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Wenfeng Song*, Desheng Ma, Youyi Zhu, Xiaofang Wei, Jie Wu,
Shi Li, Xinglong Chen, and Cheng Zan
State Key Laboratory of Enhanced Oil Recovery, Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration
and Development, CNPC, Beijing 100083, China
*Corresponding author
ABSTRACT
Keywords Sulphate-reducing bacterial (SRB) metabolites could reduce both surface and
interfacial tensions between air/liquid and oil/liquid respectively, and also able to
SRB, form a stable emulsion system with crude oil. Oil recovery rate of SRB from
Surface saturated oil sand was determined as 39.2%. Three fraction ratios (alkane,
tension, asphaltene and NSO) were significantly reduced after 3-month bio-degradation.
IFT, Also, significant decreases of three n-alkanes (C11-C13) were determined. However,
EOR, there was no remarkable change in composition of aromatics during 3-month
TPH, experiment. Both SRB metabolite/oil emulsion and bio-degradation partially
SO4 contributed to a reduction of oil viscosity. The amount of reduced SO4- was about
77.4 mg in 20 days by SRB using TPH as the unique carbon sources.
Introduction
Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are a group anaerobic conditions and reduction of the
of microbes that use sulfate (SO4-) as a final injectivity of water injection wells by
electron acceptor instead of oxygen for precipitation of amorphous ferrous sulfide
respiration (Al-Zuhair, El-Naas et al. 2008). (Castro, M. et al. 1997).
SRB are able to use a very wide spectrum of
different low molecular organic compounds Recently, some studies reported that SRB
(e.g. lactate, acetate, proprionate, succinate, might play a role in microbial enhancing oil
pyruvate, ethanol, sugars, etc.) for growth, recovery (MEOR) (Champagne, Mondou et
with SO4- being reduced to hydrogen sulfide al. 1996; Callbeck, Agrawal et al. 2013). For
(H2S) (Benaroudj, Lee et al. 2001; Al- example, SRB could diminish oil viscosity,
Zuhair, El-Naas et al. 2008; Brioukhanov, replenish the declining pressure of reservoir,
Pieulle et al. 2010; Sherry, Gray et al. 2013). and change heavy oil to light oil through
SRB is known as harmful bacteria in the yields of bio-generated acids, gas (H2S) and
productive process of oilfields. They might degradation of hydrocarbons (Aliphatic and
cause serious problems in oilfield water Aromatic). Moreover, different types of
systems, including corrosion of iron in SRB are widely distributed in global oil
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reservoirs. Therefore, SRB could be a great anaerobically stored oil samples under
target that used for enhancing oil recovery experimental conditions (as same as bio-
(EOR). degradation experiment) were studied as
controls.
This study was mainly focused on the
mechanism of SRB in EOR. To do this, the Bio-gas has been reported to reduce oil
whole research was divided into four parts. viscosity and replenish the pressure of oil
In the first part, surface activity of SRB reservoir (Al-Sulaimani, Joshi et al. 2011).
metabolites including interfacial and surface However, the effect of H2S on oil viscosity
tensions, oil recovery rate from saturated oil was not directly tested in this study. Our
sand, and effectiveness of emulsification laboratory lacks of such equipment to
were studied. Many previous studies measure oil viscosity under the actual
demonstrated that metabolites produced by reservoir temperatures and pressures.
variety of microbes could act as bio- Moreover, H2S could easily escape from
surfactants to reduce interfacial tension contaminated liquids and is extremely toxic
(IFT) between oil and water, and thus if inhaled. Handling (produce, conduction
improve the solubility and mobility of oil and storage) of H2S should be strictly
(Singer and Finnerty 1988; Banat 1993; restricted and minimized in laboratory
Singh, Van Hamme et al. 2007). condition. Therefore, the productivity of
H2S was estimated indirectly by using bio-
In the second part, 3-month bio-degradation consumption of SO4- as an index. In the final
of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) was part, SRB bio-reduction rate of SO4- was
investigated. Fraction changes of TPH were tested with TPH acting as the unique carbon
estimated by comparing between before and source. Sodium lactate (in SRB medium
after the SRB bio-degradation. It has been ATCC 1249 type III) was also used as an
reported that SRB could directly use electron donor in SRB anaerobic respiration
alkanes, aromatics and other oil components and acted as a control.
as electron donors for SO4- reduction
(Callaghan, Morris et al. 2012; Wohlbrand, Materials and Methods
Kube et al. 2013), thereby changing oil
compositions. Therefore, composition Chemicals
changes of two fractions (alkane and
aromatic) were studied subsequently by gas All reagents (media and buffers) used were
chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC- prepared gravimetrically using a Sartorius
MS). A200S analytical balance, and made up to
volume with room temperature sterile
Oil viscosity is well known to play an distilled water (dH2O). All chemicals used
important role in EOR (Ghosh and Al in this paper were reached the analytical
Shalabi 2011; Homayuni, Hamidi et al. standard, and have been autoclaved at 121
2011). In the third part, the role of SRB in °C for 20 min for sterilizing before use.
oil viscosity was studied. To do this,
viscosities of three different SRB pre-treated Isolation
oil samples (metabolites/oil emulsion
system, bio-degraded oil and The SRB was isolated from pipe line of
metabolites/biodegraded oil emulsion water injection well in Daqing Oilfield,
system) were measured and compared to China. The isolation was carried out in
that of crude oil. Both aerobically and Postgate medium C (sPGC) (Postgate 1984).
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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2014) 3(7) 385-398
The medium consists of the following: NaCl cell concentration was grown to A600 nm to
(0.12 M), MgCl2·6H2O (5.9×10-3 M), 1.5 (stationary phase) and stored at 4 °C
KH2PO4 (3.6×10-3 M), NH4Cl (0.019 M), until required, but no longer than 8 hours.
Na2SO4 (0.032 M), CaCl2·2H2O (2.8×10-4
M), MgSO4·7H2O (1.2×10-4 M), Surface property of SRB metabolites
-5
FeSO4·7H2O (1.4×10 M), trisodium citrate Cells were removed by centrifugation
(1.1×10-3 M), sodium lactate (70% w/v, (Eppendorf 5810R centrifuge) at 10,000×g
0.077 M), yeast extract (1 g L-1) and agar for 5 min at room temperature. The
(20 g L-1). The pH was finally adjusted to supernatant was restored in a 500 mL clean
7.2. flasks and stored at 4 °C until required, but
no longer than 24 hours.
The plates were incubated at 45 ºC for 20 Surface tension assay: surface tension
days under anaerobic conditions in a 3.5 L between liquid samples and air was
anaerobic jar (Traditional system; Oxoid measured by using a Dataphysics DCAT21
Company) filled with carbon dioxide and Tensiometer (Germany) at 45 °C (target
hydrogen which was produced by using reservoir temperature) based on its operation
anaerogen sachets according to the manual.
instructions of the manufacturer. Preparation
and inoculation of plates were carried out IFT assay: IFT between liquid samples and
inside an environmental chamber which oil was measured by the TEXAS-500
contained a mixture of gases (Nitrogen 87%, Spinning Drop interfacial Tensiometer
carbon dioxide 10%, and hydrogen 3%) in (CNG, USA) at 45 °C (target reservoir
oxygen free environment. After incubating temperature). The oil sample was degased
for a week, several colonies of SRB were and dehydrated in an electronic oven at 110
observed. The different bacteria were °C for 48 hours. The interfacial tension was
isolated and allowed to grow on separate then recorded repeatedly in every 15 min.
plates and were found to be of the same type The equilibrium interfacial tension value
belonging to Desulfobacteriaceae family. stable in two hours was recognized as the
ultimate value in analytical process.
Microbial culture Amott spontaneous imbibition test (Yu, Evje
et al. 2009): oil sand was prepared by
The cell culture was carried out in ATCC saturation of sand with crude oil (with
medium 1249 type III (Shao, Kang et al. density was 0.8 g cm-3) as mass ratio of 1
2012). Cell culture was prepared by (oil):7 (sand). Oil sand was placed in an
inoculating a single colony from the agar electronic oven for dehydration and aging at
plate into 80 mL of broth in a 120 mL 45 °C for two weeks. Each component
headspace vial. The headspace vial was (Amott sample holder, supernatant, and
covered by septa, and subsequently sealed measuring cylinder) was heated to 45 °C
with aluminum cap by capping clamp. before use.
Preparation and inoculation were carried out
inside an environmental chamber which 16 g of oil sand was weighted and placed
contained a mixture of gases (Nitrogen 87%, into an Amott sample holder, and filled with
carbon dioxide 10%, and hydrogen 3%) in SRB supernatant (metabolites). The holder
oxygen free environment. Headspace vials was sealed with parafilm, and placed into an
were then grown anaerobically on an orbital orbital shaking hot-water bath, and then
shaker (150 rpm) at 45 °C for 20 days (The inoculated at 45 °C, 150 rpm for two hours.
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After inoculation, parafilm was removed, contained a mixture of gases (Nitrogen 87%,
and the Amott sample holder was covered carbon dioxide 10%, and hydrogen 3%) in
by a measuring cylinder (with gradations oxygen free environment. Headspace vials
from 0 to10 mL). The measuring cylinder were then placed on an orbital shaker (150
was then filled with supernatant up to 5 mL rpm) and incubated at 45 °C for three
(or any other integral gradations might months. During the incubation, headspace
facilitate further observation). The Amott vials were frequently opened for releasing
system was placed into an air circulation the produced H2S every half-month.
oven at 45 °C for 8 hours. The recovered oil
was measured with one hour interval during Estimation and analysis of residual oil
the test by visual inspection at the top of the
imbibition cell (measuring cylinder). Fractions of TPH: 30 mg of crude oil
Afterwards, final volume of recovered oil (before/after biodegradation) were
was extracted and determined after consecutively extracted with hexane,
dehydration, and the oil recovery rate could dichloromethane, and chloroform (100 mL
be calculated by Eq. 1. each). All three extracts were pooled and
dried at room temperature by evaporation of
solvents under a gentle nitrogen stream in a
fume hood. After solvent evaporation, the
(1) amount of residual TPH was then
Microbial emulsion: 20 mL of SRB determined gravimetrically. After
supernatant was mixed with 20 mL of oil gravimetric quantification, the residual TPH
sample into a clean tube (with gradations was fractionated into alkane, aromatic,
from 0 to 50 mL). The mixture was pre- asphaltene, and NSO (nitrogen, sulfur, and
heated to 65 °C in a hot water bath, and then oxygen-containing compounds) on a silica
emulsified by using a 2.5 L digital ultrasonic gel column. To do this, samples were
cleaner (CE-7200A, Jeken, China), at 80 dissolved in hexane and separated into
watt (W) for 15 min. Three-phase soluble and insoluble fractions (asphaltene).
oil/emulsion/supernatant sample was then The soluble fraction was located on a silica
allowed to equilibrate. A sample was gel column and eluted with different
considered fully equilibrated once the solvents. The alkane fraction was eluted
interface was distinct and the phase behavior with 100 mL of toluene. Finally, the NSO
did not change for at least several days fraction was eluted with methanol and
(generally last for 100 hours). chloroform (100 mL each) (Hadibarata and
Tachibana 2009). The alkane and aromatic
Bio-degradation fractions were then analyzed by GC-MS.
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hydrocarbon was set as: started from 100°C orbital shaker (150 rpm) and incubated at 45
(held for 0.2 min), then heated to 300°C at °C for 20 days. During the incubation,
the rate of 3 °C/min (held for 20 min). The headspace vials were frequently opened for
samples were injected into a heated (300°C) releasing the produced H2S every week.
splitless injector, and the injection volume After incubation, oil was removed for
was 0.5 mL. Helium was used as the carrier further extraction with 100 mL of 5%
gas, with the constant flow rate of 1.5 mL isopropanol and 20 mL of pentane for at
min-1. The MS transfer line and ion-source least five times, while the SRB was
temperature were 280°C and 240°C, removed by centrifugation at 10,000×g for 5
respectively. min at room temperature. Extracted
solutions (two assays) were restored into a
Oil viscosity study 1000 mL clean flask, separately. 1.75 mL of
2 M BaCl2 was added for each assay to
Viscosity of different oil samples (e.g. crude precipitate the residual SO4-. The
oil, bio-degraded oil and SRB precipitates were boiled at 100 °C for 15
metabolites/oil emulsion system, etc.) was min (eliminate BaS2O3 precipitate), and
measured by using a NDJ-8S digital then dried in an oven at 50 °C for overnight
viscometer (Nirun Intelligent Technology, to remove moisture. The dry stuffs were
China) at 45°C. weighted gravimetrically using a Sartorius
A200S analytical balance, and the
Bio-consumption of SO4- consumed SO4- was subsequently calculated
by Eq. 2.
SO4- background measurement: 100 mL of
oil samples (dehydrated and degased) were
washed by using 100 mL of 5% isopropanol
and 20 mL of pentane for at least five times Results and Discussion
to extract the residual SO4-. The extracted
solution was then precipitate with 10 mL of Surface activity study
0.1 M BaCl2.
To evaluate the surface property of SRB
100 µL of SRB (A600nm was adjusted to metabolites, both surface (between air and
1.5) was inoculated into 100 mL of oil (TPH metabolites) and IFT (between oil and
assay) and ATCC medium 1249 type III metabolites) were tested in this study. dH2O
(medium assay) in two separated 120 mL (used to make SRB culture media) and SRB
headspace vials. 1.75 mL of 2 M NaSO4 culture media were conducted as negative
(final concentration was 35 mM) was added controls.
into both assays for maintaining 20 days
anaerobic SO4- respiration. The headspace Surface tension of SRB metabolite assay
vials were covered by septa, and was about 25.88 mN m-1 (Figure 1a), which
subsequently sealed with aluminum cap by was significantly lower than that of dH2O
capping clamp. Preparation and inoculation (around 72 mN m-1) (data was not shown)
were carried out inside an environmental and culture medium assays (Figure 1b).
chamber which contained a mixture of gases Moreover, IFT between oil and SRB was
(Nitrogen 87%, carbon dioxide 10%, and around 0.13 mN m-1, which was nearly one
hydrogen 3%) in oxygen free environment. order of magnitude lower than that of
Headspace vials were then placed on an control assays (Figure 2).
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The significant difference was determined in Fraction ratios in TPH after 3-month bio-
paired test. n=4, error bars are standard degradation
error.
To find out the role of SRB bio-degradation
In order to assess the efficiency of oil in variations of TPH fraction ratios, oil was
recovery by SRB metabolites, Amott inoculated with SRB cells by 1:1 (volume)
spontaneous imbibition assay was ratio for 3-month period. Four fractions
conducted. Both dH2O and culture medium (alkane, aromatic, asphaltene and NSO) of
were used as controls. As results shown TPH were then tested in this study. Oils (no
below (Figure 3), SRB metabolites could microbial) stored at both aerobic and
recover oil remarkably from saturated oil anaerobic conditions (exactly same
sand. In contrast, there was no oil extracted condition with bio-degradation assay) were
in both control assays during 120 also conducted as controls. Fresh oil used
inoculation hours. Oil recovery profile of for comparison was zero-time stored crude
metabolite assay could be described as oil (dehydrated and degased).
(Figure 3): oil was recovered rapidly before
the first 24 hours; afterwards, oil recovery During 3-month anaerobic storage, fraction
volume increased slightly with a ratios of TPH were slightly different
significantly decreased rate as incubation compared to their fresh counterparts.
time from 24 to 120 hours; finally, oil However, those variations were remained in
recovery becomes to a saturation level after estimated errors (Table 1). However, ratios
120 inoculation hours. The recovered oil of fractions, including aromatic, asphaltene
was then extracted and dehydrated. The and NSO, of aerobic oil were slightly
recovery volume of dehydrated oil was increased probably due to its significantly
about 0.98 mL. Therefore, oil recovery rate decreased alkane. After 3-month bio-
was finally determined as 39.2% (Eq. 1). degradation, ratios of alkane, asphaltene and
NSO were significantly decreased, while
To evaluate the efficiency of emulsion by aromatic was remarkably increased.
SRB metabolites, volume changes of
emulsion phase were measured over 120 To deeply understand SRB degradation,
hours. Both dH2O and culture medium were composition of alkane and aromatic of
used as negative controls. Emulsion phase different oil samples were studied then by
gradually decreased to about 5.4 mL as GC-MS. In alkane assay, SRB degraded oil
incubation time increased up to 80 hours in showed significantly lower contents of
SRB metabolite assay (Figure 4). Undecane, n-Dodecane and n-Tridecane,
Afterwards, the emulsion system reached to compared to their fresh counterparts (Figure
the equilibrium after 80 hours incubation. In 5). Significant decreases in Undecane and n-
contrast, emulsion phases of both dH2O and Dodecane were also found in aerobically
medium assays were decreased rapidly since stored oil samples. There was no significant
the experiment was initiated, and completely difference of composition change between
separated into two individual phases (oil and fresh and anaerobically stored oil samples.
dH2O/medium) before 10 hours. The Moreover, no remarkable composition
equilibrated Oil/metabolite emulsion phase changes were found in all four different
was then extracted for later viscosity samples in aromatic assay (data not shown).
measuring.
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The significant difference was determined in respectively (Figure 7). Moreover, SO4-
paired test. n=6, error bars are standard reduction of TPH assay was significantly
error. lower than that of media assay (Figure 7).
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Figure.1 Surface tension (Mean ± SD) between air and two different liquids
a: SRB medium assay; b: SRB metabolite assay
a b
Figure.2 Comparison of IFT between dH2O, SRB medium and SRB metabolite assays. *:
significantly different from dH2O assay. The number of stars (*) indicates the significance
level. *: P<0.05; **: P<0.01; ***: P<0.005; ****: P<0.001
1.2
Distilled water
Interficial tension (mN m-1)
Media
1
SRB
0 .8
0 .6
0 .4
****
0 .2
0
Distilled water Media SRB
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Figure.5 Comparing the composition changes of three alkanes between four oil samples. *:
significantly different from fresh oil assay. The number of stars (*) indicates the significance
level. *: P<0.05; **: P<0.01; ***: P<0.005; ****: P<0.001
0 .12
Fresh
Anaerobic
Content in total alkane (%)
0 .1
Aerobic
SRB
0 .08
0 .06
0 .04
*
0 .02 ***
Figure.6 Comparison of viscosity between different oil samples. *: significantly different
from fresh oil assay. The number of stars (*) indicates the significance level. *: P<0.05; **:
P<0.01; ***: P<0.005.
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TPH
200
150
***
100
50
0
Media TPH
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