TUTORIAL NO.

PAWAN NAITHANI

ROLL NO. 680970104006

QUESTION 1:

Vehicle emissions control is the study of reducing the emissions produced by motor vehicles, especially
internal combustion engines.

Types of emissions

Emissions of many air pollutants have been shown to have variety of negative effects on public health
and the natural environment. Emissions that are principal pollutants of concern include:

Hydrocarbons (HC) - A class of burned or partially burned fuel, hydrocarbons are toxins. Hydrocarbons
are a major contributor to smog, which can be a major problem in urban areas. Prolonged exposure to
hydrocarbons contributes to asthma, liver disease, lung disease, and cancer. Regulations governing
hydrocarbons vary according to type of engine and jurisdiction; in some cases, "non-methane
hydrocarbons" are regulated, while in other cases, "total hydrocarbons" are regulated. Technology for
one application (to meet a non-methane hydrocarbon standard) may not be suitable for use in an
application that has to meet a total hydrocarbon standard. Methane is not directly toxic, but is more
difficult to break down in fuel vent lines and a charcoal canister is meant to collect and contain fuel
vapors and route them either back to the fuel tank or, after the engine is started and warmed up, into
the air intake to be burned in the engine.

Carbon monoxide (CO) - A product of incomplete combustion, inhaled carbon monoxide reduces the
blood's ability to carry oxygen; overexposure (carbon monoxide poisoning) may be fatal. (Carbon
monoxide persistently binds to hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying chemical in red blood cells, where
oxygen (O2) would temporarily bind. The bonding of CO excludes O2 and also reduces the ability of the
hemoglobin to release already-bound oxygen, on both counts rendering the red blood cells ineffective.
Recovery is by the slow release of bound CO and the body's production of new hemoglobin—a healing
process—so full recovery from moderate to severe [but nonfatal] CO poisoning takes hours or days.
Removing a person from a CO-poisoned atmosphere to fresh air stops the injury but does not yield
prompt recovery, unlike the case where a person is removed from an asphyxiating atmosphere [i.e. one
deficient in oxygen]. Toxic effects delayed by days are also common.)

NOx - Generated when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen at the high temperature and pressure
inside the engine. NOx is a precursor to smog and acid rain. NOx is the sum of NO and NO2.[1] NO2 is
extremely reactive. NOx production is increased when an engine runs at its most efficient (i.e. hottest)
operating point, so there tends to be a natural tradeoff between efficiency and control of NOx
emissions.

Particulate matter – Soot or smoke made up of particles in the micrometre size range: Particulate
matter causes negative health effects, including but not limited to respiratory disease and cancer. Very
fine particulate matter has been linked to cardiovascular disease.

Sulfur oxide (SOx) - A general term for oxides of sulfur, which are emitted from motor vehicles burning
fuel containing sulfur. Reducing the level of fuel sulfur reduces the level of Sulfur oxide emitted from the
tailpipe.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) - Organic compounds which typically have a boiling point less than
or equal to 250 °C; for example chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and formaldehyde. Volatile organic
compounds are a subsection of Hydrocarbons that are mentioned separately because of their dangers to
public health.

Emissions control
Engine efficiency has been steadily improved with improved engine design, more precise ignition timing
and electronic ignition, more precise fuel metering, and computerized engine management.

Advances in engine and vehicle technology continually reduce the toxicity of exhaust leaving the engine,
but these alone have generally been proved insufficient to meet emissions goals. Therefore,
technologies to detoxify the exhaust are an essential part of emissions control.

Air injection

One of the first-developed exhaust emission control systems is secondary air injection. Originally, this
system was used to inject air into the engine's exhaust ports to provide oxygen so unburned and
partially burned hydrocarbons in the exhaust would finish burning. Air injection is now used to support
the catalytic converter's oxidation reaction, and to reduce emissions when an engine is started from
cold. After a cold start, an engine needs an air-fuel mixture richer than what it needs at operating
temperature, and the catalytic converter does not function efficiently until it has reached its own
operating temperature. The air injected upstream of the converter supports combustion in the exhaust
headpipe, which speeds catalyst warmup and reduces the amount of unburned hydrocarbon emitted
from the tailpipe.

Exhaust gas recirculation

In the United States and Canada, many engines in 1973 and newer vehicles (1972 and newer in
California) have a system that routes a metered amount of exhaust into the intake tract under particular
operating conditions. Exhaust neither burns nor supports combustion, so it dilutes the air/fuel charge to
reduce peak combustion chamber temperatures. This, in turn, reduces the formation of NOx.

Catalytic converter

The catalytic converter is a device placed in the exhaust pipe, which converts hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide, and NOx into less harmful gases by using a combination of platinum, palladium and rhodium
as catalysts.

There are two types of catalytic converter, a two-way and a three-way converter. Two-way converters
were common until the 1980s, when three-way converters replaced them on most automobile engines.
See the catalytic converter article for further details.

ANSWER 2
Working principle of a 2 stroke engine

The 2 stroke engine is different from a 4 stroke engine in two basic ways. First, the combustion cycle is
completed within a single piston stroke as oppose to two piston strokes, and second, the lubricating oil
for the engine is mixed in with the petrol or fuel. In some cases, such as lawnmowers, you are expected
to pre-mix the oil and petrol yourself in a container, then pour it into the fuel tank. In other cases, such
as small motorbikes, the bike has a secondary oil tank that you fill with 2 stroke oil and then the engine
has a small pump which mixes the oil and petrol together for you.

The simplicity of a 2 stroke engine lies in the reed valve and the design of the piston itself. The picture
on the right shows a 4 stroke piston (left) and a 2 stroke piston (right). The 2 stroke piston is generally
taller than the 4 stroke version, and it has two slots cut into one side of it. These slots, combined with
the reed valve, are what make a 2 stroke engine work the way it does. The following animation shows a
2 stroke combustion cycle. As the piston (red) reaches the top of its stroke, the spark plug ignites the
fuel-air-oil mixture. The piston begins to retreat. As it does, the slots cut into the piston on the right
begin to align with the bypass port in the cylinder wall (the green oblong on the right). The receding
piston pressurises the crank case which forces the reed or flapper valve (purple in this animation) to
close, and at the same time forces the fuel-air-oil mixture already in the crankcase out through the
piston slots and into the bypass port. This effectively routes the mixture up the side of the cylinder and
squirts it into the combustion chamber above the piston, forcing the exhaust gas to expel through the
green exhaust port on the left. Once the piston begins to advance again, it generates a vacuum in the
crank case. The reed or flapper valve is sucked open and a fresh charge of fuel-air-oil mix is sucked into
the crank case. When the piston reaches the top of its travel, the spark plug ignites the mixture and the
cycle begins again.

For the same cylinder capacity, 2 stroke engines are typically more powerful than 4 stroke versions. The
downside is the pollutants in the exhaust; because oil is mixed with the petrol, every 2 stroke engine
expels burned oil with the exhaust. 2 stroke oils are typically designed to burn cleaner than their 4
stroke counterparts, but nevertheless, the 2 stroke engine can be a smoky beast. If, like me, you grew up
somewhere in Europe where scooters were all the rage for teenagers, then the mere smell of 2 stroke
exhaust can bring back fond memories. The other disadvantage of 2 stroke engines is that they are noisy
compared to 4 stroke engines. Typically the noise is described as "buzzy".

ANSWER 3

Although fossil fuels like coal have been harvested in one way or another for centuries, crude oil was
first discovered and developed during the Industrial Revolution, and its industrial uses were first
developed in the 19th century. Newly invented machines revolutionized the way we do work, and they
depended on these resources to run. Today, the world's economy is largely dependent on fossil fuels
such as crude oil, and the demand for these resources often spark political unrest, as a small number of
countries control the largest reservoirs. Like any industry, supply and demand heavily affect the prices
and profitability of crude oil. The United States, Saudi Arabia, and Russia are the leading producers of oil
in the world.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, however, the United States was one of the world's leading oil
producers, and U.S. companies developed the technology to make oil into useful products like gasoline.
During the middle and last decades of the 20th century, however, U.S. oil production fell dramatically,
and the U.S. became an energy importer. Its major supplier was the Organization of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC), founded in 1960, which consists of the world's largest (by volume) holders
of crude oil and natural gas, reserves. As such, the OPEC nations had a lot of economic leverage in
determining supply, and therefore the price, of oil in the late 1900s.

In the early 21st century, the development of new technology, particularly hydro-fracturing, has created
a second U.S. energy boom, largely decreasing OPEC's importance and influence.

Adverse Effects of Relying on Oil

Heavy reliance on fossil fuels is cited as one of the main causes of global warming, a topic that has
gained traction in the past 20 years. Risks surrounding oil drilling include oil spills and ocean
acidification, which damage the ecosystem. Many manufacturers have begun creating products that rely
on alternative sources of energy, such as cars run by electricity, homes powered by solar panels, and
communities powered by wind turbines.

ANSWER 4
Working principle of a 4 stroke engine

4 stroke engines are typically much larger capacity than 2 stroke ones, and have a lot more complexity
to them. Rather than relying on the simple mechanical concept of reed valves, 4 stroke engines typically
have valves at the top of the combustion chamber. The simplest type has one intake and one exhaust
valve. More complex engines have two of one and one of the other, or two of each. So when you see
"16v" on the badge on the back of a car, it means it's a 4-cylinder engine with 4 valves per cylinder - two
intake and two exhaust - thus 16 valves, or "16v". The valves are opened and closed by a rotating
camshaft at the top of the engine. The camshaft is driven by either gears directly from the crank, or
more commonly by a timing belt.

The following animation shows a 4 stroke combustion cycle. As the piston (red) retreats on the first
stroke, the intake valve (left green valve) is opened and the fuel-air mixture is sucked into the
combustion chamber. The valve closes as the piston bottoms out. As the piston begins to advance, it
compresses the fuel-air mix. As it reaches the top of its stroke, the spark plug ignites the fuel-air mix and
it burns. The expanding gasses force the piston back down on its second stroke. At the bottom of this
stroke, the exhaust valve (right green valve) opens, and as the piston advances for a second time, it
forces the spent gasses out of the exhaust port. As the piston begins to retreat again, the cycle starts
over, sucking a fresh charge of fuel-air mix into the combustion chamber.

Because of the nature of 4 stroke engines, you won't often find a single-cylinder 4 stroke engine. They
do exist in some off-road motorbikes but they have such a thump-thump-thump motion to them that
they require some large balancing shafts or counterweights on the crank to try to make the ride
smoother. They also take a little longer to start from cold because you need to crank the single piston at
least twice before a combustion cycle can start. Any more than one piston and the engine gets a lot
smoother, starts better, and is nowhere near as thumpy. That's one of the advantages of V-6 and V-8
engines. Apart from the increased capacity, more cylinders typically means a smoother engine because
it will be more in balance.
ANSWER 5-

Introduction

Opposed Piston Engine is a type of diesel engine which has two pistons working in the same cylinder.
Technically, opposed piston engine is just a variation in the design of conventional engine. Each of the
cylinders of the engine has two pistons, one at each end. The main advantage of opposed piston
arrangement over others is that they have a higher power to weight ratio.

Construction

As mentioned earlier, in an opposed piston engine, there are two pistons at both the ends of the
cylinder. The cylinders of opposed piston engine are generally longer in size than those of the
conventional engines. The arrangement of cranks is also such that both the pistons move towards and
away from each other simultaneously. Moreover, the system works on a two stroke cycle and a uniform
method of scavenging. In opposed piston engine the combustion chamber is the space left between the
two pistons when both are at inner dead centre positions. It is this place between the pistons wherein
the fuel injection valve, air starting valve, pressure relief valve and indicating cocks are fixed.

Most of the opposed piston engines have two crankshafts, one for the upper piston and other for the
lower one. Both the crankshafts are arranged as trunk piston engines and through a series of connected
gears. However, the earliest opposed piston engines used to have just one crankshaft in their design.
Such arrangement would have three cranks, one at the center which is attached to the lower piston with
connecting rod and cross-head. The other two cranks are arranged on the same line as that of the center
crank and are connected with the top piston with connecting rods, tie rods and crossheads. The exhaust
and scavenge ports at the top and bottom of the cylinder, operates because of the reciprocating motion
of the piston. Other equipments such as supercharger, air box etc are attached similar to any
conventional diesel engine.

Working

The air fuel mixture is pushed into the space in between the pistons. The ignition of the mixture pushes
both the pistons downwards, leading to power stroke. The ignition is usually provided using a spark plug.
As both the pistons move downwards, one of the pistons opens the outlet valve, which pushes the gas
out of the exhaust, whereas the other piston opens the inlet valve, pushing in the fresh gas mixture. The
compression stroke then takes place and the cycle repeats itself.

Advantage - Better Power to Weight Ratio

The main advantage of opposed piston engine is that unlike conventional engines, where the stresses
generated due to firing loads are transferred from the cylinders to the bedplates of the engine, no
stresses are transferred and thus it have an excellent power to weight ratio. Moreover, the arrangement
of opposed piston engines provides a higher degree of balance than the conventional engine.