GIS Based Decision Support Systems in Government
Cases from India
Anjali Kaushik
Management Development Institute
Gurgaon
Telephone number, +91-124-4560106
anjalikaushik@mdi.ac.in
ABSTRACT
Geo-spatial information is utilized in diverse socio-economic
activity such as urban planning, land management, infrastructure
development, natural resource management, disaster management
and forestry etc. This study discusses the Geo-IT scenario in India
which has seen significant policy, planning and implementation
changes in the last few years. It discusses successful GIS-based
initiatives in areas such as infrastructure development, watershed
planning and management, forestry etc. The study goes on to
describe the innovative use of technology in these areas, bringing
transformation in terms of accountability, transparency, quality of
service, pace of implementation, ownership by community
members, monitoring, and more such areas. Increasingly, the Geo-
IT planning is integrated with other development initiatives across
various Government departments in the state based on thematic
maps and an innovative approach.
Keywords
GIS Decision Support Systems Government India
1. INTRODUCTION
The GIS technology is a computer-based tool that allows users to
integrate and manage geographic data. The users can combine
data from numerous sources and link them to maps of specific
areas. Geographic information system has come a long way in
providing solutions to planners, and also in giving alternate
solutions for sustainable exploitation of natural resources (Saha
and Pande, 1993). Apart from contributing to data integration
from different data sources, GIS enables data visualization using
maps which enhance the system usability and can help in
decision-making process. Geo-spatial information is utilized in
diverse socio-economic activity such as urban planning, land
management, infrastructure development, natural resource
management, disaster management and forestry etc. Geo-IT
encompasses GIS, RS, global positioning systems (GPS) and
related services offered via the Internet. Remote sensing (RS) is a
technology where reflectance from earth objects are recorded in
various multi- spectral bands through the sensors mounted on
satellites. This gives a synoptic view of the earth’s surface with
variation in the reflectance values from different land use and land
cover units. This variation in the reflectance value helps in
identifying the surface properties that can be validated on the
basis of the field-based GPS points collected as training sets. In
order to map the natural resources, RS provides the most time and
cost-effective solution. The combined powers of web-based GIS
and on-line RS tools can significantly reduce the high cost and
labour associated with environmental monitoring and natural
resource management (Tsou, 2004). Remote sensing and GIS
technology are being effectively utilized in India in several areas
such as sustainable agricultural development and management,
watershed planning and management, planning of roads etc. The
GIS technology can play a vital role in cropping system analysis
of an area by spatially integrating temporal crop inventory
information of various crop seasons of that area. Such analysis has
been carried out in Nizamabad district, Andhra Pradesh. The RS
and GIS techniques are being effectively used in India for
preparation of soil erosion inventories (Saha and Pande, 1993).
The GIS and RS are effectively used for bamboo resource
management and planning in two of the north-eastern states in
India, that is, Manipur and Tripura (Bhardwaj et al., 2003).
Impact analysis and other case studies can be facilitated by the
GIS system, provided the baseline is in place, and other relevant
information is collected periodically and is put into the system.
2. GIS TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA
Digital India is the flagship programme of the Government of
India with the aim to transform India into a digitally empowered
society and knowledge economy. Digital India is based on three
key focus areas which include Digital Infrastructure as a utility to
every citizen, Governance and services on demand and Digital
empowerment of citizens. The Digital India programme is
supported by a number of Mission Mode Projects (MMPs). An
MMP is an individual project within the National e-Governance
Plan (NeGP 2.0) that focuses on one aspect of e-Governance. The
MMPs have clearly defined objectives, scopes, and
implementation timelines and milestones, as well as measurable
outcomes and service levels. In 2014, the 'National GIS' was
added as an integrated MMP under the National e-Governance
Plan. Digital India aims to establish end to end geo-spatial
electronics delivery systems and envisages "National GIS
Mission" as core foundation of location based Electronic Delivery
of Services for Planning & Governance. Under this programme,
multi-layer GIS Platform named "Bharat Maps" has been created.
The Bharat Maps encompasses 23 layers containing
administrative boundaries, transport layers such as roads &
railways, forest layer, settlement locations etc., including terrain
map services.
GIS has been in use in India for more than two decades and forms
the core of several mission critical projects in the government and
private sector. However, the deployment has been at departmental
level with minimal integration resulting in creation of silos and
restricting the benefits. The lack of collaboration and sharing of
data between departments leads to duplication in data creation.
This also increases the cost of implementation and causes delay in
project implementation. Some of the other problems include lack
of standards because of which data cannot be shared between
1
various users, absence of a common data model to facilitate
scalability and extensibility etc. The National GIS MMP should
help to build a comprehensive programme and overcome some of
these problems.
At the same time, India has a number of Spatial Data
Infrastructure (SDI) projects at different levels of maturity. The
state of Madhya Pradesh in India has taken up GIS mapping of
school infrastructure for improvement of education quality in the
state. Mapping of 1,21,000 schools in all 51 districts of the state
has been done so far. The Government of Delhi initiated the Delhi
State Spatial Data Infrastructure project in 2008 with the intent to
use the geospatial technologies in governance / urban planning. It
does strategic planning based on holistic geospatial data. The
State of Chhattisgarh has developed a GIS consisting of 37 layers.
The State intends to provide the GIS data to all Government
departments / agencies and NGO’s for identifying areas for
improvement. The learning's from these initiatives need to be
integrated in the National GIS MMP. We discuss here three
successful GIS-based initiatives in watershed planning and
management, infrastructure development and forestry where Geo-
IT has been used for decision support in Government.
3. LITERATURE REVIEW
Actor–network theory (ANT) is associated with the analyses of
scientific and technological artefacts by Bruno Latour and Michel
Callon in the late 1980s. Rather than considering the results or
representations produced by science, ANT seeks to identify the
processes that produce the results. It has been of great interest to
those involved in studying the creation of science, because it
offers the opportunity to view the activity of scientific
investigation, not just in terms of results and accuracy of result,
but also process. Actor-Network Theory is a framework and
systematic way to consider the infrastructure surrounding
technological achievements. Comber et al. (2003) have used
ANT to understand how land cover mapping projects develop.
Actor-Network Theory emphasizes and considers all
surrounding factors. The ANT may also be used to explain the
GIS based decision support initiatives. Martin (2001) discusses
Actor-Network Theory (ANT) as a framework to delineate and
evaluate the social and technical interactions involved in GIS
implementation.
4. WATERSHED PLANNING AND
MANAGEMENT
A 'Watershed' is a geo-hydrological unit for an area that drains at
a common point. Watershed development deals with the
conservation and management of the entire catchment area of a
drainage line through different mechanical and vegetative
measures to enhance sustainable livelihoods. Watershed
development is linked to other development areas such as
livelihood, education, life expectancy and economic growth
specially in rural areas. It has an impact on soil moisture, crop
yield and vegetation.
Figure 1: A Typical Watershed
Agriculture, with its allied sectors, is unquestionably the largest
livelihood provider in India, more so in the vast rural areas. It also
contributes a significant figure to the Gross Domestic Product
(GDP). According to 2011 census, the country’s rural population
is almost 832.5 million (68.8% of total population). There has
been wide consensus that the rural development should be
inclusive and sustainable in order to alleviate the
poverty. Sustainable agriculture, in terms of food security, rural
employment, and environmentally sustainable technologies such
as soil conservation, sustainable natural resource management and
biodiversity protection, are essential for holistic rural
development. Natural resource management through watershed
development programme has been successful towards mitigating
the distress of rural masses in many parts of India. It assumes
greater complexity in rural areas where, paradoxically, abundance
of natural resources corresponds to that of extreme poverty and
backwardness.
4.1 Integrated Watershed Management
Programme, Gujarat
Gujarat is a water-scarce state in India and has taken up
exemplary watershed initiatives. In 2008, Common Guidelines
were made for the state of Gujarat which brought together
various watershed development programmes to form one
comprehensive programme, namely, Integrated Watershed
Management Programme (IWMP). The Gujarat State Watershed
Management Watershed Development Units (DWDUs) have been
formed in all the 26 districts of Gujarat to implement the IWMP at
the district level. GSWMA is implementing IWMP across
Gujarat. In 2009, GSWMA looked at the past performance of the
watershed development programmes in the state and tried to
identify lessons for the future. Some of the shortcomings of the
earlier programmes were listed. Realizing the shortcomings, it was
decided to reinvigorate the programme under IWMP Agency
(GSWMA) serves as a State Level Nodal Agency (SLNA) to
undertake IWMP in the state. District by making modifications in
the processes and introducing certain process innovations.
4.1.1 The New Planning Process
The overall process consists of creation, development and
management of geo-spatial database depicting present conditions
of land (terrain), water and vegetation with respect to watershed
under different ownerships at village level. This data is combined
with village level socio-economic aspects and their analysis.
Accurate and long-term efficient planning is a crucial component
of any project. Therefore, from the inception of the project, i.e.,
planning phase, scientific tools have been used to ensure accuracy
and efficiency. At the same time, community participation has
been made an intrinsic part of the whole process by putting in
place various provisions such as participatory net planning,
conducting Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) exercise,
executing activities of the projects through a committee chosen by
2
Gram Sabha, etc. Community mobilization and participation have Satellite Data
led to ownership of the project by the project area dwellers, Village Socio-Economic Department of Rural
resulting in acceptability and smooth implementation. Facilities, SC & Development, Bureau of
ST data , Actual Economic & Statistics
The aim of Participatory Scientific Watershed Management
Wages, Drinking
Programme in Gujarat is achieving the objectives of watershed
Waters, % of SF
programme through a participatory approach, with ample
&MF, % Poverty
application of scientific tools to ensure objectivity, quality, equity,
Index
transparency, and timeliness. The main objectives of the
Village Map Computerized maps from
initiatives of the watershed development programmes are as
Revenue Department
follows:
Infrastructure Roads, Canals, Line Departments
a Restore the ecological balance by harnessing,
Water Supply
conserving, and developing degraded natural resources,
Ownership Forests, Revenue Department
such as soil, vegetative cover, and water, in a holistic
Details Government,
and sustainable manner.
Panchayat,
b Demand-driven and need-based watershed planning
Private
with active participation of community members.
Others Sanctuaries, Line Departments
c Prevention of soil run-off and regeneration of Mining areas,
natural vegetation with low-cost technological
CRZs, SEZs
solution complemented by indigenous knowledge.
Table 1: Various Datasets Integrated in GIS for Decision on
d Rainwater harvesting and recharging of the groundwater Watershed Development
table along with inculcating a sense of conservation Integrating socio-economic aspects and their analysis in
among the community members. Watershed Planning.
e Enabling multi-cropping and the introduction of diverse
agro-based activities, which help to provide sustainable Criteria Maximum Ranges & Scores
livelihoods to the people residing in the project area. score
f Promoting eco-friendly and locally suitable activities
Poverty 10 Above 80 to 50% 50 to 20% Below
with the required capacity building of the stakeholders.
Index 80% (10) (7.5) (5) 20%
(2.5)
The approach followed for planning involves: (i) creation,
development, and management of geo-spatial database depicting % of 10 >40% (10) 20 to 40% <20% (3)
present conditions of land, water, and vegetation with respect to SC/ST (5)
watershed under different ownerships at village level; (ii) population
Integrating socio-economic aspects and their analysis in
Actual 5 <min >= min
Watershed Planning; (iii) Integrating historical perspective of the
Wages wages (5) wages (0)
land-water treatment of the area.
Features Source % of SF 10 >80% (10) 50 to 80% <50% (3)
&MF (5)
Land Land use Satellite Data
Landform (hill, Satellite Data Ground 15 Over Critical Subcritica Safe (0)
Alluvial, Coastal water Status Exploited (10) l (5)
areas etc ) (15)
Soil type Soil and Land Use Moisture 10 DDP block DP Alluvial Non DDP
Survey of India, National index (10) Plain (5) or DPAP
Bureau of Soil Survey (0)
and Land Use Planning,
Agriculture Department Assured
10 to 20% 20 to 30% >30%
Slope/Elevation Satellite Data and Open irrigation 15 <10% (15)
(10) (5) (reject)
Source area
Water Surface Water Satellite Data Problematic partially fully
Drinking No source
Bodies 10 village covered covered
water (10)
Ground Water Gujarat Water Resources (7.5) (5) (0)
condition Development
Degraded 10 to 20%
Corporation Ltd. 15 >20% (15) <10% (5)
land (10)
(GWRDC), Central
Ground Water Board low moderate High
(CGWB) production production productio
Productivity & high & moderate n & low
Wells Revenue Department 10
potential potent
Check Dam Departmental Data potential potential
Vegetation Agriculture Agriculture Department, Ial (10) (5) (0)
Satellite Data
Forest Forest Department,

3
Scientific Prioritization GIS Maps, Satellite Imagery, Spatial  The projects could be equitably distributed among all the
districts.
of Watersheds and Non-spatial data
 The most needy watershed areas could be identified.
Participatory Micro Thematic maps, Global Positioning  The planning for convergence of IWMP with other
Planning System (GPS), Hydrological Modeling developmental schemes of various government departments
Monitoring and Web-GIS system, Mobile embedded is prepared on the basis of the GIS-based maps.
Evaluation Tracking System, eGRAM  The state was able to plan for the next 18 years (up to Year
2027).
Impact Assessment Multi-temporal Remote Sensing The GIS-based plan for the 18 years is given in Figure 3.
Contiguou
s to Contiguity Table 3: Use of ICT in the watershed management programme
previous within
Contiguity
and micro WS neither
to 10
contiguity but not to both (0)
watershed
within the previous
micro WS (5)
(10)
Table 2: Criteria and weight age for prioritization for Natural
Resources and Socio-Economic Conditions
While prioritizing the projects, different parameters are
categorized reflecting the natural resource base (including the
historical data) of the area and the socio-economic aspects. Some
of the important data sets and images include: Geo-morphology,
Soil, Slope, Erosion, Aspects, Drainage, Contour, Geo-hydrology,
concentration of Below Poverty Line (BPL) and Scheduled Caste
(SC)/Scheduled Tribe (ST) population, etc. The satellite image on
the same parameters are collected in different sheets and then
superimposed to get a composite picture of the priority areas. This
process is followed for all the watersheds, starting from the micro-
level to the macro-level. The micro-watershed wise
prioritization culminated in prioritizing the watersheds for the
Figure 3: GIS-based map for the next 18 years for the entire
districts and the whole of the state.
state
Plans for capacity building were done at a macro basis. As many
as 33 institutional partners were identified and empanelled for the
purpose.
Table 3 gives the activities and the scientific tools used for the
purpose of planning at the grass root level.
GSWMA provides district-wise GIS-based priority maps to the
DWDUs for district planning. The prioritized maps help them in
identifying watersheds that are most vulnerable or/and villages
that are socio-economically the most backward in the district.
GSWMA further provides the State Perspective and Strategic Plan
(SPSP) to the DWDUs; the SPSP shows the target for each
district for a certain year. It is the responsibility of the DWDU to
verify the prioritized maps on field and choose
watersheds/villages as projects on a cluster approach. One cluster
may include a number of watershed/villages totaling around 5,000
hectares of land. This cluster is called a project. The DWDU has
to select a number of such projects according to the target given in
Figure 2: Superimposition of Image to Decide on the the SPSP. These projects are submitted to the GSWMA and
Prioritization considered for approval.
During the pre-IWMP programmes, project selection and
A baseline survey is conducted for the assessment of the existing
developing a scientific action plan were major concerns. GIS has
situation, selection of sites, and identification of beneficiaries.
helped in solving these concerns. The strategy is divided into two
Three types of baseline surveys i.e. Household survey, Bio-
phases: (i) prioritization of watersheds according to set criteria
physical survey and Overall village survey are carried out.
mentioned in the National Guideline and (ii) preparation of the
development plan (action plan).

4
 Figure 4: Village survey with application of GPS
The new approach focuses more upon participatory planning with
proper application of scientific tools like GIS and remote sensing
as and when required. The scientific process to planning is
combined with the Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) exercise
to make final decision on the prioritization and planning of
Watersheds. The PRA exercises include Historical Time Line,
Resource Mapping, Social Mapping, Livelihood Analysis- Focus
Group Discussions, Wealth Ranking etc. A Watershed Committee
is constituted at the village level for participatory rural appraisal
exercises and execution of work.
Figure 5: Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) exercise in full
swing in a project village
Improved community participation and ownership of the project
are ensured where the developmental schemes are suggested and
executed by the community itself. Figure 12 shows an entry point
activity identified by the villagers themselves.
Figure 6: Annual action plan in a village.
To enhance the efficiency, transparency, accountability and
effectiveness of IWMP, the systems and procedures have been
automated to the extent possible. For impact assessment, satellite
imagery is used. An illustration of the same has been given in
Figure 7 which displays increased vegetative cover post project
implementation.
Figure 7: Use of satellite imagery for impact assessment
Processes have been standardized and manuals have been
prepared to institutionalize the process across the state. Processes
were automated to the extent possible. Operational Guidelines
have also been issued to address the state specific concerns. To
ensure transparency, the planning output is put in public domain
for feedback. Continuous Capacity Building has been ensured at
all the levels with special emphasis on the Watershed Committee
for ensuring quality implementation and sustainability of the
project.
Regular review and monitoring are now done to keep the pace of
the progress at an optimal level. A web- based GIS monitoring
system has been put in place. Effective management of natural
resources through participatory scientific watershed programme in
Gujarat has yielded tangible results and transformed the rural
landscape in a remarkable way. The new approach has helped in
technically appropriate selection of project area and
location of physical interventions. It has also helped in
identification and prioritization of most needy and critical areas
throughout the state. The new process has enhanced transparency
and accountability at all levels.
4.1.2 Challenges in Planning and Implementation
Watershed initiative met many challenges but the skill of the
project team and cooperation of the community members helped
to overcome them. Some of the challenges include:
i. Lack of updated database: Though many departments
regularly conduct various developmental activities at the
village level, these details are not updated regularly leading
to lack of relevant information base, which is crucial for the
planning and implementation process.
ii. Connectivity and network problem at remote villages:
Internet connectivity was sometimes absent due to the
geographical location of the project villages. Though it was
solved by establishing cluster-level offices with all
infrastructure including computers, printers, and data cards.
Since majority of the villages were remote, mobile network
availability was a major problem while implementing
mobile embedded work tracking system. This was solved by
saving the messages and later sending them when the
mobile enters into a network connection range.
5
3.2 Sujala Watershed Project, Karnataka,
India
Sujala Watershed Project is a community-driven participatory
watershed development programme with World Bank assistance
in Karnataka, India. It covers 0.5 million hectares (1 hectare
=10,000 square metres) spread over 1,270 villages covering six
districts and 742 micro-watersheds.
Project Sujala aims at poverty alleviation in predominantly rain-
fed areas by improving the productive potential of selected
degraded watersheds. The project started in 2001. The poverty
alleviation has been ensured by selecting districts/taluks with a
relatively high poverty incidence, low water availability and a
predominance of small and marginal farmers.
The project was implemented in rain-fed areas where recurrence
of drought is a common phenomenon. When the project started,
about 50 per cent of the land was moderately susceptible to
erosion and 10 per cent was severely erodible. The total forest
cover was only about 2.59 per cent. About 10–15 per cent of non-
arable land recorded very low productivity. In the project area,
80–90 per cent of the requirement of fuel wood and 50–70 per
cent of the fodder needs were met from external sources. Only
traditional crops grown were jowar, maize, ragi, groundnut and
pulses, and these were confined to a few pockets. The bovine
population was also limited to certain pockets. Traditional
cropping pattern was followed in the cultivable lands. The average
yield was around 2–4 quintals per acre. Cropping intensity varied
between 100–107 per cent. The average household income was
only INR 10,036 per annum. Thus, it was community-based
subsistence farming.
Sujala watershed project is a case of creative convergence of
technology and uses RS and GIS for assessing technical feasibility
of interventions planned, as well as selection and prioritization of
watersheds across six districts in Karnataka. Additionally, it uses
management information system (MIS) for watershed
development programmes which is developed through action plan
at com- munity level with NGO help. The website (www.water
shed.kar.nic.in) for the project is in English and Kannada
(regional language), with integrated GIS-based map viewer, and
provides a comprehensive view of the progress across different
watersheds in the state. The GIS viewer tool facilitates the display
of resource maps with necessary legends. The resource maps like
land use/cover, soil resources map, slope map, geo-
hydromorphology map and land parcel map generated on micro-
watershed basis can be viewed and information can be extracted
theme wise. The package also allows overlay of user-defined
resource map layers Management System (PFMS) is used to track
the financial progress of the project.
3.2.1 Application of RS and GIS for Resource
Planning and Prioritization
Remote sensing and GIS are the core technologies adopted for
resource mapping, database generation, monitoring, watershed
planning, implementation and monitoring. This task is assigned to
Antrix Corporation, subsidiary of Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO), which is working as one of the partners for
implementation of Sujala watershed project. The technology of
RS and GIS is highly adaptable to plan the project from micro-
watershed level (taluka level) to the sub-watershed level (district
level).
The GIS is adopted for integrating the spatial and non-spatial
data. It is used as an information database, analytical tool and as
decision support system. Thematic information generated from
satellite imagery and other ancillary information is integrated
under GIS domain to generate location-specific action plan on
micro-watershed basis. This tool is also used for monitoring
purposes. Need-based application of satellite technology (resource
mapping, parcel mapping, land resource inventory, etc., and
development plan based on these inputs) is possible as per the
project requirement. The satellite imageries are available at every
22nd day at a resolution of 23.5 m. It is also available at a
frequency of five days revisit at a resolution of 56 m. Higher
resolution data at 0.8 m is also avail- able currently. However, a
moderate resolution of 5.8 m is also available in multi-spectral
bands which is widely used for monitoring and decision making at
the development end.
4.2.2 Bottom-up MIS Support
The MIS is being used for assessing physical and financial
progress and taking necessary corrective measures. Software
packages have been developed for database creation, action plan
preparation and monitoring activities at field level. The MIS
facilitates the tracking of the physical and financial output at any
given time. Initially, it was monthly review system whereby
information was sent in hard copy formats with discrepancies of
information at different levels. It was not uniform and
consolidation was cumber- some at management level for proper
review. The ICT- supported MIS streamlined the whole system,
bringing uniformity and regularity in all sectors of information
flow (physical and financial) and facilitating proper review and
timely decision making from the second year of the project
implementation. The MIS is deployed at all levels linking the sub-
watershed, the district and the state level vertically.
The MIS is extensively linked from the grassroots level to the
project management level. The MIS is deployed at 77 field NGOs,
77 specialist NGOs, seven lead NGOs, seven project offices of six
districts and finally, to the head- quarters at the state level.
Watershed information is updated weekly at the NGO offices and
subsequently forwarded to the district centres. The district centres
are, in turn, linked to the state apex centre facilitating the
information flow to the project management. Similarly, the project
policy-level decisions are disseminated from the top management
to the field level. The paper correspondence is brought down
substantially by adopting MIS.
The Sujala project had high stakeholder participation from the
beginning. It involved all households in the village in planning,
implementation and monitoring of these watersheds. Capacity
building of community-based institutions for planning and
implementation was emphasized. It had integration of all the
related sectors, that is, agriculture, forestry, horticulture, animal
husbandry, fisheries, etc., for achieving the project goal.
4.2.3 Remote Sensing and GIS for Impact
Assessment
The impact assessment is based on RS and GIS-based technology
for the selected watershed sites, integrated with non-spatial data
like demography, rainfall and literacy. This facilitates near real-
time data and concurrent monitoring of watersheds at micro- and
sub-watershed level. It enables timely corrective measures through
cost-effective means and reduced manpower. The project has used
6
the satellite data at different intervals to monitor the land is also a key ingredient in ensuring poverty reduction. India has
resources and evaluate land cover changes and its impacts. essentially a rural-oriented economy with 74 per cent of its
The Sujala watershed project has demonstrated that it is possible population living in the villages. In the year 2000, it was
to build development indicators in the project evaluation. The estimated that about 330,000 out of 825,000 villages and
efficiency and governance indicators also show positive results. habitations (~ 40 per cent) in the country are still not connected
As can be seen in Table 1, the initiative has brought significant by all-weather roads. Even the existing constructed roads are of
improvement in the cropping intensity, cropping diversity, crop poor quality. A majority of the poorly connected rural
yield and increase in the ground water level in the area. These communities lie in 10 states and Madhya Pradesh (MP) is one of
parameters were integrated in the initial project objectives and them.
were subsequently monitored at regular intervals to observe the Government of India (GoI) launched a massive rural roads
over- all impact of the programme. Since these parameters were programme—Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna (PMGSY)—in
identified and observed from the beginning of the project, it goes year 2000, with the objective of providing connectivity by way of
on to prove the sustainability of results and have institutionalized all-weather road to the eligible unconnected habitations. In the
the development impact. Unless these development indicators year 2005, GoI announced the ambitious plan of Bharat Nirman, a
were clearly understood or targeted at the outset, the project time-bound plan (2005–09) for rural infrastructure. Under Bharat
outcomes may not have been correctly visible. Nirman, action was proposed in road sector with the target of
connecting remaining 66,802 habitations by all-weather roads. To
Change Pattern achieve the target, 146,185 km road length was pro- posed to be
Key Development 2003-04 2006-07 2008-09 constructed by 2009.
Indicators Madhya Pradesh Rural Road Development Authority (MPRRDA)
is the nodal agency in MP for implementation of PMGSY. The
1 Improvement in the 98% 129% 144% decision making and prioritization of construction of roads to
cropping intensity villages is governed by geographical (spatial) attributes of roads,
2 Increase in 2 to 4 4 to 7 crops villages and other features (railway, water bodies, forest, etc.),
cropping diversity crops nearest road, distance computation, proximity analysis and
per optimization of connectivity based on index values dependent on
farmer development indicators. This scheme facilitates preparation of
District Rural Roads Plan at block level in accordance with
3 Increase in the crop 13% 23% 24%
PMGSY guidelines/norms. Madhya Pradesh is one of the largest
yield
states in India. The MPRRDA serves all the 50 districts of MP,
4 Increase in gross Increased by 21% covering around 55,000 villages, and all the roads from national
irrigated area highways to village roads. It facilitates computerization of the
5 Shift from Up to 22% road inventory and integration of both spatial and location-
agriculture to agro- specific data for planning. The MPRRDA started its work in the
horti/agro-forestry year 2000. At that stage, 5,982 habitations with 1,000 plus
population were unconnected. By 2009, 5,945 of these habitations
6 Increase in the Increased by 66ft have been connected and only 37 are left. The number of rural
ground water level roads that have been connected till now is 30,931. The building of
7 Increase in the 250 Gallon 325 rural roads has been a systematic effort by MPRRDA through a
water yield Per Hour Gallon Per process of prioritization based on utility value concept (Table 4).
(discharge (GPH) Hour The optimal road link is the most efficient and economic route, in
improvement) (GPH) terms of cost and utility. It should provide access to an existing
all-weather road or a connected habitation and be an upgradation
8 Increase in Increased by 42% of the existing road (Table 5).
household income From Table 5, it is clear that CH3 is the optimal habitation.
9 Increase in milk Increased by 22% Earlier, paper maps were used for planning of roads across entire
yield Madhya Pradesh. Paper maps were difficult to handle, maintain
10 Below the poverty Reduced by Reduced and update. Also, traversing/computation of distance was not
line (BPL) families 26% by 42% possible with expected level of accuracy over paper maps. The
Table 4. Change Pattern across Key Development Indicators updation and linkage of paper maps with other parameters for
decision making was not available. Overlaying of paper maps with
5. INFRASTRUCTURE MANAGEMENT: other spatial layers was not possible. The proximity analysis with
forest, water bodies, etc., for paper maps was also not achievable.
i-GeoApproach (Internet Geomatics–based Also, no digital data of roads along with other geographical
Application for Planning Rural Road features (habitations’ locations, railway, rivers/water bodies,
Connectivity to Habitations), Madhya forest, etc.) and associated attributes was available for planning.
Planning of road requires association and integration of various
Pradesh, India activities with spatial (geo-referenced) and non- spatial
Rural connectivity is a key component of sustainable rural characteristics. Geomatics-based approach to planning and
development in India. Rural roads are the lifeline of rural management has solved most of these problems. The i-
development and contribute significantly to generating in- creased GeoApproach to road planning involves digitization of block road
agricultural incomes and productive employment opportunities. It base maps for creation of spatial data of core network and
development of web-enabled geomatics-based planning and

7
decision support system as per PMGSY norms for MPRRDA.
Several special features characterizing i-GeoApproach include
thematic map display, built-in traverse-aid, distance computation,
display of the habitation/road profile, query map output, nearest
road from a selected habitation, map-based monitoring of
contractors/ consultants’ road works, etc. i-GeoApproach can help
achieve not only the desired transparency and easiness in planning
process, but it is also an effective tool for planning rural road
connectivity to habitations. It enables a faster response to the
changing ground realities in development planning, owing to its
in-built scientific approach and open-ended design.
Prior to development of the software, the road network
management was largely based on manual inputs, because
digitized data of network were not available. However, after its
development, MPRRDA has benefited greatly in terms of efficient
planning, reduced operational and maintenance cost, as well as
better monitoring and effective decision making. Distance
computation is possible and software is capable of measuring
aerial distance as well as the route lengths with its built-in
traverse-aid and distance computation tool. The map output can
be printed over desired scale. In addition to roads, there is facility
of over- lay of other vital features (village locations, railway,
forest, river, etc.) which enhances the analysis capabilities.
Integration of village-wise census data on population, availability
of basic amenities (education, health, communication, etc.) and
road data (length, type of road, benefited villages, population
benefited, etc.) has helped to calculate utility index for each
village which, in turn, helps to decide optimal road link. Thus,
substantial savings are achieved in capital expenditure and
operations cost and the overall planning has become more
accurate.
Table 4. Utility Value Calculation and How the New Application Helps in its Calculation: The Indicators and Utility Value (UV)
S. Indicators of the
No. Habitation 2 4
1 Educational facility Primary school Middle school High school
2 Health facility Dispensary Sub-centre
3 Market facility One day
4 Administrative centre Panchayat HQ Block HQ
Table 5. Example of Optimal Road Link
Connected Habitation Utility Value (UV)
CH1 14
CH2 24
CH3 30
CH4 20
Note: Road Index UV/L; L length of the proposed road link.
6. GIS BASED DECISION SUPPORT AND
CITIZEN PARTICIPATION.
The new approach focuses more upon participatory planning with
proper application of scientific tools like GIS and remote sensing
as and when required. Improved community participation and
ownership of the project are ensured where the developmental
schemes are suggested and executed by the community itself.
The GIS based DSS enhances the efficiency and effectiveness of
the systems and provides support for prioritization and planning
of government interventions in a scientific manner. The new
process also enhances transparency and accountability at all
levels. In Sujala project, we also see the participation of NGO's
and community based institutions to improve participation in
initial stages. The case studies revealed that the citizen
participation increased as their understanding of the process
improved and they realized how they are getting benefitted
through the changed process. These initiatives have been
functioning well and are accepted by the people for planning.
7. FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION
The discussion on the three GIS case studies above reveals that
the implementation of successful GIS initiatives is not a
technological intervention alone. It is a complex interplay of
participatory processes, training and capacity building of citizens
management vision, integration of socio-economic indicators in
planning etc. The ANT can explain the coming together of
processes for the success of such GIS based decision support and
planning initiatives. The National GIS Mission Mode Project is
defined in the National e-Governance Plan of India as a
technology project to facilitate GIS based decision making for
project planning, conceptualization, design and development. It
would be interesting to see how the findings of the case studies
discussed in the article can be used to define the National GIS as
an integrated process based on the ANT discussed above.
The article has suggested some examples and approaches to
integrate geo-informatics into diverse sectors such as water
management and planning of roads. Geo-informatics can provide
solutions to planners for better management of public resources. It
can help in data integration from different data sources, enable
data visualization using maps which enhance the system usability
and can help in decision-making process in other sectors as well.
An integrated approach that considers other surrounding factors in
planning is recommended.
8. REFERENCES
Rating of Indicators (Weightages) [1]. Bedi, K., Singh, P.J., & Srivastva, S. (2001).
6 8 10 Government@net: New governance opportunities for
Intermediate College/Vocational India. New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Maternity & Child Primary Health Hospital [2]. Bhardwaj, S.P., Subramanian, S., Manda, S., Ray, T.,
Welfare Centres Centre
More than one day Daily Markets Shops Mukherjee, P., & Ramanuja Rao, I.V. (2003). Bamboo
Sub-division HQ District HQ livelihood development planning, monitoring and
analysis through GIS and Remote Sensing. Journal
of Bamboo and Rattan, 2(4), 453–461.
Length (in kms) Road Index (UV/L)
[3]. Callon, M. (1986). Some Elements of a Sociology of
3.0 4.66
4.5 5.33 Translation: Domestication of the Scallops and the
4.5 6.66 Fishermen of St Brieuc Bay. In John Law (ed.), Power,
5.0 4.00
Action and Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge.
London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
[4]. Christiansen, T., & Van Teeffelen, P. (2003).
Geographical information systems in developing
countries: A review of developments since 1990. GIS
Newsletter: News and Views of the Use of GIS for
Projects in Developing Countries, 10, 9–25.
[5]. Comber, A. , Fisher, P. and Wadsworth, R. (2003),
Actor-Network Theory: A Suitable Framework to
understand how land cover mapping projects develop,
Land Use Policy, 20,4, 299-309.
[6]. Davies, D., Ilavajhala, S., Wong, M.M., & Justice,
C.O. (2009). Fire Information for Resource Management
System: Archiving and distributing MODIS active fire
data. IEEE Transactions on Geosciences and Remote
Sensing, 47(1), 72–79.
8
 [7]. Heeks, R. (2003). Most e-government for
development projects fail: How can risks be reduced?
Paper No. 14, i-Government Working Paper Series,
Institute for Development Policy and Management,
University of Manchester, Manchester.
[8]. Holmes, D. (2001). eGov: eBusiness strategies for
government. London: Nicholas Brealey.
[9]. Keohane, R.O., & Nye, J.S. (2000). Governance in a
globalization world. Washington, DC: Brookings
Institution Press.
[10]. Kettl, D.F. (2002). The transformation of governance.
Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
[11]. Latour, B. (1987). Science in Action: How to Follow
Scientists and Engineers Through Society (Milton
Keynes: Open University Press).
[12]. Martin,E.W.(2001), Actor-networks and
implementation: examples from conservation GIS in
Ecuador, International Journal of Geographical
Informational Science, 14, 8, 715-738.
[13]. Okot-Uma, R.W. (2000). Electronic governance:
Re-inventing good governance. London:
Commonwealth Secretariat.———. (2001). Electronic
governance: (leading to good government). In
Electronic governance and electronic
democracy: Living and working in the connected
[19]. Strejeek, G., & Theil, M. (2002). Technology push,
legislation pull? E-government in the European Union.
Decision Support Systems, 34(4), 305–315.
Weblinks
[1]. http://gswma.gujarat.gov.in/
[2]. http://www.academia.edu/12110331/prioritization_of_w
atersheds_of_shetrunji_river_basin_based_on_morpho
metric_analysis_using_remote_sensing_and_gis
[3]. http://watershed.kar.nic.in/website_dec2006/suj_hompg
.htm
[4]. http://mprrda.com/
world. Ottawa: The Commonwealth Centre for
Electronic Governance. Retrieved from www.
Electronegov.net (accessed 7 August 2003).
[14]. Osborne, D., & Gaebler, T. (1992). Reinventing
government: How the entrepreneurial spirit is
transforming the public sec- tor. Reading, MA:
Addison Wesley.
[15]. Tsou, M.-H. (2004). Integrating web-based GIS and
image processing tools for environmental
monitoring and natural resource management.
Journal of Geographical Systems, 6(2), 155–174.
[16]. Riley, T.B. (2003). E-government vs. e-governance:
Examining the difference in a changing public
sector climate. Ottawa: The Commonwealth
Secretariat and Government Telecommunications
and Information Services, Public Works and
Government Services.
[17]. Saha, S.K., & Pande, L.M. (1993). Integrated
approach towards soil erosion inventory for
environmental conservation using satellite and agro
meteorological data. Asian Pacific Remote Sensing
Journal, 5(2), 21–28.
[18]. Saxena, K.B.C. (2005). Towards excellence in e-
governance. International Journal of Public Sector
Management, 18(6), 489–513.
9
10