BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

Pablo Borbon Main I, Batangas City

Judith S . Fetalver
Master of Arts in English
Major in Language and Literature

MAY 2020

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 BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
Pablo Borbon Main I, Batangas City

Compilation of Reflections in Language and Culture

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Course
LANG 505 Language and Culture

By

Judith S. Fetalver

May 2020

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTERS PAGE
Reflections
1 - Language and Culture: Overview 4
2 - Linguistic relativity: precursors and transformations 6
3 - Ethno Syntax 9
4 - Ethno Semantics 11
5 - Ethno Pragmatics 13
6 - Linguaculture: the Language–Culture Nexus in Transnational Perspective 15
7 - Language, Gender, and Culture 17
8 - Language, Culture, and Context 19
9 - Language, Culture, and Politeness 21
10 - Language, Culture, and Interaction 22
11 - Culture and Kinship Language 23
12 - Cultural Semiotics 24
13 - Culture and Translation 25
14 - Language, Culture, and Identity 26
15 - Language and Culture history: The Contribution of Linguistic Prehistory 28
16 - Embodiment, Culture, and Language 29
17 - Culture and Language Processing 30
18 - Language, Culture, and Prototypicality 31
19 - Colour Language, Thought, and Culture 33
20 - Language, Culture, and Spatial Cognition 35
21 - Space, time, and Space–time: Metaphors, Maps, and Fusions 36
22 - Culture and Language Development 37
23 - Language and Cultural scripts 38
24 - Culture and Emotional Language 39
25 - Language and Culture in Sociolinguistics 41
26 - Language and Culture in Cognitive Anthropology 42
27 - Language and Culture in Second Language Learning 44
28 - Writing across Cultures: ‘Culture’ in Second Language Writing studies 45
29 - Language and Culture in Second Dialect Learning 46
30 - Language and Culture in Intercultural Communication 47
31 - World Englishes and Local Cultures 48
32 - Cultural Linguistics 49
33 - A Future agenda for Research on Language and Culture 50

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 BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
Pablo Borbon Main I, Batangas City

CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 1 : Language and Culture: Overview

The relationship between language and subculture is deeply rooted. Language is

used to keep and bring culture and cultural ties. Different ideas stem from differing
language use within one’s tradition and the complete intertwining of these relationships
begin at one’s birth.
When an infant is born, it is now not in contrast to any different toddler born, in
fact, quite similar. It is not until the toddler is exposed to their environment that they end
up persons in and of their cultural group. This idea, which describes all people as similar
at birth, has been round for thousands of years and was discussed with the aid of Confucius
as recorded in the e book by using his followers, Analects. From birth, the child’s life,
opinions, and language are formed by what it comes in contact with. Linguists argued that
bodily and mentally everybody is the same, whilst the interactions between men and
women or groups differ widely from vicinity to place. Patterns which emerge from these
group behaviors and interactions will be permitted of, or disapproved of. Behaviors which
are suitable will range from vicinity to location accordingly forming the foundation of
exceptional cultures. It is from these differences that one’s view of the world is formed.
Researchers put forth the concept that subculture is the beliefs and practices governing the
lifestyles of a society for which a specific language is the car of expression. Therefore,
everyone’s views are structured on the way of life which has influenced them, as well as
being described the use of the language which has been shaped by that culture. The
perception of a culture and its people can be enhanced by means of the information of their
language. As Sapir-Whorf argues, different thoughts are added about via the use of
exceptional forms of language. One is limited with the aid of the language used to specific
one’s ideas. Different languages will create one-of-a-kind limitations, therefore a human
beings who share a tradition however talk different languages, will have unique world
views. Still, language is rooted in tradition and tradition is reflected and handed on by way
of language from one era to the next.
From this, one can see that gaining knowledge of a new language entails the
learning of a new culture. Consequently, teachers of a language are additionally instructors
of culture.
The implications of language being totally entwined in culture, in regards for
language instructing and language policy are some distance reaching. Language instructors
should teach their students on the cultural

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 The whole reference tackled topics and ideas on how language and culture is
relevant to the research and linguistic field. Also, it gave way to conclusions and realization
that were all useful for the study of the relationship of language to culture and vice versa.
Though there are topics that were unfamiliar and not to known, sufficient sub-ideas are
prepared by every author of every chapters.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 2 : Linguistic Relativity: Precursors and Transformation

Linguistic Relativity, as defined, is a theory that deals with the relationship of the
language and the speaker. This employs that the diversity of language was one of the central
facts about human beings and its implications for conceptualization of natural and social
events and situations. First discussed by Sapir in 1929, the hypothesis became popular in
the 1950s following posthumous publication of Whorf's writings on the subject. Sapir had
been studying certain situations to come up with his conclusion about linguistic relativity.
After vigorous attack from followers of Noam Chomsky in the following decades, the
hypothesis is now believed by most linguists only in the weak sense that language can
have some small effect on thought.
As names were mentioned above, Edward Sapir, an American anthropologist and
linguist, is one of the most famous names when it comes to linguistic relativity. He was
also an author of the book “Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech” which
mainly become the reference used in teaching speech courses nowadays. He was also one
of the two proponents of the hypothesis regarding the linguistic relativity. Sapir is a student
of Franz Boas while he became the teacher Benjamin Whorf.
Meanwhile, Benjamin Whorf, a graduate of a chemical engineering course, became
the proponent of the linguistic relativity along with his teacher Edward Sapir. He is
basically not a graduate of any linguistic course because he has a degree of chemical
engineering and works as a fire prevention engineer but he still manage to work with Sapir.
They soon come up with the hypothesis and become famous together because of that. His
primary interest in linguistic came from his study of the native American languages. He
then became quite well now for his work like Hopi Language. Whorf was also considered
as a captivating speaker and popularize his linguistic ideas through lectures and articles.
Also, Noam Chomsky, an American linguist, philosopher, scientist and a political
analyst, was considered the “Father of Modern Linguistics.” Chomsky is also a major
figure in analytic philosophy and considered as one of the founders in the field of cognitive
science. He is a researcher who developed a well-known theory in language. He argues that
the basis for grammar and language is an innate ability that every human have.
The principle behind linguistic relativity is that the structure of a language affects
the ways in which its respective speakers conceptualize their world, i.e. their world
view, or otherwise influences their cognitive processes. Popularly known as the Sapir–
Whorf hypothesis, or Whorfianism, the principle is often defined as having two versions:
(1) the strong version that language determines thought and that linguistic categories limit
and determine cognitive categories and (2) the weak version that linguistic categories and
usage influence thought and certain kinds of non-linguistic behavior. The term "Sapir–

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Whorf Hypothesis" is a misnomer, as Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf never co-
authored anything, and never stated their ideas in terms of a hypothesis. The distinction
between a weak and a strong version of the hypothesis is also a later invention, as Sapir
and Whorf never set up such a dichotomy, although often in their writings their views of
this relativity principle are phrased in stronger or weaker terms.
In terms of the transformation, started in the latter part of the nineteenth century
where it was marked by the rise in prestige of the natural sciences and of corresponding
universalistic ideologies of science. In Germany, as a way of defending humanist diversity,
a clear distinction was made between the universalist law-seeking methods of the natural
sciences and the professionals interpretative methods of what came to be called historical
or spiritual sciences. The study of language throughout the century was dominated by the
discovery of the genetic relationships among languages, particularly those of the Indo-
European language family. But the great European intellectual development of the second
half of the nineteenth century was that of cultural evolutionism, which sought to understand
all of human history as a progress from uniform savagery and lack of organization to a state
of highly organized civilization typical of modern Western societies. Holding that history
recapitulates phylogeny, small-scale non- Western societies, peasant beliefs and
superstitions, children, were all held to represent survivals of earlier, more primitive stages.
Societal expectations are the main source of cultural relativity of developmental
tasks, typically reflected in age norms. This means that a person is expected to solve a
specific developmental task within a certain period. Therefore, the individual's
developmental stage can be described as one in which he or she is able to deal with
culturally set demands. Cultural norms are also reflected in ‘early,’ ‘on time,’ and ‘late’
development in various transition domains, as, for example, deciding on a job or preparing
for a family. Expectations of the timing in role transitions exist for the individual as a
private person (e.g., reaching emotional and economic independence from parents, taking
responsibility for further decisions) as well as a public person (e.g., age-related norms for
different civic rights).
The linguistic relativity principle states that the structure of the language of a
speaker affects the way they think, conceptualize and perceive. This means that the
language used by a person affects the way he think and how they build their world. Of
course, language has something to do with their culture and their culture reflects the way
they think and perceive. In teaching English courses today, where students are varied in
terms of their language and culture, it is really a concern because the teachers really have
to deal with 40-50 different language, different culture and different personality and the
way they think. It is a mere fact that the teachers struggle to this but nevertheless, they
always try to apply it in the classroom. As a teacher, in my class, I made sure that every
opinion of a student is heard, whether it is understandable by others or it is only their

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perception. In that case, students will not be scared to relate themselves with their
classmates just because of their differences.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 3 : Ethnosyntax

Ethnosyntax is defined as an approach in studying grammar as a vehicle of culture.

It was introduced by Wierzbick on 1979 to reflect a new perspective on grammatical
studies with a particular focus on cultural meaning. The author advocated the view that
grammatical constructions are not semantically arbitrary and their meanings are related to
broader cultural understandings. Since the idea of cultural meaning is important in the
ethnosyntax approach, the understanding of ‘culture’ must be identified. ‘Culture’ here
means people’s shared ideas, meanings and understandings. Culture means the people’s
shared ideas, understanding, meanings about the circumstances that they are going through
inside their social group. According to Geertz on 1973, the concept of culture deals with
the “a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of
inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate,
perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes towards life”. In this sense,
the interpretation of culture is sometimes labelled as semiotic.
As I have examined its principle, it is really important and really a must to be
considered inside the classroom. It would be a big help in understanding the culture of
every student present inside the classroom. Ethnosyntax is an ideal wherein the
grammatical and linguistic concepts studied are seen and analyzed culturally. Enfield
(2002) termed ethnosyntax as the theory that points out about the grammar of a language
is closely linked to the culture of the speakers. This means we will be able to understand
well and communicate with other cultures by understanding their language and grammar.
In this sense, ethnosyntax is indeed important for people speaking different
grammar and using different culture in understanding and communicating with each other.
Moreover, ethnosyntax helps people understand the grammatical structure and linguistic
structure of the language in a systematic and structural method. Understanding the elements
of syntax of a certain language makes it easier to study and understand the important
elements within a sentence and their relationships with each other.
Aside from that, we also find ethnosyntax important in finding grammatical
constructions directly showing the cultural values of the speakers of the language. We can
find those in the grammatical devices used in each language which we know are sometimes
the mirror of their culture and traditions. The words and grammar used in the grammatical
devices are clues and evidence to how their culture are. This explains why ethnosyntax
creates the connections between the culture and the grammar or language.
English Language teachers really do have difficulties when teaching other
nationalities and students who has different culture. This promotes the engagement of the
teachers and students to their acquisition of both culture and language. In studying and

9
teaching language, it is a fact that syntax is an important element to understand the structure
of the language. If the teacher did not effectively taught the students about it, they could
have a difficulty in terms of understanding the spoken and written aspect of a certain
language. While, if the students were taught effectively and they fully understand it, the
learners will be able to understand the complex element of the language. It will be easier
for them to understand the speakers and also, to understand the essential elements of the
language. A good example is when dealing with a sentence that has more than one noun;
the most important one in such a sentence is the noun that gives its character to the phrase
and it is the head noun. If the head noun is singular or plural, the phrase will follow the
orientation of the head noun. The head noun must also be in good agreement with the verb
associated to it for the sentence to make sense. A learner has to know syntax properties to
construct correct sentences. Therefore, it is evident that syntax is the most important aspect
of learning a language. This is because the syntax properties of a sentence enable the
learners to understand the patterns of a language effectively and clearly.
As a conclusion on the study of the ethnosyntax, we can always remember that
learning the culture of other people, it requires learning their grammar or syntax as well. It
always come with each other. In teaching, it is important to know ethnosyntax and use it
in class for the teachers better understand their students and also to broaden their
knowledge. Thus, language teachers should be careful in teaching the following elements
of the syntax of the language. Ethnosyntax is indeed important for us to be able to construct
correct sentences that still adhere to the culture of the one we are talking without offending
or arguing with them.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 4 : Ethnosemantics

As defined by anthropology, ethnosemantics is the study of the ways and methods

in which people label and classify the social, cultural and environmental phenomena of
their world. This is concerned on how the linguistic expressions have related meaning
across the cultures and languages.
From the Greek word semainein which means to say and to indicate and from the
word sema which means sign. As defined, semantics was worded for a postulated linguistic
science that would study the transformations of meaning along with the transformations of
sounds and words. For its part, the addition of the prefix ethno-, from the Greek éthnos, a
people or a nation, to a field of study indicates a comparative, cross-cultural extension of
the field, with the implied or explicit criticism that the discipline as constituted without the
prefix does not truly live up to a claim of universality, but in fact represents the
unchallenged formalization of modern Western assumptions. Thus ethnosemantics would
be the study of meaning across cultures, whether by looking at differences in what is meant
by words with the same apparent referent by discovering ways of organizing knowledge or
theories about the attribution of meaning, or by seeking to identify universals in what
people signify and the ways they do so. In this broad sense, ethnosemantics covers much
of what is studied in cultural and social anthropology, linguistics, history, and comparative
religion.
Boas (1911), “Since the total range of personal experience which language serves
to express is infinitely varied, and its whole scope must be expressed by a limited number
of phonetic groups, it is obvious that an extended classification of experiences must
underlie all articulate speech.” This line means that Boasian cultural semantics is about
how semantics affect the way we understand and communicate with people from other
cultures. In my classroom setting, where 20-25 students of different language and culture
are present, Boasian cultural semantics is applied. This is present when the students from
different races like transferees from different provinces attended the class and we are both
adhering to changes and adjustments. Words that we say and words that we hear are very
carefully said because sometimes, it may lead to misunderstanding. In semantics, words in
the culture that we have may somewhat have a different meaning based on the culture of
the transferee.
In this sense, application of the Boasian semantics in a classroom is important and
could be one of the factors on how to better understand the needs of the students and their
culture that they use.
As a reflection, ethnosemantics will be a very great help for everyone to learn a
language and a culture. This will be effectively use not just inside the four corners of the

11
classroom but also in the outside or real-life situations. As a conclusion, ethnosemantics
will guide us in seeing the differences in the certain elements or level of language. This
also goes with the culture and how they differ in terms of culture and a single word can
affect our understanding to one another.
And as a professional teacher, it is relevant to know, to develop and to broaden our
knowledge and skills in ethnosemantics because it would probably help us in understanding
the diverse culture of the students as well as to expand our knowledge about how a certain
word means to other language and culture. Also, as a professional teacher, it will be an ace
for us in analyzing the behavior of the learners using their cultural, social and
environmental concerns.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 5 : Ethnopragmatics

Ethnopragmatics is an approach to language that is utilized in a society that sees

culture as having a central explanatory role and at the same time make way for the linkage
that is drawn between language and the society’s cultural beliefs and occurrences. Also,
this approach explained a threefold alignment of its objectives, methodological tools and
evidences. The threefold alignment was expounded by Goddard in 2006.
The objectives of ethnopragmatics is that it gives way to the knowledge of culture-
internal perspectives on the ‘how and why’ of speech practices in the diverse languages of
the world. It deals with the explanation and description of the way how of how people
speaks in terms that it make sense to the people concerned including their indigenous
beliefs, values, attitudes, social categories and emotions. When it comes to the
methodological tools, it is based on decomposing cultural notions and learning the cultural
norms in terms of its meanings that seem to be shared and common between all the
languages used in the world. As for the linguistic evidences, ethnopragmatics focuses on
usage patterns, interactional routines, and language constructions. Linguistic usage
functions as the index of routine ways of thinking and, appropriately analyzed, allows us
to stay close to an insider perspective. Ethnopragmatics also takes heed of the ‘soft data’
of anecdotal accounts, life writing in terms of cultural insiders themselves. This also means
that ethnopragmatics deals with the life-written reports of people and the experiences they
shared and have inside their culture.
Aside from the definitions above, ethnopragmatics is the reconceptualization of the
approach to ‘cross-cultural pragmatics’ as stated by Wierzbicka’s (2003). Ethnopragmatics
is a more appropriate designation because it highlights the claim that there is an explanatory
link between indigenous values and social models, on the one hand, and indigenous speech
practices, on the other. A key goal of ethnopragmatics is to access ‘insider perspectives’ of
the participants. This means working through and with local categories and local ways of
speaking – not in terms of sophisticated academic English and technical concepts, but in
terms that are recognizable and accessible to the people concerned. This objective will and
will only be achieved by enclosing the description in words and phrases whose meanings
are shared between the languages concerned, such as universal semantic primes and
molecules. Describing cultural concepts and cultural norms in this way brings other
important benefits as well because this eliminates the danger of definitional circularity and
allows for a very fine-grained resolution of meaning. This equate to the theory that the
culture of a person greatly affects the language that he or she should be learning. That is
visible to the society he or she belongs to.

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 There are three critical issues that should be faced when analyzing and studying
about ethnosemantics. The first one is that it need to continuously combatting against the
Anglocentrism or the practice of viewing the world from English or Anglo-American
perspective, with an implied belief, either consciously or subconsciously, in the
preeminence of English or Anglo-American culture. This is present when universal models
are made from English-specific materials. It is important to be clear that this problem is
not a matter of the conscious intentions of the researchers concerned but it is about
researchers taking for granted the interpretive resources of the English language and about
how these assumed concepts influence the content of the models.
The second critical issue is that Anglo English concepts as well as pragmatic norms
should be denaturalize. Based from several studies done, there are words in the Anglo
English language that do not have equivalents in any other languages such as European
languages. Some words are not made based from the ethnopragmatics view but instead, it
is made directly relevant to Anglo ways of speaking, including social categories and social
descriptors. Lastly, the third Critical issue is the need to itemize and conceptualized the
compartmentalization of pragmatics, and language-and-culture studies generally. Within
linguistics, there is a need to integrate pragmatics with lexical and grammatical semantics.
Despite ongoing talk about the semantics–pragmatics interface, few practitioners in either
field are interested in showing how meaning is constructed by real people in real
communication, subjectively in a seamless fashion.
As a conclusion, there are still a lot of things that should be done in studying and
exploring ethnopragmatics. Some of which are documenting and exploring more and more
languages, experimenting with new formats of cultural scripts and explications,
discovering more about the intertextuality between cultural scripts, accommodating
situational and interpersonal factors in greater detail. Most importantly, practical
application using ethnopragmatics should also be a focus in this. Societal and cultural
scripts and experiences data are expressed in a non-technical ordinary language, they have
the potential to be readily applied to real-world needs in many situations. As an example,
real-life scenarios like having to assist with cultural induction of immigrants and refugees,
to develop the intercultural competence component of language courses, to assist
governmental and international agencies to communicate more effectively with cultural
minorities, to help bridge cultural gaps in international negotiations. Ethnopragmatics also
has an important contribution to make at this time of language endangerment, by providing
techniques for capturing indigenous concepts and describing indigenous speech practices
in an authentic fashion that do not use Anglocentrism. This should be visible to the
continuous progress in ethnopragmatics and its great contribution to the society.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 6 : Linguaculture: The Language - Culture Nexus
in Transnational Perspective

Linguaculture is a concept that deals and focuses on the culture in language as well
as the cultural dimensions of language. It was developed and studied to contribute to an
expounded and a more differentiated conceptual outlook in the interface between the
studies of language and culture.
Mentioned in the reference is the development of linguaculture to languaculture
and their differences. Linguaculture is a domain of experience that fuses and interacts the
vocabulary, semantic aspects of grammar and the verbal aspects of culture. On the other
hand, languaculture is defined as meanings that includes, but go well beyond what the
dictionary and grammar offer thus it focuses on the meaning in discourse particularly in
conversation rather than the dictionary meaning. The concept of linguaculture started it but
then as they have still studied about it, they have come up their mind to change it from
“lingua-” to “langua-” to highlight and emphasize the root word which is language.
Linguaculture differs with languaculture in a sense that linguaculture is mainly inclined
with the meanings and semantics based from the grammar rules and the dictionary while
languaculture focuses on the meaning based from the spoken discourse or the conversation
There are many ways and situation where linguaculture and languaculture is
applied. As an example, the importance of language in cultural development is basically
seen when two people with different language get married. Of course, they should have
understanding and consideration to the language and the culture of both parties so they
should have to learn and to make a way to better understand the culture of each other. In
this sense, they will both learn each other’s culture for the misunderstanding be avoided.
They already have their own different culture but then, because they love each other and
needed to live with each other, of course, they needed to learn it for them to get along with.
Also, when the time comes that they already have their own family and bare their own
children, both of the cultures that they have will be both taught. The children need to learn
both cultures and as a development, there will be a time wherein the two cultures of their
parents will be mixed form each other.
Nowadays, the concept of linguaculture is already used primarily in several fields
especially those that has a special emphasis in dealing with both language and culture. In
particular, linguaculture is mostly in teaching language as well as learning it. It can be used
for highlighting that some forms of culture are related to language, while others are not.
Thus it can prevent us from jumping into a narrow, language-bound view of culture. It can
also be used to stress that languages and linguaculture may spread all over the world across
diverse cultural contexts. Most importantly, linguaculture can be useful for further studies

15
and development of the methodology in the fields such as a fundamental methodological
issue in relation to the analysis of the language–culture ne1xus is data construction and
generation itself.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 7 : Language, Gender and Culture
Studying language and culture is a vague and wide topic where everyone can relate
and share their own knowledge. This is because everyone has their own language that is
inclined with their culture and vice versa. In studying both language and culture, gender is
a topic and idea inclined with it. As examined, the relationship between language and
gender has been the focus of interest in several number of disciplines such as linguistics,
sociology, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and biology.
Different disciplines have explored different aspects about language, gender and
culture. Biological and psychological studies have explored the brains of males and females
and they have examined how language is being processed and learned, while sociological
studies have explicated into gender and socialization. On the other hand, anthropology has
focused on how gender roles are variously defined. Upon studying, linguistic perspectives
found were about the differences in language that is used by men and women.
Results from the studies are about the differences of male and female in terms of
many aspects. One of which is the issue about “power inequality” because it highlights the
way how people use language creates and reflects inequalities in societies through what
Bourdieu calls ‘habitus’. Current situations and interplays from past events were produced
from their thinking as well as from the social norms. Hence, it has been argued that
metaphors and other terms that denigrate women create negative concepts associated with
femininity and these concepts become the norm through the unconscious use of those
linguistic conventions. This event is also seen when people use language defining social
status differences including gender, further provoking and reinforcing inequalities.
Mentioned above were just some of the ideas that researches connect to language
and culture especially in terms of gender. The chapter has demonstrated the readers that as
researchers and future researchers, language should not be biased and particulate based on
the gender or as male or female. It should always be taken account from the context where
the language is used. Similarly, the traditional dichotomous categories of ‘men’ and
‘women’ are untenable for analyzing language and gender. As an example, researchers
must be aware of the indefiniteness of gender established by many studies about peculiar
and queer language. Despite of the huge number of studies regarding the topic, it is
perfectly seen that many cultures and languages are under-represented. In particular,
research needs to be carried out in communities where gender differences are observed in
formal elements of the language.
As a conclusion, we should all know and understand our own culture and language
that we share with our society for us to be able to be aware of the gender differences
present in all the languages and cultures present in the world. Along with that, people

17
should also be aware of other’s culture and language and also learn from that. In that case,
misunderstanding especially in terms of the gender should be abolished.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 8 : Language, Culture and Context

Along with gender, there is also another perspective where studying the relationship
of language and culture would be possible, and that is context. In the reference, the author
have argued that language can be determined as knowing “preferred ways” of saying
different things and ways of organizing thoughts. The word preferred ways pertains to the
ideas or the linguistic code develop with the other members of the society. It means, there
are already preferable answers or expression to be used in different situations or certain
scenarios. In this sense, the language should be along the context of the culture that a person
belongs to. Also, these ‘preferred ways’ are culture and language specific. They reflect the
ways of thinking of speech community members about the world, their environment and
their contexts. This is why it is difficult to learn another language.
The context of the language reflects the ways how member of a certain culture or
another speech community thinks and conceptualize a certain idea about a scenario or
situation. Even if there is an reoccurring contexts which are similar, the way people
lexicalize them differs a lot.
As being defined, the term “context” can be used in different ways because it is
defined in following ways like (1) the circumstances that form the setting for an event,
statement or idea and also defined as (2) the parts that immediately precede and follow a
word or passage and clarify its meaning. The first definition talks about the context that we
can use in different scenarios or what we call as extra-linguistic context. The second
definition refers to the linguistic context, that is to say, elements of language that either
precede or follow a word, expression, or larger lexical unit. However, this is only one side
of context. This is also referring to the actual situational context that is a combination of
the linguistic and extra-linguistic factors. Language is based on context and it is also used
in actual situations so it could never be context free. It could never be said that language is
context-free because the lexical item is already a part of the language itself.
Along with this, researchers have come up with two facets of the meaning value of
the word namely: coresense and consense. Coresense pertains to the lexical unit itself. This
is a denotational, diachronic, relatively constant and objective feature. It also reflects the
changes in the given speech community. On the other hand, consense refers to the actual
contextual sense. This is the actual, more of a substantial and subjective, referential and it
is connoted and it is changed by actual situational context.
More so, the reference wanted to show and identify what is the relationship of
context with language and culture. It also gave way to the view the relation of culture to
context as to consense and coresense. The researcher wanted to suggest and look forward

19
to researches that are focusing the interplay of both sides in the definition of the meaning
based from the language.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 9 : Language, Culture and Politeness

Along with gender and context mentioned previously, language and culture are
also said to be related to politeness. This is an approach that is more able to chart the
complex relations between the terms language, culture and politeness. This focuses on the
way that different cultures have been described in relation to politeness norms, where
certain cultures have been labelled as collectivist or individualist cultures, positive or
negative politeness cultures, and discernment and preference and opinion-based cultures.
There is also the presence of the word indirectness that is related and inclined with
the word politeness. Indirectness is somewhat different when it comes to the meaning of
the message or the language. Politeness, in its nature, is being very cautious and careful in
conveying the messages. Sometimes, using indirectness when requesting something, the
person gives the receiver the option of not recognizing or acknowledging the request, and
therefore indirect forms allow the hearer some freedom of action.
There are several scenarios and situations wherein indirectness and/or politeness is
use. One of which is when borrowing something from a person like for example is a pen
or someone wanted to request the receiver to give them or do something for them. When
someone say, “I was wondering if you could possibly go with me in the market?”, rather
san saying “Can you please accompany me to the market?” The first question seems to be
intimidating and seems like the receiver of the message do not have any choice but to do
the favor while when the latter would be would be used, it seems to be politely asking to
accompany the speaker or not. It could be possible in any way especially when requesting
for something.
Still, when discussing about politeness, there is also the presence of positive and
negative politeness. Positive politeness culture pertains to camaraderie or friendship which
stresses the social closeness amongst individuals while negative politeness culture or
deference or submissiveness tend to emphasize distance and respect between individuals.
Positive politeness is present when someone can speak to your despite of your age or level
but still, it has politeness when talking. In positive politeness, you can easily speak to
strangers and ask them for small favors like telling or showing directions. In cultures such
as Japan or Britain, it is asserted that deference and respect (negative politeness)
characterize interaction, so individuals apologize more in negative politeness cultures and
do not tend to impose on, or even talk to, strangers. This characterizes that in countries like
Japan and Britain, negative politeness is observed. You cannot easily talk to strangers
without politeness and without you recognizing them as higher than you.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 10 : Language, Culture and Interaction

The chapter discusses how interaction is related to language and culture. Interaction
means an ongoing interplay or interconnection of two languages in a society with one or
many cultures. Language is made of words and structures among words that together
provide a picture of the world, the correctness of which is a matter of how well the picture
corresponds to said world. Culture is then construed as a substantive body of things that,
like language, is supposed to exist independently, behind the scenes, of the interaction that
it shapes and constructs.
Culture indeed links and constructs interactions in the society. It means, language
and culture affects interaction and is essential in interacting. Language is used as the tool
to how people in a culture express themselves. Language made it possible to share their
insights about their culture. In this case, the sharing of insights about their culture, using
language is done through interaction.
In a wide view, interactions can be different because the world is also consists of
various cultural groups that also differ from one another in terms of their languages. In
formal culture like higher government offices and educational departments, formal
language is also used in terms of interaction. Politeness and context is also present. To
people who are in higher level, politeness, formal, and informative language should
always be used. Formal words and informative language are used also in writing such
as letters and outputs. While in a business and marketing culture, persuasive and
informative language should be used. Persuasion is used to be able to persuade the
people to buy their products, pay for their services or invest in their company. In that
sense, for them to persuade their audience, they need to inform them with factual
information about the business and administering the market. Still, in business and
marketing, people share different cultures and sometimes, also language. People from
upper marketing business has different language from people who are in small markets
like grocery stores, wet markets and public supermarkets. People tend to have and carry
different vocabularies from two different types of marketing and business.
Mentioned previously are just some of the interactions made in the society
considering language and culture. In terms of interactions, let us also consider politeness
When interacting especially to strangers.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 11 : Culture and Kinship Language

This chapter discussed about how language and culture became an effective tool to
show kinship and relationship of people in a society whether they have the same culture or
not. Also, it showed how kinship affects the acquisition of one’s culture whether they will
lose their own culture and assimilated the new culture or stay to what their culture have
thought them.
The relationship between kinship and cultural practice differs from one society and
its language to the next. Provided that cultural practices related to kinship can differ
significantly across societies, they can undergo several changes upon contact with another
language and culture. Immigration in particular leads to significant contact and conflict
with other cultural systems. Comparatively few studies have expounded how these changes
relate to the larger view of maintaining kinship systems in a new environment.
In line with that researchers have come up with several researchers that resulted to
various advantages and one disadvantage of this. First is that they have knowledge and
control about the denotative meaning, connotative associations, and figurative extension
rather than any other domains and level. Second, they have analyzed and presented the
social and cultural forms and structure in which different kinship wordings are related.
Third, they have found out that there is the existence of a collective date in a systematic
patterns that includes the behavior of kinsfolk. The data were compared with other
terminologies and their uses. Fourth is that kinship and the patterned relations are
universally used because all cultures have them and they are really important. The fifth
advantage is that the researchers have published them throughout the years and are now
used universally. The disadvantage that they have mentioned is that denotative references
are defined by relative terminologies rather than directly how it is use and its features.
Connotative associations and figurative extension for kinship terms seem more like what
is common for other domains.
In the case of the cultural approach, the first thing we need to understand, for any
particular society, is how the important kinship categories are definedDetailed information
and data on genuine drop connections gives a valuable beginning stage. Be that as it may,
it should be enhanced by data about different types of semi family relationship: including
custom connection, reception, and perhaps reaching out to such connection like
connections as having been nursed by a similar lady, eating food from a similar cooking
pot, or investing energy in a similar dwelling space. These connections could be mapped
onto the informational collection of natural plummet connections by including codes to
interface people who are connected by ties, for example, appropriation.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 12 : Cultural Semiotics

Cultural semiotics, as defined, is the powerful tool when used in commercial

environments as it serves to identify patterns and conventions in culture. It is also defined
as methodological tool which can be documented simultaneously in various disciplines of
modern and contemporary humanities and social sciences. Cultural semiotics became the
first approach to the problem of meaning generation. Researchers also defined semiotics in
simpler way as an investigation into how meaning is created and how meaning is
communicated. The origin of this lie in the academic study of how signs and symbols
whether visually or linguistically create meaning. It is a way of seeing the world, and of
understanding how the setting and culture in which we use has a great impact on all of us
unconsciously.
Linguistic and cultural semiotics investigates sign systems and the modes of
representation that humans use to convey their feelings, thoughts, ideas, and ideologies.
Semiotic analysis is sometimes considered as a field of study in its own right, but is used
in a broad range of disciplines, including art, literature, anthropology, sociology, and the
mass media. Semiotic analysis aims to study for the cultural and psychological patterns
that lies behind language, art, and other cultural expressions.
In an age of corporate consolidation in which popular culture is influenced by an
elite few with very powerful voices, semiotic analysis is deemed essential for information
consumers. Semiotics informs consumers about a text, its underlying assumptions, and its
various dimensions of interpretation. Semiotics offers a lens into human communication.
It sharpens the consumer's own consciousness surrounding a given text. It informs
consumers about the cultural structures and human motivations that lies intellectual
representations. It rejects the possibility that humans can represent the world in a neutral
fashion. It exposes the profound situated expository structures and hidden codes that on a
very basic level shape human real factors. Semiotic investigation is a basic expertise for
media education in a postmodern world.
Having or knowing cultural semiotics gave us an idea about how meanings of
several words and languages that we know are generated. It also makes us more
knowledgeable of how we should understand a part of the culture from the whole
knowledge about that culture. Given in our complex and contemporary world, it is very
complicated and hard to understand. Cultural semiotics will become a tool for the analysis
of the culture and for synthesizing the learning got from other culture being studied.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 13 : Culture and Translation

As defined on the previous chapter, culture reflects the ways in which people
behave. It is a pattern in which we analyze the behavior, social habits, beliefs, traditions and
customs. If we are trying to know more and study about the culture, language plays an
important role and to understand language one needs translations as one might not know of
the particular language.
Translation begins so that there will be no communication gap between countries
that have different cultures and that there can be trade and cultural exchange. The idea was
to promote understanding among these countries. Translation, as defined by some theorists,
is used in reproducing the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source
language. It should be translated, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.
Barati, B. (2018) stated that when studying in keeping the meaning intact and the
style at place, it is implied that it should help a reader able to connect to the text and
understand the references in his own native language. Translation is highly influenced by
cultural differences and the accuracy in any translated text is highly proportional to the
knowledge the translator has of another culture. This implies that translation not only tests
a translator’s linguistic ability, but also how much he/she knows of the target languages’
cultural background.
When analyzing, one cannot overlook the influence that culture has on language and
translation. The knowledge about another culture makes it easier for a translator to translate
and it keeps the accuracy on a check. The aim of translation is to achieve semantic
equivalence and that can only be achieved with a good knowledge of the target language
and the source languages cultural backgrounds.
Nevertheless, researchers wanted others and future researchers to have a simplified
methodology of how translation can be done and of course, language and culture of the
source language should maintain and be observable. They should have done many more
computer generated translators and software as the world today is inclined with technology
and most of the people only depends to their gadgets. One simple way is a translation using
dictionaries on phone. A great example would be a Tagalog to English translation or
dictionary. The maker of the application have gone many researches that would suffice
Tagalog words and its proper translation to the English language.
REFERENCE:
Barati, B. (2018). Understanding the Relationship between Translation and Culture.
Medium. Retrieved from https://medium.com/@BhashaBharati/understanding-the-
relationship-between-translation-and-culture-92e58803bffb

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 14 : Language, Culture and Identity

Identity, simply stated, is who you are; individuality; the condition of being a
certain person. In the social sciences, identity is defined as the way that individuals label
themselves as members of a particular group; in psychology, it refers to an individuals’
self-esteem or self-image. People can speak about social identity, gender identity, cultural
identity, religious identity, national identity and many other identities.
Culture is a defining feature of a person’s identity. The shared values, customs and
histories characteristic of a particular culture have a very strong influence on how a person
behaves, thinks, and views the world. Cultural identity then encompasses for me all that
relates to self, belonging, systems of beliefs and sentiments of self-worth. It is the total sum
of ways of living built up by a group of human beings transmitted from one generation to
another.
Language is intrinsic to the expression of culture. Language is a fundamental aspect
of cultural identity. It is the means by which we convey our innermost self from generation
to generation. It is through language that we transmit and express our culture and its values.
“Language – both code and content – is a complicated dance between internal and external
interpretations of our identity”. Words or the language, have the power to define and shape
the human experience. It is because of language that people can name their experiences.
Culture and language shape one's character and its identity. There is a great
significance of culture and language to one's individual character. Through language
people are able to identify others, through the accent and some by their facial expressions.
When someone speaks, one can be able to identify them. As Leveridge (2008) clarified,
every individual is brought into the world a similar way and encounters similar stages
throughout everyday life. The distinction, nonetheless, is the earth where every individual
grows up and the language to which he/she gets acclimated with. This makes personalities
of a specific culture and language, varying this individual from one another.
Culture and language are so interwoven and in that multifaceted nature culture
cannot be isolated from language either language cannot be isolated from culture. The
manner in which individuals decide to utilize language in different periods of life
subsidiaries them to a one explicit culture from the other. A model is of a lady hitched to a
distant clan or network and afterward the couple lives in another city or network. A city
where individuals don not communicate in both of their language. For this case for the
couple to adjust they should get familiar with the language of those individuals somewhat
or completely. Through the language they adjust their conventions with the goal that they
don't look odd among them. In the event that they utilize the main language that encouraged
their correspondence to get hitched then they will be distinguished as not individuals of a

26
similar culture. This backings the solid bond among language and character. Language
united them and this situation presented another culture on the planet. Assorted variety of
culture at that point may mean it is dictated by the language expressed. Individuals utilize
the language to meet their social needs, personality being one of them. In certain events
when individuals get familiar with another dialect they receive quick to the way of life of
the individuals who communicate in that language. The receptions liken them as
equivalents in that new setting. Equivalent among them in the explanation that they share
their way of life and the character. Language and culture are equivalent to the point that
the other can't evade the other one.

REFERENCE:
Leveridge, A. N. (2008) “The Relationship Between Language & Culture and the
Implications for Language Teaching.” Sitemap. TEFL.net, Sept. 2008.
<http://edition.tefl.net/articles/teacher-technique/language-culture/&gt;.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 15 : Language and Culture History :
The Contribution of Linguistic Prehistory

When studying about any culture, people cannot just ignore its history.
Understanding its history allows people to form some idea of how and why certain words
came to mean what they do. The history of a culture explains the power a term or idea can
carry in a language, but it also explains the existence of certain linguistic elements. To
really understand, it is also important to ask study about the influence of other cultures on
a language. Studying cultural differences inevitably leads to an examination of history.
Studying the past allows us to understand both our present and future, even if it is
impossible to practice preventive history.
Studying history, however, does more than just teach students about the past; it also
obliges them to think critically, to process large amounts of information and make sense of
conflicting analyses. Reading history requires a careful perusal of documents. In my history
classes, students examine both primary source documents and secondary texts written by
historians, examining them for bias. By analyzing rhetorical strategies, we determine not
only which elements are present but also which important elements are missing from the
text. Thus, students learn to understand stillness in history and the reasons for them.
The chapter also discussed about how linguistic prehistory helps people learn their
own culture and language. It highlights how linguistic prehistory made a great
contribution in the development of the history and culture of a society. Evidences from the
linguistic prehistory made it possible for researchers to know how to the prehistoric think,
act and also the way they live and communicate with each other. It also gave them an idea
on how business is made during that time. An example of which is barter. In business using
barter, people tend to know the culture of the people that they would make a transaction
that will enable them to know what products are good and are prioritized by the country. It
also enables them to communicate properly and prehistorically.
Beyond those, this chapter mainly points out how language and culture spread into
the people and across the globe. It is concluded by researchers and linguists that there is a
limit in terms of linguistic reconstruction. They have estimated it until 10, 0000 years
highlighting that there would still be development and spread that happen beyond those
years. They also concluded that there are several hindrances and barriers that they have
found. Researchers studied how people of a culture migrate and learn another culture and
languages and how they easily adapted to the new culture. Interaction with other people
such as archeologists, geneticists and demographers made them realize that the theories
and models needed refinement and development.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 16 : Embodiment, Culture and Language

Humans, in nature, are strange. In most species that use social learning such as
lions, wolves, or elephants, collective intelligence midst on individuals. Humans, in
contrast, much depends on an developing cultural or impersonal realm. This is due to
embodiment where activity draws comprehensively on reports of how language contribute
to experienced phenomena. People connect with their ability based on using a language
standpoint. They strategize, refine values, and develop social practices. For this reason,
acknowledgement of linguistic relationship offers much to fundamental embodied
cognitive discipline. Mental content is replaced by treating language as activity in which
wordings play a part. People use embodied coordination together with phenomenal
experience of wordings. People need dispositions that will link the mind and thinking
resources to the world beyond and outside the body. Human intelligence give of multiple
environmental issues and interactions. Given that, linguistic interactions enables human
individuals to use wordings and language in observation. Individual lives can be regulated
around neutral resources. People do not only follow social practices, norms and beliefs but
also languages that enable individuals to self-configure.
As Cowley (2014) studied, experiences from language makes humans distinct. As
we expounded the accountable, meaning potentials arise such as people come to believe in
languages, minds, and mental content. Social life uses such beliefs to draw on past like
mythical, lived, told and impersonal experiences. Its imagined outcomes can literally be
out to use in making future studies, references and learnings. This allows experience to be
recalibrated just like philosophers pursue inquiry. Remarkably, language gave markers for
possible futures as people navigate ecological space and ecological time. Drawing on
interactions, all of us becomes a living subject who exerts some control over who and what
we become across history and wordings.
In conclusion, it is the human body that shapes how human thinks and acts. This is
because human tend to perceive and do what their sensorimotor nerves told them to do.
This means the mind is the central unit of the action and thinking of a person. This is seen
in the extended human body and then reflects by the body through actions and wordings to
the environment. This researches made the people and show them the relationship of
embodiment, culture and language.
REFERENCE:
Cowley, S. J. (2014). Linguistic embodiment and verbal constraints: human cognition and
the scales of time. Frontiers in Psychology. Retrieved from:
https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01085

29
CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 17 : Culture and Language Processing

One of the primary way through which we communicate and let the world know
our knowledge, ideas, thoughts, and beliefs is through the use of language. Progressively,
the world has become more diverse in linguistic manner, not only in the number of
languages that we are aware of, but also in terms of the productivity of those languages and
the degree to which individuals know and use more than one language.
As mentioned, language also carries meanings and implications beyond itself. The
meanings of a particular language represent the culture of a specific social group. To
interact with and using the language means that you will also do it with the culture using
its reference point. We would not understand a culture without having direct knowledge to
its language because of their intimate connection.
A specific language indicates the culture of a particular social group. This means,
learning a language is not just memorizing and learning the alphabet, the meaning, the
grammar rules as well as the arrangement of words, but it is also learning the behavior of
the society and its cultural traditions. Hence, teaching the language should always contain
factual and obvious reference to the culture, the whole from which the specific language is
taken.
As a conclusion, it is indeed a fact that language and culture when combined can
be an effective tool to make unique ways and more useful methods that influence cognitive
processing in a higher level. It means, that the culture of a social group, aside from the
language, made it possible for other people to learn new culture. Not just the culture but
also the language processing.
In a classroom situation, students cannot just learn about the grammatical rules,
alphabet and word meanings but they should also learn about how do the language users
came up to those meanings and vocabulary. This means, history or etymology of the
terminologies and words should be learned to help them understand why is the word like
that. In that sense, if there is a related word, they would easily come up with the real
meaning because they have a background about it. Of course, as being taught, meanings of
the vocabularies and terminologies are all inclined with the culture of the social group.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 18 : Language, Culture and Prototypicality

Individuals for the most part cut the real factors of the world in different manners
so as to communicate their considerations and collaborate with others. Normally, words
are etymological classifications which convey the proposed ideas; be that as it may, people
will in general conserve by packaging words into various calculated classes. Some
researchers investigate the acquired information dependent on people’s positioning of the
models alongside the individual recurrence esteems uncovered that sex and culture
assumed a noteworthy job in distinguishing the classification enrollment of different
individuals from a given idea across various dialects. The discoveries can have significant
ramifications for language educators, material architects, and second language
understudies since culture is an abrogating factor in language learning.
From the reference, the researchers have found three challenges that the future
researchers in the field may encounter. The first one is to stay in touch with developments
from neighboring disciplines, as regards both theoretical issues and applications. This is
highlighted on the ongoing testing of the prototype or alternative models as to their
expounding power and psychological certainty. Additional issues include the query on
whether the knowledge stored in classes is rather general or fairly detailed. The second
challenge is to provide broader interpretational frameworks for findings on prototypicality
effects. The researchers have focused on two ideas that are useful in that aspect which are
the ‘culturally blended concepts’ and ‘cultural model’. The third challenge that they saw is
closely related and in line with current trends in culture and language. Thy have found that
greater attention needs to be paid to culture-related variation in varieties of one and the
same language, in addition to the traditional focus on cross-linguistic variation.
As a conclusion, the further exploration of the relationship between language and
culture including social categories is a very great topic and idea to expound on. The have
concluded that linguistic prototypes has a valuable role in the study and that they really
serve as anchor points for social cognition and recognition.
Moreover, researchers and people who are interested in the field, widely accepted
the prototype theory in linguistics because it is part of the common ground between broad
sciences. This makes it highly useful and necessary element of cultural linguistics along
with its programmatic commitment in the interdisciplinary study of language, culture and
cognition interactions.

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REFERENCE:
Kidd, E., Kemp, N., Kashima, E. S., & Quinn, S. (2016). Language, Culture, and Group
Membership: An Investigation Into the Social Effects of Colloquial Australian
English. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. Retrieved from:
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022116638175

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 19 : Colour Language, Thought and Culture

According to several historical account, there was not an English word for the color
“orange” until the citrus fruit of the same name arrived in Europe. It was previously called
as “yellow-red” because those are the two colors that when combined, created the color
orange. This is one of the best example where color categories or what we call as color
language are shaped by the culture.
As studied by Hu et al (2019), these words do not just reflect what we see, however
numerous trials recommend they impact our observation. In one ongoing examination,
distributed in Psychological Science and announced by the British Psychological Society,
scientists indicated gatherings of Greek, German, and Russian speakers a fast arrangement
of shapes, and were advised to pay special mind to a dark semi-circle. This semi-hover
showed up close by a triangle in various shades of blue and green, and members later
announced whether they saw a total triangle, a slight or solid impression of the shape, or
did not see it by any means.
Scientists found that Greek and Russian speakers, who have devoted words for light
and dim blue, were bound to see a light blue triangle against a dim blue foundation and
vice versa, than they were to recognize green triangles against green foundations. Speakers
of German, which has no such qualification, were no better at seeing shades of blue
triangles than green. Similar research has found that Russian speakers distinguish between
shades of blue faster than English speakers, and Greek speakers start to see all shades of
blue as similar after living in the UK for a long time.
The connection among language and observation has continually been a great
discussion, and accord has swung to and fro between these two shafts throughout the years
as what Regier and Kay (2009) posposed. At one post of this discussion is the relativist
point of view, which expresses that our discernment is molded by the semantic
classifications of our local language, and a few examinations investigating shading straight
out observation bolster the relativist. At the other post is the all-inclusive point of view,
which expresses that a widespread collection of discernment exists that leaves its engraving
on dialects, bolster this general viewpoint. As of late, the connection among language and
observation has been exceptional clarified by the dismissal of recognizing language and
recognition portrayals, and receiving progressively complex point of view among
universalism and relativism, for example, the prescient handling theory, Bayesian model,
and examinations of advancement. These mind boggling points of view infer that
observation is formed by both relativistic and widespread powers, and our equal
discoveries got utilizing two altogether different controls such as a cross-etymological

33
examination and an obstruction task, merge to offer help for these unpredictable viewpoints
in some eastern language.

REFERENCE:
Hu, H. et al. (2019). Language and Color Perception: Evidence From Mongolian and
Chinese Speakers. Frontiers in Psychology. Retrieved from:
https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00551.
DOI=10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00551

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 20 : Language, Culture and Spatial Cognition
Language change in their semantic apportioning of the world. This has prompted
hypothesis that language may shape fundamental subjective procedures. Spatial perception
has been a region of research in which semantic relativity — the impact of language on
thought — has both been proposed and dismissed. Earlier examinations have been
uncertain, lacking test thoroughness or proper research plan. Lacking point by point
ethnographic information just as neglecting to focus on intralanguage varieties, these
investigations regularly miss the mark concerning characterizing a suitable idea of
language, culture, and insight. The investigation comprises the main research investigating
(a) people communicating in various dialects yet living in the equivalent prompt condition
and (b) methodical intralanguage variety. Results of some researches shown that language
does not shape spatial insight and plays, best case scenario the optional job of
foregrounding elective opportunities for encoding spatial plans.
There has been investigations and researches that portrayed some ongoing,
unforeseen discoveries concerning variety in spatial language across societies, and spots
them with regards to the general human studies of room from one perspective, and
hypotheses of spatial cognizance in the psychological sciences on the other. There has been
a lot of worry with the imagery of room in anthropological compositions, however little on
ideas of room in down to earth exercises. This disregard of regular spatial ideas might be
because of accidental ethnocentrism, the supposition in Western reasoning commonly that
thoughts of room are all around of a solitary kind. Late work shows that frameworks of
spatial retribution and portrayal can in actuality be very different across societies, phonetic
contrasts relating with particular subjective propensities. This startling social variety brings
up fascinating issues concerning the connection among social and phonetic ideas and the
organic establishments of insight. It contends for more complex models relating society
and cognizance than we presently have accessible.
As a conclusion, in a classroom setting, for example, students can possibly learn
well if spatial cognition is considered. Students will be given the chance to roam around
the campus and do some physical activities like sports and games or it could be games that
has something to do with language. Also, the learnings and retention of how they perceive
the culture and language is very effective once spatial cognition is involved.
REFERENCE:
Ross, N.O., Shenton, J.T., Hertzog, W., & Kohut, M.R. (2015). Language, Culture and
Spatial Cognition: Bringing anthropology to the table. The Baltic International
Yearbook of Cognition, Logic and Communication, 10, 8.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 21 : Space, Time, and Space–time: Metaphors, Maps, and Fusions

Space and time are habitually considered to be all inclusive, transcultural spaces of
human language and thought, and the dialect of space, time, and movement has been goal
investigated in recent decades. Space is broadly seen as the central source space for the
phonetic and conceptual structuring, through allegorical mapping, of time. At lexical and
constructional levels, the spatial and worldly spaces are closely related. In numerous
dialects, worldly implications have been shown to be communicated by words and
development sorts whose essential implications are examined as being spatial. Typological
considers have appeared that lexical space–time mapping is without a doubt wide-spread,
and constructional space–time mapping been examined in dialects geologically different
as English.
Recent research have also, however, published wide, sometimes dramatic, cross-
linguistic variation in the language of area and time, and each have been outstanding
checking out grounds for neo-Whorfian research. Much of the proof adduced in assist of
Whorfian effects in spatial language entails cross-linguistic variation in the dominant
spatial frame of reference. In analogous fashion, it has been counseled that the principal
cross-linguistic differences in temporal language that is sometimes happening from main
to non-linguistic cognitive between speakers consist now, not in the existence of space–
time metaphor, but in the orientation frames of reference within which space–time
metaphors are schematically constructed and construed. The evaluation of space–time
metaphoric mapping in phrases of conceptual metaphor concept and the theory of
embodied cognition has been particularly influential in proposals that linguistic space–time
mapping, being based totally upon widely wide-spread non-linguistic cognitive strategies,
can be viewed as universal. Many researchers have criticized, however, the tendency in
conceptual metaphor research either to overlook completely the cultural dimension of
metaphor, viewing it exclusively via the lens of cognitive universalism or, when cultural
troubles are addressed to conflate cultural variant with linguistic variation.
As a conclusion, there are many metaphors that the words time, space and space-
time has. There is a concept behind it that space, time and space time make it connected to
culture and language. There are several changes in the language and culture such as
development that happened through time. Moreover, because everyone of us comes in
different spaces and lives in different spaces, it means that our culture also differs. That is
why space, time, and space time is significant in studying language and culture.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 22 : Culture and Language Development

Language is something that defines us in a culture and gives us the voice in which
we express ourselves. So it can be said that language is something that each man or woman
needs. Language can be described as a shape of communicating spoken, written, or signed
that is based on a system of symbols. The significance of language is something that goes
unrecognized in daily life, however we need language to be able to communicate with other
people.
Acquiring language abilities is a natural section of kid's development, so mother
and father will regularly observe adjustments in their child's potential to speak and express
themselves. When and how kids strengthen language capabilities is a subject of interest to
many specialists working in health, psychology and education. The similarities and
variations between the cultural experiences of youth and how these are mirrored in the
development of their language skills is a precise area of focus for research. Therefore, the
relationship between language and culture is certainly symbiotic as one cannot function
besides the other. By this, it is implied that for an individual to inherit or acquire
knowledge, values and ideas, the individual have to first be capable to communicate with
others knowledgeable about that specific culture through convention sounds or signs which
is language.
From birth we are socialized into our a variety of cultural identities. As with the
social context, this acculturation process is a combination of explicit and implicit lessons.
A child in Colombia, which is regarded a greater collectivist country in which human
beings value group membership and cohesion over individualism, may additionally not be
explicitly told, “You are a member of a collectivistic culture, so you should care more about
the family and community than yourself.” This cultural value would be transmitted through
daily actions and through language use. Just as infants accumulate knowledge of language
practices at an remarkable rate in their first two years of life, so do they acquire cultural
understanding and values that are embedded in those language practices. At nine months
old, it is feasible to distinguish babies primarily based on their language. Even at this early
stage of development, when most kiddies are babbling and simply learning to apprehend
but not completely reproduce verbal interaction patterns, a Colombian infant would sound
unique from a Brazilian baby, even although neither would certainly be using words and
phrases from their native languages of Spanish and Portuguese.
This goes to show that kids amazingly learn their first words but it always have
something to do with their culture and environment. Children easily learn what they hear
and what they see. If they hear the language from their parents, then they are going to learn
it from them.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 23 : Language and Cultural Scripts

The term cultural scripts refers to a effective new approach for articulating cultural
norms, values, and practices in phrases which are clear, precise, and available to cultural
insiders and to cultural outsiders alike. This result is solely feasible because cultural scripts
are formulated in a tightly constrained, yet expressively flexible, metalanguage consisting
of simple phrases and grammatical patterns which have equivalents in all languages. This
is of course the metalanguage of semantic primes developed over the past 25 years of cross-
linguistic research by the editors and colleagues in the natural semantic metalanguage
approach.
The current collection of studies demonstrates the productivity and versatility of
the cultural scripts strategy with case research from five different parts of world—China,
Colombia, Korea, Singapore, and West Africa that is describing a broadly differing choice
of culture-specific speech practices and interactional norms. One recurrent theme is that
the different ways of speaking of different societies are linked with and make feel in terms
of different nearby cultural values, or at least, different cultural priorities as far as values
are concerned. Cultural scripts exist at different degrees of generality, and may
additionally relate to different components of thinking, speaking, and behavior. The
current set of research is mainly involved with norms and practices of social interaction.
The cultural scripts method is one of the primary modes of description of the huge
undertaking which can be termed ethnopragmatics. This refers to the quest, inaugurated in
linguistics by Anna Wierzbicka (1985) in her article ‘Different cultures, different
languages, different speech acts: English vs. Polish’, to apprehend speech practices from
the perspective of the audio system themselves. For this purpose, the strategies of cross-
cultural semantics are also fundamental because to recognize speech practices in terms
which make sense to the people concerned, we should be able to recognize the meanings
of the relevant culturally necessary words—words for local values, social categories,
speech-acts, and so on. Important words and phrases of this type often qualify for the status
of cultural key words.
As a conclusion, cultural scripts became the model or the approach of the people
when they study and research about the speech practices and language interaction of people
in a certain culture.
REFERENCE:
Goddard, C. and Wierzbicka, A. (2004). Intercultural Pragmatics. Retrieved from:
https://nats-www.informatik.uni
hamburg.de/pub/User/InterculturalCommunication/cultureWierz.pdf

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 24 : Culture and Emotional Language

This chapter discussed how language became more powerful when emotion is used
and inclined into it. Basically, it also has something to do with the culture they are into.
Everyone is uniquely shaped, and must not be compared with others. Expressing ourselves
can differentiate from other expressions considering that we are special in each and each
and every way. Some similarities may also exist, but not necessarily each component of
what we have a tendency to express.
The relationship between language and emotions can be considered from two
angles. First, language, in a broad sense, can be seen as being executed [performed]
"emotive". Taking this angle, it is often assumed that people, at least on occasions, "have"
emotions, and that "being emotional" good points its personal agency, impacting in a
variety of ways on the communicative situation. two This can take place extra linguistically
like facial expressions, body postures, proximity, in terms of suprasegmentational and
prosodic features, and in terms of linguistic whether lexical or semantic forms. A latest
series of articles in a different difficulty of the Journal of Pragmatics testifies to this
research orientation. Although research alongside this line of reasoning focuses notably on
the "expression" of emotions, i.e. the behavioral act of expressing affect in communication,
it however depends heavily on ideas of what feelings are and how they feature in private
and public settings. In this view, language and emotion are two concurrent, parallel
structures in use, and their relationship exists in that one system of emotion effects on the
performance of the different languages. Both of them share their functionality in the
communicative process between people.
The different tack on the relationship between language and emotion inverts the
directionality of the view simply discussed. It begins from the assumption that language in
a way refers to, and consequently "reflects" objects in the world, amongst them the
emotions: Languages have emotion terms, and people throughout the world interact in
discuss about the emotions - although not necessarily to the identical degree and with the
equal obsession and reflexivity as in the so-called Western world. In this view it stays
unspecified whether emotions are 'real' objects in the world such as behaviors or whether
they are 'internal' psychological states or methods. This view then takes a different tack to
the language-emotion relationship. Language is a capacity of making experience of
emotions, and as such can be used as a beginning factor to discover the world of emotions
in specific languages as properly as in special "language games".
However, taking this orientation as the starting point, one is immediately
challenged to think about the function of language in a lot more detail. If language is
conceived of as basically representing the world of feelings and people's conceptualizations

39
and understandings of the emotions, language provides an immediate access. Language, in
this view, is "transparent". If language, however, is conceived of in one or every other way
as contributing to how emotions are understood, or even, to what emotions "are", the
relationship is not direct, but mediated.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 25 : Language and Culture in Sociolinguistics

In terms of sociolinguistics, its emphasis is mainly on the social context as the main
factor and most contributing element for researchers to better understand the language that
they are using. It is said that language conveys social meaning within the contextual bounds
in which it occurs. Based from the sociolinguists, the context both shapes and supports our
interpretation of language. Among the complex collection of components that comprise
context and the word ‘culture’, especially in the form of cultural background and culturally
based practices, offers potential explanations for many linguistic choices. As a macro-level
social category such age, gender, status and ethnicity, culture influences interaction via
distinctive values and norms for communicating.
These are often broad-brush claims which suggest some form of consistency in
communicative behavior within a culture. The goal of such approaches is to demonstrate
wider group patterns, especially where this serves as an explanation for cultural
differences. At a more micro-level of linguistic detail, sociolinguists also consider the ways
in which individual speakers signal their membership of a cultural group.
Language is a powerful instrument that is used to make trade of thoughts and
feelings. However, it can additionally be used as a weapon. It is the only medium by which
a community is shaped its very own customs and norms to be exotic from different
societies. Language feeds one's thought to undergo each norms. It is always a phase and
parcel of one’s identity. The technique of gaining knowledge of a new language is an
enriching system by using which one learns about a new tradition imparting that this
journey does not make an individual underestimate his or her very own mother tongue
language or even identity. Language and culture go hand in hand as necessary concepts.
As a conclusion, this chapter mainly discussed about our interaction in our cultural
society as well as how us, people, acquire and apprehend our languages. This approach
pertain to the interactional sociolinguistics, wherein, culture is conceptualized as a
foundation of how differences and miscommunication will be explained. Having
interactional sociolinguistics, it would be easy to know how we are able to mingle and
communicate with other people within the culture and among the people who do not share
the same culture with us.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 26 : Language and Culture in Cognitive Anthropology

Cognitive anthropology has been defined as ‘the study of the relation between
human society and human thought’. Human thought has two aspects: it is both a processor
thinking and a product or the thoughts. Cognitive anthropologists tend to divide between
those who focus on the process of thinking like cognition in practice, distributed cognition
studies and those who study the content, form, organization, and distribution of cultural
understandings such as cultural models, cultural consensus, and cultural domain studies.
Culture is analyzed differently in these two main approaches. For cognitive
anthropologists who study thinking processes, the immediate social and material context
is more important than shared cultural understandings. By contrast, culture is central to the
work of cognitive anthropologists who study thoughts. In the latter approach culture
includes a significant ideational component that differs between human groups and
portraying those ideas is their primary concern.
Language plays different roles in these two paradigms as well. In the study of
thinking as a process language is considered to be one tool or resource among many,
whereas in the study of cultural beliefs, lexicons or discourse are the primary data that
researchers mine for category systems, explicit beliefs, and implicit understandings.
Cognitive anthropologists dispute that the cultural meanings lie in collective
representations themselves; instead, meanings arise when people create, learn, interpret,
and use these collective representations. Methodologically, cognitive anthropologists’
conclusions do not rest on decentered discourses, texts, or symbols, but on observations of
what specific people say and do. A cognitive anthropologist concerned with thinking
processes might look at how people use characters from movies or slogans from self-help
books as motivational tools or at the specific social contexts in which people learn a group’s
success-striving practices.
An alternative major approach within cognitive anthropology is to focus on
cognition as an activity (thinking) rather than on shared mental representations.
Anthropologists who study thinking as a process do not start with Goodenough’s
definition of culture as what members know and believe. For example, Edwin Hutchins
(1995) rejects Goodenough’s definition and criticizes D’Andrade’s (1981) division of labor
in which psychologists study cognitive processes and anthropologists study cognitive
contents. Instead, for Hutchins, ‘Culture is a human cognitive process … and the “things”
that appear on list-like definitions of culture are residua of the process. Culture is an
adaptive process that accumulates partial solutions to frequently encountered problems’.
These theoretical differences among different approaches to the study of cognition
as a process have methodological implications. Nardi points out that close analysis of

42
videotaped interactions are useful for distributed cognition or cognition in practice or
situated action studies of interactions in the immediate situation, but long-term observation
and interviews with participants are more appropriate for activity theorists concerned with
participants’ goals in a continuing activity.
Researchers who focus on the immediate context of thinking have tended to
polemically reject the importance of mental representations or have downplayed their
importance as a reaction to mainstream cognitive anthropology. More recent writings by
at least some researchers acknowledge that some earlier work went too far in that direction.
These researchers now more fully integrate mental representations into thinking in context.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 27 : Language and Culture in Second Language Learning

Culture should be integrated outright as an necessary issue of second language

getting to know and teaching. Only after cultural issues come to be an inherent phase of
the language curriculum and instruction, can students be successful in their goal language
learning. Second language teachers, therefore, need to pay greater attentions to the
diversities of cultures, pick out key cultural gadgets in each and every aspect when they
graph a language curriculum, and apply appropriate teaching strategies to getting to know
things to do in order to help students to bridge the culture gaps.
According to the some researchers, college students cannot really master new
language till they have mastered the cultural context in which the new language occurs.
This capacity that perception a new subculture is an important issue in accomplishing the
success in second language acquisition. In fact, the studying of language and the getting to
know of lifestyle can be compared with a child’s first experiences with the family into
which he or she is born, the community to which he or she belongs and the environment in
which he or she lives. When we are infants, we collect our first language in a natural way
because our society, our environment, and our tradition constantly feed us. Similarly, when
we collect a new language, we additionally want to ingest the new culture’s nutrients. The
perception that teachers have of a student’s tradition can also have a nice or terrible impact
in the gaining knowledge of process of a second language. To be a second language or
bilingual teacher, cultural grasp and intercultural training is very important. If youngsters
are given cultural knowledge, immersed in a culturally prosperous environment, and
uncovered to culturally basic material, they may additionally research the second language
with more ease because their history information about the second-language lifestyle will
make comprehension much less difficult.
As teachers, second language gaining knowledge of entails a variety of exceptional
dimensions, along with grammatical competence, communicative competence, language
proficiency, and cultural understanding. Teaching second language is now not absolutely
about giving speeches about syntactic buildings or learning new vocabulary, but must
incorporate cultural elements. Cultural activities and objectives be carefully prepared and
included into 2d language lesson plans to enrich the teaching context content. We should
prepare activities that would make it easier for students to learn the language easily. Also,
learning should be not just about memorizing grammatical structures and several rules but
the meaning and gist of every lesson that is really new to them.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 28 : Writing Across Cultures: ‘Culture’
in Second Language Writing Studies

Understanding second language and mastering it is really a hard task not just for
the students but also for the teachers. Writing essays or researchers about other culture
which are not familiar to the writer is really difficult.
Some of the struggles are: second language writing is more cognitively demanding,
requiring the writer to shift across languages, new vocabulary or language rules, and
cultural expectations of writing. Often these shifts are recursive, with writers drawing on
past experiences with language and writing in order to push forward with the new text in
front of them. Also, it is more labor-intensive. Multilingual writers may spend more time
searching for words and developing their thoughts on the page. For some students whose
first language uses a different alphabet or logographic system, the process of writing out
English words or even typing them can be less fluid, and they feel as though they are
writing in starts and stops. Arabic texts, for example, are read from right to left, and they
are written in a cursive script. In addition, no distinctions are made between upper- and
lowercase.
Many language teachers commented that the compositions of second language
writers have a tendency to be a good deal shorter than these of their monolingual English-
speaking peers. In part, this is a direct result of the time and labor elements already
mentioned. Many second language writers note that they sense stilted and emotionally
disrupted with the aid of no longer being able to categorical themselves in English as
thoroughly as they can in their first language. This frustration is regularly exacerbated
when second language writers have few strategies for how to “do” revision, particularly
with more content- and audience-based revisions and planning.
As a conclusion, it is indeed a hard task for teachers and students to learn a second
language immediately. Most especially, if the four macro skills are already involved, it
would be very hard for them but, of course, as teachers, we need to be ten steps or ten skills
ahead our students. As teachers, we should use double or triple efforts to learn more and
master the second language for us to be able to teach them

REFERENCE:
Hooper, C. O. (2017). Writing across Culture and Language : Inclusive Strategies for
Working with ELL Writers in the ELA Classroom. National Council of Teachers of
English. Retrieved from: https://
ncte.org/library/NCTEFiles/Resources/Books/Sample/58531SampleChapter.pdf

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 29 : Language and Culture in Second Dialect Learning

Language is arguably the most essential issue of subculture because an awful lot of
the rest of it is generally transmitted orally. It is not possible to understand the subtle
nuances and deep meanings of every other lifestyle besides understanding its language
well.
Young adolescents are inherently capable of getting to know the integral phonemes,
morphemes, and syntax as they mature. In other words, they have a genetic propensity to
examine language. They come into the world as eager studying machines, and language
acquisition is a foremost aspect of this learning. How children genuinely analyze a
language is not entirely clear, but still they made sure to it that they will accomplish it.
Most linguists agree with that they do it notably by using listening to and making an attempt
to talk with adult speakers. Initially, this potential that they imitate the phonemes. Later
they begin to study grammar by means of imitation as well.
Learning a second or third dialect is simpler in early childhood than later. It is
especially necessary to research right pronunciation as younger as possible. At any age,
getting to know by using steady contact with native audio system in their own society is
the quickest and excellent way. It is most reliable to taking overseas language classes
because it forces you to concentrate on it all of the time. In addition, you are immersed in
the tradition and research it simultaneously. This immersion method can be
psychologically stressful, however it is an superb way of getting the new language patterns
into lengthy time period memory. Young teens analyze their native language in simply
this way, on account that they are surrounded by mother and father who in actuality
communicate a "foreign" tongue.
In conclusion, just like learning the second language, learning a second dialect can
become harder for learners. This is due to the directness and given that dialect is more
defined and distinct that language. It also sometimes harder because not everyone uses it
but just some people who are under that culture and dialect.

REFERENCE:
O’Neil, D. (2012). Learning Language. Retrieved from :
https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/language/language_4.htm

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 30 : Language and Culture in Intercultural Communication

The world is dwelling the age of information due to the effect of globalization. It
introduced the necessity of faster and high quality conversation broadly speaking in world
business, worldwide tourism, information and so on. The key factor is that performing
these globally, the communicator will come into contact with human beings from different
cultures. In any culture, language is lots greater than words and strict meanings, lots extra
than what is written or spoken because every lifestyle has your personal values, attitudes,
beliefs, way of doing things, way of saying matters and principally the way of appreciation
things. This in particular turns into clear when studying a foreign language in a distinct
country for the cause that the person can live immersed in a new tradition and see
differences of introductions, identical words with specific meanings, salutations and day-
to-day sayings. Clearly, these variations show that without the movements use the
language, the actual definition is cultural.
Intercultural communication, as previously defined, is “the exchange of
information between well-defined groups of people with significantly different cultures”.
This process is very complex in the sense that this exchange of information takes place in
a context of significantly different systems. The process also requires conscious attempts
by each group at reducing uncertainty about the future behavior of the other group through
an increase in understanding of the group.
The concept of the culture, communication and intercultural communication are the
understanding of the relationship between culture and communication. We defined the
culture as the learning about beliefs, value, and social practices. That can be affecting our
behaviors of one group people to another group. Intercultural communication is the ability
to deal with different cultures. The reason we should know it because it is self-awareness.
That is mean we become more confident to communicate with different culture by a better
understanding of other culture. When we know a lot about the intercultural communication,
it makes us easier to step outside to look the other country without worry about
misunderstanding and how to deal with them.
In conclusion, people need to be aware of communication from one culture to
another not just because we need to be knowledgeable but aside from that, we would also
be confident. In this manner, people would be confident enough to communicate and
interact with people whether they have the same culture or not.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 31 : World Englishes and Local Cultures

English is a West Germanic language with its origin in England it is most closely
related to German and Dutch. Historically, English is divided into four periods Old English,
Middle English, Early Modern English, and Late Modern English. Due to colonial
expansion and recently, due to its status as a lingua franca, English is found in many
countries across the world In the present context, the main countries with native speaker
populations are Great Britain (Wales, Scotland) and Ireland, both of which contributed to
overseas forms of English during the colonial period 1600-1900 due to deportation and
emigration, both voluntary and involuntary.
There are many pidgins deriving from English as a lexifier language like in the
Caribbean, West Africa and the South West Pacific English is also found as a second
language, with various degrees of proficiency, in many countries of South and South East
Asia Due to recent immigration, especially after World War II, forms of English from
South Asia and the Caribbean, established themselves in Britain and have interacted with
traditional forms of English. Although present day English does not borrow very often from
foreign languages, the vocabulary of English in the history of the language has been
characterized by at times massive influence from other languages.
World Englishes is a term for emerging localized or indigenized varieties of
English, especially varieties that have developed in territories influenced by the United
Kingdom or the United States. The study of World Englishes consists of identifying
varieties of English used in diverse sociolinguistic contexts globally and analyzing how
sociolinguistic histories, multicultural backgrounds and contexts of function influence the
use of English in different regions of the world. Currently, there are approximately 75
territories where English is spoken either as a first language or as an unofficial or
institutionalized second language in fields such as government, law and education. It is
difficult to establish the total number of Englishes in the world, as new varieties of English
are constantly being developed and discovered.
This signifies that there are many parts of the world that uses English as their first
language or second language. We can therefore say that Philippines id one those countries
that uses it as second language because Filipinos can either write in Filipino (Tagalog) or
English. May it be used in formal documents or informal documents or writings, Tagalog
and English are used in the Philippines. Aside from that, there is also the existence of
“Philippine English” now, wherein, vocabularies along with its meanings and spellings
somewhat stay the same but some new words are added and some pronunciations are
somewhat different.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 32 : Cultural Linguistics

Ethnolinguistics, which is sometimes called as cultural linguistics, is a field of

linguistics that studies the relationship between language and culture and how different
ethnic groups perceive the world. It is the combination between ethnology and linguistics.
Cultural linguistics is also defined as multidisciplinary area of research that explores the
relationship between language, culture, and conceptualization.
Cultural and linguistic diversity mean that a type has many students from
exceptional international locations talking special languages. These college students
possess extraordinary tiers of formal training and exercise different cultural traditions. It
is, therefore, crucial for a trainer to know how to take care of such a class for honest and
nice learning to occur.
Today, with the useful resource of the modern linguistic structural concepts, the
solution to the issues of genetic relationship have been noticeably facilitated seeing that
similarities between languages that have similar configurations afford valid evidence of
this. On the other hand, linguistic interpretation has shed light on the problem of path in
borrowing, if any, and its chronology. Cultural linguistics has drawn on research that has
been carried out in a number of areas of applied linguistics while, at the same time, it has
already proved its potential to grant new insights into the complex relationships retaining
between language and culture, especially in intercultural settings. In general, it is predicted
that any region of inquiry that entails the interplay between lifestyle and language will
significantly benefit from adopting the framework of cultural linguistics.
As a conclusion, cultural linguistics focused on the relationship between the
knowledge about culture and the rules of grammar along with it. Cultural linguistics will
help us generate and done useful researches and studies that could be applied in the field.
Cultural linguistic or ethnolinguistic can be applied in various topics and ideas such as
world Englishes, interactions, language and dialect learning and many other topics. Apart
from simply understanding the intricacies of world languages, this knowledge can be
applied to improving communication between people, contributing to translation activities,
assisting in literacy efforts, and treating speech disorders.

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CHAPTER REFLECTION:
Chapter 33 : A Future Agenda for Research on Language and Culture

A quick developing range of research and studies demonstrates that language range
influences nearly all administration choices in current multinational corporations. Whereas
no doubt remains about the practical importance of language, the empirical investigation
and theoretical conceptualization of its complex and multifaceted consequences still
presents a enormous challenge. Researchers scrutinize the geographic distributions of data,
consider the field’s achievements to date in phrases of theories and methodologies, and
summarize core findings through individual, group, firm, degrees of analysis. For every
element of these dimensions, we then put forward a future research agenda. We inspire
pupils to transcend disciplinary boundaries and to draw on, integrate, and take a look at a
range of theories from disciplines such as psychology, linguistics, and neuroscience to gain
a greater profound grasp of language in global business. We advocate greater multi-level
studies and cross-national research collaborations and advise larger attention to practicable
new statistics sources and capability of analysis.
Through language we create and share with others our ways of doing things and
ways of being in the world, our culture. Language is a tremendous tool for the organization
of particular realities, including a wide variety of social relationships and social systems.
Through language we are continually socialized, we build or resist authority, we
worship, argue, and imagine. We name and give meaning to aspects of experience from
particular perspectives. For example, members of different cultures can have quite different
and local notions of self and strategies of interpretation, including who are authorized
speakers and hearers. Language and culture are linked in the transmission of knowledge,
in the construction of social life, and ideologies about language use and its relation to
human behavior.
With human evolution the need for language and communication became evident.
It became almost like an organic need. Communication is necessary and vital to man just
like the intake of water and food is essential for survival of mankind. In an essay 'A Word
for Everything' written by Helen Keller she describes her experiences as a deaf and blind
child trying to understand language and communication. After she learns that words have
meaning and symbolic messages she is able to use language not only to communicate her
ideas but also to expand her knowledge, "I learned more words, my field of inquiry
broadened, and I would return again and again to the same subject eager for more
information". As she learns the basic concept of language she is able to experience
scholarship that helps her become an intelligent person.

50
 In conclusion, future researchers were encouraged to make and have their own
researchers regarding the field. It will be a great help for they will be improving and
developing some models that are not yet updated. It is a fact that our world is a fast-
changing world, so as a help and contribution in terms of academics, we should be
developing researches and theories about language and culture and the advantages that we
can have from then.

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