3 1546 10.2 0.007 0.051 7 0.011 7.7 0.002 3.3 9.8 0.3
Grain 4 2388 13.3 0.006 0.051 5.3 0.012 6.1 0.002 3.2 10.9 0.3
Grain 5 2926 17.5 0.006 0.042 5.5 0.009 6.4 0.002 3.3 9.8 0.3
Grain 6 1778 12.9 0.007 0.046 7.3 0.01 8 0.002 3.2 10.0 0.3
Grain 7 2027 12.4 0.006 0.048 11.6 0.011 12.1 0.002 3.2 10.6 0.3
Grain 8 4906 34.7 0.007 0.047 3.7 0.01 5.5 0.001 4.0 9.6 0.4
Grain 9 5040 57.1 0.012 0.046 3.8 0.009 4.8 0.001 3.0 9.5 0.3
Grain 10 1021 21.3 0.022 0.036 16.2 0.008 16.3 0.002 2.5 10.4 0.3
Grain 11 1350 13.6 0.01 0.043 9.5 0.009 9.8 0.001 2.4 9.6 0.3
Grain 12 1573 15.8 0.01 0.042 17.6 0.009 17.8 0.002 2.4 9.9 0.3
Grain 13 2310 15.9 0.007 0.041 8.7 0.009 9.0 0.002 2.3 10.1 0.2
Grain 14 582 39.3 0.07 0.087 0.7 1.776 2.3 0.149 2.2 893.9 18.8
Grain 15 347 69.0 0.205 0.027 5.6 0.23 6.0 0.061 2.2 384.1 9.5

Sample 26-7 (mylonitic gneiss)

Grain 1 1103 2.25 0.002 0.052 11.8 0.025 12.2 0.004 3.1 22.9 0.7
Grain 2 1142 1.34 0.001 0.055 10.1 0.027 10.5 0.004 2.7 23.1 0.6
Grain 3 1535 20.95 0.014 0.032 16.9 0.015 17.2 0.003 3.3 22.3 0.7
Grain 4 877 7.17 0.008 0.033 66.0 0.016 65.8 0.003 3.9 22.3 0.9
Grain 5 1567 10.58 0.007 0.034 21.3 0.016 21.4 0.003 2.7 21.9 0.6
Grain 6 1756 21.87 0.013 0.039 19.3 0.019 19.5 0.004 3.0 23.0 0.7
Grain 7 1026 10.94 0.011 0.044 20.2 0.022 20.3 0.004 2.5 23.2 0.6
Grain 8 1271 14.44 0.012 0.040 21.4 0.020 21.5 0.004 2.5 22.9 0.6
Grain 9 1234 12.21 0.010 0.050 18.9 0.026 19.1 0.004 2.4 23.8 0.6
Grain 10 1042 8.00 0.008 0.045 16.7 0.022 16.9 0.004 2.4 22.6 0.5
Grain 11 1205 6.62 0.006 0.044 9.0 0.022 9.3 0.004 2.3 23.3 0.5
Grain 12 1491 15.27 0.011 0.049 20.0 0.026 20.1 0.004 2.5 24.9 0.6
Grain 13 1180 11.86 0.010 0.050 5.4 0.026 5.8 0.004 2.2 24.1 0.5
 Z. Xu et al. / Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36 31

Table 2
LA–ICP-MS U–Pb zircon data of metamorphic rocks from the Namche Barwa complex (NBC).
207
Sample U Th Th/U Pb/235U 206
Pb/238U 207
Pb/235U 206
Pb/238U

ppm ppm Ratio (±%) Ratio (±%) Age (Ma) ± (Ma) Age (Ma) ± (Ma)

Sample 13-5 (mylonitic Grt-Amp-Bt-Pl gneiss)

Grain 1 14.5 1660 0.009 0.0246 0.19 0.0038 0.01 25 2 24.3 0.6
Grain 2 19.9 1457 0.014 0.0236 0.11 0.0036 0.01 24 1 23.4 0.5
Grain 3 19.5 2026 0.01 0.0235 0.11 0.0037 0.01 24 1 23.9 0.5
Grain 4 25.5 1859 0.014 0.0229 0.09 0.0035 0.01 23 0.9 22.8 0.4
Grain 5 28.4 1926 0.015 0.0231 0.1 0.0035 0.01 23.1 1 22.5 0.4
Grain 6 25.4 1798 0.014 0.023 0.11 0.0036 0.01 23 1 23.1 0.5
Grain 7 10.0 1072 0.009 0.0236 0.12 0.0037 0.01 24 1 23.7 0.5
Grain 8 17.6 1439 0.012 0.0225 0.15 0.0035 0.01 23 1 22.6 0.5
Grain 9 22.3 1949 0.011 0.0242 0.1 0.0037 0.01 24 1 23.6 0.5
Grain 10 32.0 2230 0.014 0.0218 0.09 0.0035 0.01 21.9 0.8 22.4 0.4
Grain 11 16.4 1457 0.011 0.024 0.12 0.0037 0.01 24 1 23.9 0.5
Grain 12 35.1 2326 0.015 0.0227 0.08 0.0036 0.01 22.8 0.8 22.8 0.5
Grain 13 7.2 1334 0.005 0.0235 0.15 0.0038 0.01 24 2 24.6 0.6
Grain 14 18.7 1605 0.012 0.0225 0.1 0.0036 0.01 22.6 1 23.1 0.4
Grain 15 17.1 1439 0.012 0.0216 0.11 0.0035 0.01 22 1 22.5 0.4
Grain 16 20.2 1424 0.014 0.0236 0.11 0.0036 0.01 24 1 23.4 0.4
Grain 17 19.1 1429 0.013 0.0227 0.11 0.0037 0.01 23 1 23.5 0.4
Grain 18 25.8 1699 0.015 0.0232 0.1 0.0036 0.01 23.3 1 23.4 0.4
Grain 19 32.2 2156 0.015 0.0248 0.1 0.0037 0.01 24.9 1 23.9 0.4

Sample 14-2 (migmatized Amp-bearing gneiss)

Grain 1 10.8 625 0.017 0.0086 0.31 0.0008 0.01 9.0 3.0 5.2 0.4
Grain 2 3.3 166 0.02 0.0092 0.53 0.0007 0.01 9.0 5.0 4.5 0.5
Grain 3 30.1 1009 0.03 0.0061 0.12 0.0007 0.00 6.0 1.0 4.6 0.2
Grain 4 9.4 444 0.021 0.0098 0.28 0.0008 0.01 10 3 5.4 0.3
Grain 5 3.1 211 0.015 0.0059 0.28 0.0009 0.01 6.0 3.0 6.0 0.5
Grain 6 17.7 819 0.022 0.0053 0.11 0.0007 0.00 5.0 1.0 4.3 0.2
Grain 7 3.0 195 0.016 0.0072 0.25 0.0009 0.00 7.0 3.0 5.7 0.3
Grain 8 23.4 1487 0.016 0.0046 0.1791 0.0007 0.01 4.7 1.8 4.6 0.5
Grain 9 66.0 3161 0.021 0.0046 0.0803 0.0007 0.01 4.6 0.8 4.5 0.3
Grain 10 92.9 3289 0.028 0.0045 0.0641 0.0007 0.00 4.6 0.6 4.4 0.3
Grain 11 28.7 1390 0.021 0.0059 0.4147 0.0009 0.01 6.0 4.2 5.9 0.4

exhumation rate in the NBS was probably much lower, between
12.8 Ma and 4.5 Ma, than during the period after 2.5 Ma. This can be
inferred by a comparison between the 40Ar– 39Ar ages of amphibole
(12.8 Ma) and biotite (4.5 Ma) from sample 14, which is a migmatized
Amp-Bt gneiss from the DMD. The comparison yields an average
exhumation rate of only 0.9 mm/yr between 12.8 Ma and 4.5 Ma
assuming a typical geothermal gradient of 20 °C/km. Thus, rapid
exhumation occurred in the NBS before 12.8 Ma and after ~ 2.5 Ma, if
the above interpretation is correct.
6.2. Relationship between the MSZ and the STD
The STD, which straddled the same time span as the ductile extrusion
of the GHU between the MCT and STD, is believed to have played an
important role in the exhumation of the high-grade metamorphic rocks
(Hodges et al., 2000) and the channel flow in the middle to lower crust
during the Himalayan orogeny (Burchfiel et al., 1992; Beaumont et al.,
2001). Does the STD continue and extend eastward into the NBS? If yes,
what is its role in the exhumation and denudation of the NBS? From NE
to SW, the DMSZ changes progressively from left-lateral strike–slip (i.e.,
DSZ), through oblique-normal shear (i.e., GSZ), to nearly pure normal
shear (i.e., MSZ). Farther south, the DMSZ joins with the NE–SW
trending STD at the south Milin (Figs. 1 and 2). For the DMSZ, SHRIMP
and LA–ICP–MS U–Pb ages of 31.3–25.5 Ma date the tectonic-meta-
morphic event after initial oblique collision (54 Ma, in this paper),
whereas 40Ar–39Ar dating on amphibole and biotite yields ages of
22.0–18.7 Ma, 9.6 Ma and 5.4 Ma for the reacted deformation and
retrograde metamorphism. The old age (31.3–25.5 Ma) most likely
corresponded to the initiation of STD at 35–25 Ma (Lee and Whitehouse,
2007; Qi et al., 2008; Zeng et al., 2009), whereas the young age was
contemporaneous with the timing of major movement along the STD at
20–5 Ma (e.g., Hodges et al., 2000). Hence, with the new evidence at
hand, it is reasonable to consider that the MSZ is a continuation of the
STD in the region of the NBS and that coupling of the exhumation and
rapid denudation of the NBS was linked to activation of the DMSZ.
6.3. Formation of the Namche Barwa Syntaxis (NBS)
The NBS of the eastern Himalaya has long been a puzzling feature. A
number of papers (e.g., Zhong and Ding, 1996; Burg et al., 1997, 1998;
Liu and Zhong, 1997; Liu et al., 1998; Burg and Podladchikov, 1999; Ding
and Zhong, 1999; Booth et al., 2004, 2009; Xu et al., 2008; Zhang et al.,
2010b, 2011) have provided various data and interpretations, but none
have satisfactorily resolved the origin of this feature and its tectonic
development. The new geological, structural, petrofabric and geochro-
nological results presented in this paper allow us to propose the
following model for its formation.
Subduction of the Indian plate beneath the Asian plate since the
collision was a two-stage process (Fig. 11). Stage 1: The northward
moving East Indian corner collided first with the Lhasa terrane and
subsequently the crustal materials at this corner along the DMSZ and
AMSZ formed initially were subducted to depths N70 km where they,
experienced HP (UHP?) metamorphism at 54–40 Ma. Stage 2: Since
40 Ma, large-scale right-lateral strike-slip along the Sagaing fault
(32–30 Ma) (Bertrand et al., 2001) resulted in a rapid northward
movement of the East Indian corner and displaced the IYSZ northward,
causing it to bend markedly. The western and eastern segments of the
IYSZ that wrapped around each side of the tongue-shaped NBS evolved
into sinistral (i.e., DMSZ) and dextral (i.e., AMSZ) strike–slip shear zones.
Meanwhile, the HP (UHP?) metamorphic rocks, which represent former
crustal materials from the subducted Indian plate, were rapidly
exhumed, first into the deep crust at 40–36 Ma and then into shallow
32 Z. Xu et al. / Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36

26 a Amp: Sample 2-3 b Bt: Sample 2-7

26
22 tp = 18.7 ± 1.4 Ma 22
Age (Ma)

18 18
14 14 tp = 19.7 ± 0.3 Ma
10 10
tp = 18.7 ± 1.4 Ma tp = 19.7 ± 0.3 Ma
6 6
GSZ Includes 100% of the 39Ar GSZ Includes 54% of the 39Ar
2 2
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
12
24
c Bt: Sample 2-8
10 d Bt: Sample 4-7
Age (Ma)

20 8
tp = 22.0 ± 0.4 Ma 6 tp = 9.6 ± 0.2 Ma
16
4
12 tp = 22.0 ± 0.4 Ma 2 tp = 9.6 ± 0.2 Ma
8
GSZ Includes 96.9% of the 39Ar
0
GSZ Includes 83.7% of the 39Ar
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
28
24
e GSZ Bt: Sample 24-12 16 f NBC DF1 Bt: Sample 10-1
tp = 5.4 ± 0.3 Ma tp = 2.5 ± 0.2 Ma
Age (Ma)

20 12
16 Includes 85.6% of the 39Ar Includes 83.1% of the 39Ar
12 8
tp = 5.4 ± 0.3 Ma tp = 2.5 ± 0.2 Ma
8
4
4
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
6
5
g NBC DF2 Bt: Sample 11-5 16 h NBC DF1 Bt: Sample 18-4
tp = 1.7 ± 0.2 Ma tp = 2.5 ± 0.2 Ma
Age (Ma)

4 12
tp = 1.7 ± 0.2 Ma Includes 86.7% of the 39Ar Includes 97.8% of the 39Ar
3 8
2 tp = 2.5 ± 0.2 Ma
4
1
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
24
i DMD Amp: Sample 14-1 j DMD Bt: Sample 14-1
20
600 tp = 12.8 ± 0.3 Ma tp = 4.5 ± 0.2 Ma
16
Age (Ma)

Includes 81% of the 39Ar Includes 98.6% of the 39Ar

400 12
8 tp = 4.5 ± 0.2 Ma
200 tp = 12.8 ± 0.3 Ma 4
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
39Ar% released 39Ar% released
Fig. 10. Amphibole (a and i) and biotite (b–h, j) 40Ar–39Ar dating results from metamorphic rocks in the Namche Barwa Syntaxis (NBS). Samples are from the GSZ (a–e), the NBC (f–h) and
the DMD (i and j). The analyses were by incremental heating experiments.

crust at 22–18 Ma to form the NBC domal structure at 6–2 Ma. The rapid
exhumation and uplift were probably caused by break off of the Indian
subducted slab (Zeitler et al., 2001a; Koons et al., 2002; Booth et al.,
2009), which resulted in heating, partial melting, rheological weakening,
and consequent upwelling of the crustal materials. Rapid erosion rates, a
steepened thermal gradient, and a shallowing of the brittle–ductile
transition were all related to the same process: tectonic aneurysm.
It is generally accepted that the Himalayan orogenic belt was formed
by collisional thickening of the Indian crust. But different investigators,
using various geological and geophysical data in different areas have
developed controversial models for the process of crustal thickening:
(1) Homogeneous crustal shortening and thickening by collision
between the Indian and Asian plates with possible addition of magmatic
materials from the subduction zone and the mantle wedge into the
thickened crust (e.g., Dewey and Burke, 1973; England and Houseman,
1988; Molnar et al., 1993); (2) Underthrusting of the Indian crust
directly beneath the Asian crust without ductile thickening or
shortening of each crust (Argand, 1924; Powell and Conaghan, 1973;
Barazangi and Ni, 1982; Beghoul et al., 1993); (3) Successive southward
thrusting of the crustal materials (Allègre et al., 1983; Tapponnier et al.,
2001); and (4) Channel flow of extremely weak middle to lower crust
between the MCT and STD (e.g., Royden et al., 1997; Beaumont et al.,
2001). In the present paper, we emphasize the exhumation of the NBC as
the dominant mechanism for both vertical (uplifting) and lateral
(strike-slipping) growths of the NBS. Hence, our model provides new
insight about the processes of crustal thickening related to the formation
of the Himalayan orogenic belt. Crustal thickening by rapid exhumation
and uplift of deeply subducted crustal materials may take place all along
the orogenic belt, and the mechanism may account for the episodes of
retrograde metamorphism from HP (UHP?) to LP rocks.
It is well-established that the Himalayan orogen has experienced
earlier (N30 Ma) crustal thickening and partial melting (e.g. Searle,
1999; Aikman et al., 2008; Zeng et al., 2009, 2011); mid-Miocene
extrusion of the High Himalayan Crystalline Sequence (Harrison et al.,
1997, 1999; Hodges et al., 2000; Yin and Harrison, 2000; Searle and
Godin, 2003; Streule et al., 2010), and b10 Ma E–W extension (Jessup
et al., 2008a,b). Data presented in this study shows that the processes
which resulted in the formation of the Namche Barwa massif
resemble those in the Nanga Parbat in the western Himalayan (Zeitler
and Chamberlain, 1991) and the Ama Drime massif in the central
 Z. Xu et al. / Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36 33

Table 3
40
The results of Ar/39Ar step heating analysis of minerals of metamorphic rocks from the Namche Barwa complex (NBC).

T (°C) (40Ar/39Ar)m (36Ar/39Ar)m (37Ar0/39Ar)m (38Ar/39Ar)m F 39

Ar (− 14mol) Apparent age (Ma) ± (Ma)

Sample 2-3 (mylonitic Amp-Pl gneiss), amphibole, W = 300.63 mg, J = 0.005171

600 15.7243 0.0478 1.6819 0.0896 1.7051 20.65 15.8 7.9
700 13.4316 0.0405 1.1064 0.0766 1.5421 19.64 14.3 8.9
800 14.3656 0.0435 1.7494 0.0623 1.6183 14.92 15 9.5
900 10.0736 0.0273 0.3828 0.0684 2.0206 24.04 18.8 4.8
1000 7.0094 0.0198 9.9866 0.0301 1.8793 79.62 17.4 2.7
1080 5.5893 0.0157 13.1707 0.0184 1.9046 316.33 17.7 1
1140 4.8877 0.0121 11.9592 0.016 2.1900 103.14 20.3 2
1220 6.1695 0.0168 11.3252 0.0218 2.0193 42.4 18.7 3.7
1300 4.9857 0.0129 13.9820 0.0149 2.1803 132.23 20.2 1.8
1400 6.1717 0.0162 11.9126 0.021 2.2589 62.83 21 2.2
Total age = 18.6 Ma; tp = 18.7 ± 1.4 Ma; ti = 20.2 ± 3.3 Ma

Sample 2-7 (migmatitized amphibolite), biotite, W = 50.46 mg, J = 0.005390

500 24.9071 0.0799 0.041 0.0331 1.3033 21.74 12.6 7.4
600 17.1315 0.0499 0.0316 0.0264 2.3795 50.85 23.0 3.8
700 6.2267 0.0159 0.0146 0.0372 1.512 266.68 14.6 1.7
800 3.787 0.004 0.0095 0.0155 2.6125 952.98 25.2 0.5
900 3.1511 0.0022 0.008 0.0134 2.5092 881.61 24.2 0.5
1000 2.7722 0.0022 0.0009 0.016 2.1054 261.1 20.4 0.4
1100 2.6794 0.0021 0.0067 0.0154 2.0512 552.69 19.8 0.4
1200 2.6356 0.0022 0.0023 0.0146 1.9956 750.63 19.3 0.3
1300 2.556 0.0016 0.0047 0.0145 2.0656 955.43 20.0 0.4
1400 4.4135 0.0079 0.0458 0.0181 2.0885 37.3 20.2 2.3
Total age = 21.4 Ma; tp = 19.7 ± 0.3 Ma; ti = 19.1 ± 4.5 Ma

Sample 2-8 (mylonitic Amp-Pl gneiss), biotite, W = 52.00 mg, J = 0.005255

500 11.1071 0.033 0.0589 0.0273 1.3595 138.3 12.8 2.2
600 6.2491 0.0129 0.0585 0.0178 2.4316 567.32 22.9 0.6
700 6.0383 0.0127 0.0489 0.0213 2.2909 1667.28 21.6 0.5
800 3.193 0.0028 0.008 0.0148 2.3578 747.22 22.2 0.4
900 3.6749 0.0046 0.0211 0.0154 2.3174 147.44 21.8 1.3
1000 3.8005 0.0051 0.0386 0.0197 2.2904 102.73 21.6 1.3
1100 3.5262 0.0042 0.015 0.0155 2.2889 293.68 21.6 0.5
1200 3.4398 0.0038 0.0416 0.0153 2.3081 546.07 21.7 0.6
1300 3.1602 0.0028 0.0523 0.0158 2.339 247.32 22.0 1.0
1400 5.1672 0.0104 0.8203 0.0195 2.1548 29.04 20.3 5.8
Total age = 21.6 Ma; tp = 22.0 ± 0.4 Ma; ti = 22.0 ± 0.6 Ma

Sample 4-7 (migmatitized amphibolite), biotite, W = 50.40 mg, J = 0.005236

500 9.733 0.0314 0.089 0.0277 0.4661 130.33 4.4 2.1
600 4.4127 0.0136 0.0589 0.0199 0.3923 255.54 3.7 0.5
700 1.8604 0.0034 0.0168 0.0154 0.8658 265.98 8.2 0.4
800 1.4629 0.0017 0.0115 0.0148 0.9712 565.75 9.2 0.3
900 1.5349 0.0019 0.031 0.0152 0.9728 276.37 9.2 0.4
1000 1.6475 0.002 0.0416 0.0161 1.0629 153.36 10.0 0.7
1100 1.6232 0.002 0.0364 0.0157 1.0278 671.81 9.7 0.2
1200 1.3137 0.001 0.0259 0.015 1.0278 760.2 9.7 0.2
1300 1.2784 0.0008 0.0185 0.015 1.0523 767.21 9.9 0.2
1400 2.4108 0.0049 0.1999 0.0159 0.9768 140.02 9.2 1.4
Total age = 9.0 Ma; tp = 9.6 ± 0.2 Ma; ti = 9.8 ± 0.5 Ma

Sample 24–12 (mylonitic Amp-Pl gneiss), biotite, W = 42.64 mg, J = 0.005271

500 8.4126 0.0204 0.1356 0.0379 2.4017 97.16 22.7 2.5
600 7.8859 0.0255 0.1309 0.0277 0.3406 49.52 3.2 2.6
700 3.6519 0.0114 0.1115 0.0201 0.2846 135.13 2.7 2.5
800 1.7019 0.0051 0.0229 0.0158 0.1917 142.92 1.8 1.2
900 1.529 0.0034 0.0341 0.015 0.5315 324.11 5.0 1.3
1000 1.4893 0.0031 0.0439 0.0161 0.567 221.48 5.4 0.7
1100 1.2695 0.0024 0.0394 0.0152 0.5694 312.4 5.4 0.6
1200 0.8018 0.0009 0.0262 0.0148 0.5428 758.13 5.2 0.2
1300 0.8258 0.0007 0.0184 0.0143 0.6074 673.76 5.8 0.3
1400 0.9186 0.0012 0.0521 0.015 0.5689 244.46 5.4 0.4
Total age = 5.6 Ma; tp = 5.4 ± 0.3 Ma; ti = 5.3 ± 0.6 Ma

Sample 10-1 (Grt-Bt-Pl gneiss), biotite, W = 47.00 mg, J = 0.005328

500 17.5049 0.0547 0.1102 0.0399 1.3332 40.74 12.8 1.8
600 14.1248 0.0435 0.0451 0.028 1.2651 65.89 12.1 2.9
700 3.772 0.0122 0.0096 0.0171 0.1617 375.08 1.6 1.0
800 0.9666 0.0028 0.0053 0.0151 0.1351 278.9 1.3 0.3
900 1.0109 0.0024 0.0078 0.0141 0.295 305.8 2.8 0.7
1000 1.0882 0.0027 0.0111 0.0147 0.2964 254.83 2.9 0.5
1100 0.8856 0.0021 0.0169 0.0158 0.2471 315.17 2.4 0.6
1200 0.4989 0.0009 0.0078 0.0137 0.2365 1161.39 2.3 0.1

(continued on next page)

34 Z. Xu et al. / Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36

Table 3 (continued)
T (°C) (40Ar/39Ar)m (36Ar/39Ar)m (37Ar0/39Ar)m (38Ar/39Ar)m F 39
Ar (− 14mol) Apparent age (Ma) ± (Ma)

1300 0.5037 0.0008 0.0137 0.014 0.2709 1150.97 2.6 0.1

1400 0.6075 0.001 0.0233 0.0181 0.3112 556.35 3.0 0.3
Total age = 2.6 Ma; tp = 2.5 ± 0.2 Ma; ti = 2.2 ± 0.5 Ma

Sample 11-5 (Grt-Bt-Pl gneiss), biotite, W = 49.55 mg, J = 0.005386

500 15.9638 0.0528 0.0949 0.0375 0.3488 54.11 3.4 0.9
600 10.5426 0.0348 0.0513 0.0311 0.2717 186.41 2.6 1.6
700 7.2044 0.0229 0.0332 0.0266 0.447 271.88 4.3 0.7
800 1.0266 0.0029 0.027 0.021 0.1725 282.55 1.7 0.4
900 0.6817 0.0018 0.0144 0.021 0.1466 450.46 1.4 0.3
1000 0.8055 0.0022 0.0242 0.0217 0.1521 552.53 1.5 0.2
1100 1.432 0.0045 0.0501 0.0235 0.1148 329.8 1.1 0.6
1200 0.5033 0.001 0.0246 0.0208 0.1954 1042.46 1.9 0.2
1300 0.5081 0.001 0.0303 0.0202 0.2204 576.85 2.1 0.4
1400 1.079 0.0031 0.1516 0.0202 0.166 120.45 1.6 1.1
Total age = 2.0 Ma; tp = 1.7 ± 0.2 Ma; ti = 2.1 ± 0.5 Ma

Sample 18-4 (Bt-Pl gneiss), biotite, W = 47.00 mg, J = 0.005544

500 11.8388 0.0361 0.0466 0.0268 1.1675 103.05 11.6 4.3
600 5.2997 0.0171 0.0361 0.0234 0.241 207.7 2.4 1.7
700 1.1404 0.0032 0.0051 0.0152 0.188 843.1 1.9 0.4
800 0.5554 0.001 0.0024 0.0145 0.2461 1176.35 2.5 0.2
900 0.5226 0.0011 0.0032 0.0148 0.199 574.1 2.0 0.3
1000 0.9389 0.0025 0.0232 0.0167 0.1976 122.91 2.0 0.7
1100 0.8866 0.0021 0.0228 0.0158 0.2687 165.85 2.7 0.7
1200 0.6914 0.0014 0.0112 0.0149 0.2679 940.49 2.7 0.3
1300 0.8897 0.0021 0.0281 0.0145 0.2772 538.72 2.8 0.3
1400 4.9842 0.0161 0.5574 0.0258 0.2648 26.39 2.6 3.3
Total age = 2.6 Ma; tp = 2.5 ± 0.2 Ma; ti = 2.4 ± 0.4 Ma

Sample 14-1 (Bt-Amp gneiss), amphibole, W = 216.07 mg, J = 0.005185

600 115.8412 0.0868 1.2343 0.0679 90.3641 12.6 693.0 17.0
700 93.1592 0.0677 1.1819 0.0865 73.2882 4.91 581.0 24.0
800 57.2199 0.0156 0.727 0.062 52.6827 7.9 436.0 23.0
900 22.5861 0.0113 0.7559 0.0539 19.3084 17.15 172.1 7.5
1000 21.15 0.0172 1.2913 0.062 16.1835 16.12 145.0 10.0
1100 2.7955 0.002 2.4994 0.0639 2.3926 743.72 22.2 0.6
1170 1.5388 0.001 2.4564 0.0634 1.4072 2121.21 13.1 0.2
1240 1.3921 0.0008 2.4923 0.0653 1.318 594.29 12.3 0.3
1320 1.754 0.002 2.7565 0.0674 1.3522 124.67 12.6 1.0
1420 1.5281 0.0011 2.3549 0.0622 1.3548 579.18 12.6 0.5
Total age = 19.2 Ma; tp = 12.8 ± 0.3 Ma; ti = 12.0 ± 2.3 Ma

Sample 14-1 (Bt-Amp gneiss), biotite, W = 47.17 mg, J = 0.004968

500 17.0653 0.0513 0.0669 0.0289 1.9065 75.04 17.0 4.2
600 14.8662 0.0502 0.0945 0.0354 0.0392 79.74 0.4 4.4
700 5.5473 0.017 0.0154 0.0232 0.5315 223.5 4.8 1.5
800 1.3053 0.0029 0.0138 0.0203 0.4377 793.72 3.9 0.4
900 0.7262 0.0009 0.0045 0.0196 0.4512 827.77 4.0 0.3
1000 0.8134 0.0011 0.01 0.0195 0.4987 548.99 4.5 0.4
1100 1.0825 0.002 0.0154 0.0187 0.4961 516.78 4.4 0.4
1200 0.8024 0.0008 0.0067 0.019 0.5517 1870.73 4.9 0.2
1300 0.8907 0.0015 0.0314 0.018 0.4575 433.79 4.1 0.3
1400 1.3734 0.0032 0.1417 0.0174 0.4453 86.74 4.0 0.8
Total age = 4.6 Ma; tp = 4.5 ± 0.2 Ma; ti = 4.5 ± 0.5 Ma

a b

Fig. 11. A model for the formation and evolution of the Namche Barwa Syntaxis (NBS). Subduction (a) and exhumation (b) of the NBS at 54–40 Ma and after 40 Ma, respectively.
IYSZ: Indus-Yarlung Suture zone; DMSZ: Dongjiu-Milin shear zone that occurs at the western side of the IYSZ.
 Z. Xu et al. / Gondwana Research 21 (2012) 19–36
Himalaya (Jessup et al., 2008a,b). In particular, the latest rapid
exhumation as observed in these three high-grade metamorphic
terranes is closely associated with the development of a large scale
river anticline. Though the overall tectonics could be similar along the
whole Himalayan orogen, those areas that are located in the relatively
large rivers could register processes (strong coupling of erosion, high
grade metamorphism, rapid exhumation, decompressional melting
and strong shearing) that are not easily documented in other places.
Acknowledgments
This project was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (No. 40921001) and the Geological Survey of China (No.
1212010818094). We would like to thank Professor P. Robinson for
polishing the manuscript. We also thank three anonymous reviewers for
careful and critical reviews of the manuscript. Chen Fanyuan is thanked for
the assistance with the EBSD measurements. Yveric Rousseau and Zhang
Miao are thanked for drawing the figures.
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