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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The goal of this work is to study the environmental impacts caused

by any ghat road construction and the methods to mitigate the effects.
Therefore, as it is difficult to go for the environmental study directly, it is
proposed to study the usefulness of modern techniques such as remote
sensing, GPS survey, total station survey and GIS applications in the work of
ghat road formation. As the drainage system of a ghat road will have direct
influence over the environment, an appropriate study on this subject also
made before hand. The different criteria of environmental degradation are
considered. The balancing of earthwork cut and fill is taken for thorough
study as it has major and diverse influence over the environmental
degradation. The detailed methodology is shown in the Figure 3.1.

To ascertain the features of the study area, site visits are made and
required data were gathered. Using gathered data at site and aerial and topo
map study, obligatory points and control points were identified. To connect
the selected points at 6% (1 in 16.7) gradient, ghat tracer survey was done and
the same were marked on the site. Then coordinates of the track were taken
using total station instrument and GPS. Using the level data, the longitudinal
sections were prepared to compute the cut and fill volumes of earth work.
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Figure 3.1 Flowchart showing detailed methodology

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To optimize the earthwork, GPS survey has been repeated wherever

the cut and fill depths are exorbitant. From the prepared digital map of the
study area, the catchment area of the total alignment was computed to
ascertain required number of cross drainage structures and their locations. It is
concluded with the findings of the advantages of GPS survey and GIS
methods to optimize drainage system and earthwork and in turn, how helpful
they are in the process of mitigation of environmental degradation in ghat
roads.

For better understanding of the work, the different subjects

involved in the study, such as highway geometric design, GPS, GIS,
Geological aspects and DTM use are briefly described in the following
paragraphs.

3.2 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HILL ROADS

3.2.1 Geometric Design Principles

Hill roads predominantly run through difficult topography, adverse

terrain and extremes of climatic conditions. In case of hill roads,
improvements of features like grade and curvature at a later date will be
expensive and sometimes not possible. Therefore, considering the importance
of safety and free flow of traffic it is necessary to design the hill roads to
predetermined standards rigorously.

Different geometric standards are followed in hill roads with

reference to gradient, curves, and speed and they consequently influence the
site distance, radius and other related features such as carriageway width,
protective works and ROW. The selected route shall be feasible from the
point of attaining the ruling gradient. The alignment should have least number
of hairpin bends and wherever unavoidable, they shall be located on stable
and flat slopes (IRC: SP20 2002).
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Horizontal and vertical alignments establish the general character

of a roadway, perhaps more than any other design consideration. The
configuration of line and grades affects safe operating speeds, sight distances,
opportunities for passing and highway capacity. Decisions on alignment have
a significant impact on construction costs, and social and environmental
issues. Alignment is defined by several factors, including: the length of
tangent sections; the transition into horizontal curves; the degree of curvature
for horizontal curves; the transition out of the curves; the rate of super
elevation applied to the horizontal curves; and the rate of grade change for
any vertical curve (IRC 38 1988 & PMGSY 2005).

Terrain is classified as plain, rolling, mountainous and steep based

on the ground slope. Terrains with slopes up to 10 % are come under plain,
between 10 % and 25 % come under rolling, between 25 % and 60 % come
under mountainous and terrains with above 60 % slope come under steep
terrain.

3.2.2 Design Speed and Sight Distance

Design speed is the guiding criteria for correlating the various

geometric standards of hill roads. For mountainous terrain ruling design speed
varies between 30 and 20 kmph for Other District Roads (ODR). Two types
of sight distances are considered in hill road design and these are stopping
sight distance (SSD) and intermediate sight distance (ISD). Stopping sight
distance varies from 20 m to 60 m for a speed range from 20 kmph to 50
kmph. On hill roads SSD is absolute minimum from safety point of view and
must be ensured regardless of any other considerations (Kadyali 2008).
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3.2.3 Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal alignment of hill road should blend well with the

surrounding topography. A flowing line which follows the contours is
preferable to one with long tangents slashing through the terrain. Horizontal
alignment should coordinate with the longitudinal profile. Breaks in
horizontal alignment at cross drainage structures and sharp curves at the end
of straight reaches should be avoided. Short curves with small deflection
angles should be avoided in hill roads. The curves should be sufficiently long
with suitable transitions. Wherever reverse curves are provided, it should be
ensured that there is sufficient length between two curves. Design speed,
super elevation and coefficient of friction affect the curve design. While
designing horizontal curves, the minimum prescribed radius, superelevation,
gradient and sight distance should be provided to ensure safety and aesthetics.
(IRC: SP48 1998 &PMGSY 2005).

3.2.4 Vertical Alignment

One of the important considerations in the highway design is

gradient. On mountainous and steep terrains the grades are influenced by
vehicle and operation and altitude. The vertical profile of the road would have
level stretches as well as slopes or grades. In order to have smooth traffic
movement, the changes in the grades should be smoothened by vertical
curves. Vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the centre line of the
road. It consists of grades and vertical curves, and it influences the vehicle
speed, acceleration, deceleration and sight distance (Khanna & Justo 1998).

Recommended gradients for different terrain conditions, except at

hairpin bends, are given in Table 3.1. Gradients up to the ruling gradient may
be used as a matter of routine in design. The limiting gradients may be used
where the topography of a place compels this course or where the adoption of
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gentler gradients would cost enormously high. In such cases, the length of
continuous grade steeper than the ruing gradients should be as short as
possible. Exceptional gradients are adopted only in very difficult situations
and for short lengths not exceeding 100 m at a stretch and successive stretches
must be separated by flatter gradient for a length of 100 m. The cumulative
rise in elevation over a length of 2 km shall not exceed 100 m in mountainous
terrain and 120 m in steep terrain (IRC 38 1988).

Table 3.1 Gradients for different terrains (after IRC: SP48 1998)

Mountainous terrain
Classification of and steep terrain Steep terrain upto 3000
Gradient more than 3000 m m height above MSL
above MSL
Ruling gradient 5% (1 in 20) 6% (1 in 16.7)
Limiting gradient 6% (1 in 16.7) 7% (1 in 14.3)
Exceptional gradient 7% (1 in 14.3) 8% (1 in 12.5)

As with other design elements, the characteristics of vertical

alignment are influenced greatly by basic controls related to design speed,
traffic volumes, functional classification and terrain conditions. Within these
basic controls, several generally accepted criteria must be considered.

Use a smooth grade line with gradual changes, consistent

with the type of highway and character of terrain, rather than
a line with numerous breaks and short lengths of tangent
grades.

The roller coaster or hidden dip type of profile should be

avoided. Often they are proposed in the interest of economy,
but they are aesthetically undesirable and extremely
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hazardous. A driver cannot avoid or compensate for a hazard

that cannot be seen.

Avoid “broken back” grade lines (two crest or sag vertical

curves separated by a short tangent). One long vertical curve
is more desirable.

Avoid very long crest vertical curves if passing sight

distance cannot reasonably be attained. A shorter vertical
curve may permit more passing opportunity on adjacent
tangent grades.

On a long grade it is preferable to place the steepest grade at

the bottom and flatter grade near the top.

Consider auxiliary lanes where passing opportunities are

limited and it is probable that slow–moving vehicles will
affect operating speeds and the desired level of service.

3.2.5 Coordination between Horizontal and Vertical Alignments

Curvature and grades should be in proper balance. Emphasis on a

tangent alignment is not desirable when it results in extremely steep or long
grades. An emphasis on flat grades is not desirable when it results in
excessive curvature. A compromise between the two extremes is the best
approach. Several general criteria should be kept in mind as follows (PMGSY
2005).

Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced near or

just beyond the top of a pronounced crest vertical curve.
This condition makes it difficult for drivers to perceive the
horizontal change in alignment, especially at night.
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Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or

near the low point of a pronounced sag vertical curve. This
is aesthetically undesirable and can be hazardous because
vehicle operating speeds, particularly for trucks, often is
higher at the bottoms of grades.

On two-lane roads and streets with considerable traffic

volume, safe passing sections must be provided at frequent
intervals and for an appreciable percentage of the length of
roadway. In these cases, it is necessary to work toward long
tangent sections to secure sufficient passing sight distance
rather than the more economical combination of vertical and
horizontal alignment.

Both horizontal curvature and the profile should be as flat as

feasible at intersections where sight distances along both
roads and streets is important and vehicles may have to slow
or stop.

3.3 HAIRPIN BENDS

Hairpin bends play important role in the formation of ghat roads. In

aligning a hill road, it becomes sometimes necessary to attain a height at a
particular location, without substantial covering of horizontal distance. In
such cases, it is customary to introduce a series of hairpin bends. Though
codes and practitioners suggest the avoidance of hairpin bends, some
circumstances warrant the inclusion of the same. They are considered
important in view of restricted gradient, radius and extra cutting and length
involved in the construction (Kadyali & Lal 2008).
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3.3.1 Description, Function and Setting out

In mountainous terrain where very steep slopes are encountered it is

sometimes unavoidable to use hairpin bends. These are bends with a very
small radius continuing in some cases until the direction of the road has
changed 180°. When a number of hairpin bends are constructed it is possible
to descend a slope with little space for road construction. However, hairpin
bends are not only difficult to construct and maintain but also difficult for
traffic to use.

Figure 3.2a shows the plan view of a typical hairpin bend. The level
pegs, are placed as shown on the plan during the initial survey of the road.
Point "X" is the intersection point of the two level lines ZX and YX. From
this point the inner curve can be set out. Figure 3.2b shows a longitudinal
section of a hairpin bend. As it is seen, the point on the hairpin bend joins two
sloping tangents in a nearly flat portion. This is necessary to provide a rest
point to climbing or descending vehicles while they are negotiating the bend.
To provide good drainage and safety, the outer curve of the bend is set out to
be higher than the inner curve. This means that the road will be sloping
inwards, so that, it has necessary superelevation and to drain all surface water
on the inner side of the curve. Figure 3.2c shows the three cross-sections A-A,
B-B, C-C that are indicated on the plan. These cross-sections can be set out
after the road levels have been determined. Since hairpin bends normally only
occur in mountainous terrain, the normal camber is usually not applied, but
the road is sloping towards the mountain to provide more safety and better
drainage (GTSTM 1981).
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3.3.2 Design Criteria for Hair-Pin Bends

The design standards to be adopted for hair-pin bends are given in

Table 3.2. This has been extracted from the Hill Road Manual (IRC: SP: 48 –
1998).

Table 3.2 Design criteria for hairpin bends

Parameter Values
Design speed 20 kmph
Minimum carriageway width 11.5 m for two lanes
Minimum radius of inner curve 14.0 m
Minimum length of transition curve 15.0 m
Maximum gradient 2.50%
Minimum gradient 0.50%
Superelevation 10%
Distance between two hairpin bends 60 m
Type of full roadway width Surfaced

Figure 3.2a Hairpin bend – typical plan view (after GTSTM 1981)
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Figure 3.2b Hairpin bend – typical longitudinal section (after GTSTM

1981)

Figure 3.2c Hairpin bend – typical cross sections (after GTSTM 1981)
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3.4 USE OF GPS AND GIS IN ALIGNMENT PLANNING

3.4.1 General

Selection of alignment involves study and analysis of survey data,

land use, land type, topography, geology, hydrology and such other related
inputs. Manual analysis and weighing the merits and demerits of the features
are very difficult in real time. In these circumstances, the use of GPS for
survey works will give opportunity to consider many alternatives as collection
of data in GPS simple and fast. As we use computers for all design works,
storing and using of GPS data is easy and accurate. As GIS is capable of
handling huge data and unlimited boundary and field conditions, it can be
used for the analysis and selection of best suited alignment among the
alternatives.

3.4.2 GPS Applications in Ghat Road Planning

By virtue of its capacity to locate a point with high precision data

GPS gains its usage in the field of surveying. In highway engineering it is
used in planning, surveying, construction, operation and maintenance
activities. Surveying in the hilly terrain with thick growth of vegetation
requires huge man power to clear the bushes to get the vision when we use
conventional methods for levelling and other field survey works. In the
planning stage, tracks traced by GPS are highly useful to select the
preliminary and alternate alignments integrating obligatory and control points.
During the survey stage, it can be used to survey the proposed alignments to
get the coordinates of the alignment and plot necessary plan and profile
drawings. By repeating the GPS survey, the horizontal and vertical alignments
can be modified as per the operational requirements according to site
condition many times as required. In the highway construction maintenance
activities, it is used to check the levels, grades, centerline and the movement
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of construction equipments. GPS is effectively used in the transport vehicles

to monitor the location and speed of the vehicles apart from tracking the
vehicles during emergency (USDT 2003 and Alfred 2009).

3.4.3 Use of GIS Techniques in Ghat Road Alignment

GIS functionalities are useful in the analysis, selection,

prioritization, and implementation of route selection and alignment
finalization of road works. Many GIS applications have been developed in
hydrology, hydraulics, water resources, transportation, geotechnical,
surveying, environmental and other fields of civil engineering, to facilitate
engineering analysis, modeling, design and implementation (Asmaa 2011).
GIS is an appropriate tool to deal with geospatial problems such as alignment
optimization. It is capable of integrating geographical data and attribute data
and analyzing the same along with various other inputs. Hence, it helps to fix
the alignment by using geographical data obtained from remote sensing
technologies and field data such as gradient, locations of cross drainage
works, land slide areas, major rock outcrops etc., coupled with alignment
specifications (Chan & Fan 2003).

3.5 GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

3.5.1 Investigation of Geological Features

Road constructions in hilly terrain affect the land stability laterally

for long distances as they run mostly into under developed ground. The
planning and design of such roads may depend critically on the geological
features of the area. Geological conditions of mountain areas are complicated
and it is difficult to investigate the site due to the extensive variability.
Detailed study of the potential construction area by an experienced
engineering geologist is required to avoid expected geological risks. The
types of geological information required for a road project include types of
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geological formations, description of soil and rock exposures, descriptions of

ground masses, survey of rock formations for joints, slope forms and
evolution of expected landslides, stream actions, erosion and weathering,
slope angles, existence of vegetation, evidence of deforestation and existence
of special topographic features such as benches, cliffs, streams and manmade
reservoirs (Moh 1986 and Dahal 2010).

3.5.2 Geological Issues and Measures

When examining the geological features, it is necessary to conceive

its geological processes that led to its formation and the geomorphologic
forms. The investigator should visualize the effect of road construction on the
natural environment in the sense, whether it may cause any geological
failures. It is necessary to have adequate information about the project to
assess the factors correctly. The geological information are normally gathered
from geological maps, aerial photographs and records of field assessments. In
areas where they are not assessable during planning stage, they should be
reevaluated during detailed design and construction stage (Moh 1986 and
Eddleston 1995). Degree of stability of slope depends on type of rock,
inclination or dip of strata and presence of ground water. The side hazards can
be checked by adjusting the alignment so that the cut slopes intercept more
favorable bedding plans. In locating an alignment, consideration should be
given to some additional situations which may cause landslides due to
proposed cuts and fills (Khanna & Justo 1998).

3.6 USE OF DIGITAL TERRAIN MODEL

Digital Terrain Model (DTM) is a digital representation of terrain

relief of earth surface in computer memory, composed of data and algorithm
which can interpolate heights of intermediary points. A digital elevation
model (DEM) is a digital terrain model which deals with elevations above sea
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level (Karel 2009). DTMs are developed using contours or spot levels. In this
work the terms DTM and DEM are synonymously used and represent the tract
of the earth. DTMs are models of earth surface and useful in alignment study
by facilitating overall view of the project area with salient features such as
valleys, ridges, drains, reliefs, rocks and saddles. They can be used in the
planning and design stage of highways in hilly terrain in the process of
finding obligatory points, control points, cross drainages, hairpin bends and to
study alternate alignments. Use of DTM in the selection of final alignment is
shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 DTM use in alignment selection

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3.7 GUIDING PRINCIPLES APPLICABLE TO HILL ROADS

Some of the important guiding principles and guidelines to be

followed in the route selection and location applicable to hill roads on various
aspects including environment are briefly described below (after IRC: SP48
1998).

3.7.1 General

The alignment should be as direct as possible between the

obligatory and control points to be linked. A direct link
results in economy in construction, operation and
maintenance.

The location should result in minimum interference to

agriculture and industry. It should not pass through
obstructions such as cemeteries, place of worship,
monuments and public facilities like schools and hospitals.

To the possible extents, frequent crossings of railway lines,

canals, water courses, ridges etc., should be avoided.

The alignment should avoid large scale cutting and filling

and follow the profile of the land as far as possible. If the
road has to be in cutting, the location and the grade line
should permit the adoption of half cut and half fill type of
cross section which involves least disturbance to the natural
ground.

3.7.2 Obligatory Points

The obligatory points to be connected from administrative,

strategic or other considerations should be ascertained and
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taken into account while finalizing the highway alignment.

Similarly, control points like mountain passes, saddles, river
crossings etc., should be kept in view when deciding the
alignment.

While crossing mountain ranges, the highway should

preferably cross the ridges at their lowest elevation.

3.7.3 Grade and Curvature

The route should enable ruling gradient to be attained in

most of its length

As far as possible, the alignment should permit adoption of

uniform design speed and easy curvature in the entire length.

The route should avoid the introduction of hairpin bends, as

far as possible and their location, particularly in valleys
avoided. The bends should be located on stable and flat hill
slopes and a series of bends on the same face of the hill
should be avoided.

Needless rise and fall shall be avoided where the general

purpose of the route is to gain elevation from a lower to a
higher point. Also, deep cuts involving destabilisation of
natural hill slope should be avoided.

3.7.4 Cross Drainages

It is preferable that crossings of major rivers shall be at right

angles to the river flow with highway alignment
subordinated to consideration of the bridge siting. Crossings
of medium and minor streams may also sometimes govern
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the choice of alignment in the case of hill roads due to

foundation problems, though their positions will be
determined by requirements of the alignment and the
crossings could be even skew or on curve if necessary.

As far as possible, efforts should be made to locate bridges

where the river is straight, sufficiently away from confluence
of tributaries, narrow and well defined and banks are high
and rocky.

3.7.5 Areas to be Avoided

Unstable hill features and areas having potential landslide or

settlement problems

Areas subject to seepage from springs, hydel channels, sub

terranean channels etc.,

Steep hill sides

Locations involving unnecessary and expensive destruction

of wooded areas

3.7.6 Miscellaneous

Location along a river valley has the advantage of

comparatively gentle gradients, proximity of inhibited
villages and easy water supply for construction purposes.
These are beset with disadvantages such as large number of
cross drainages and protective works.

The location should be such that the highway is fully

integrated with the surrounding landscape of the area. It is
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desirable to study the environmental impact of the highway

and ensure that the adverse effects are kept to the minimum.

An alignment likely to receive plenty of sunlight is

preferable over the one with shade.

3.8 SEQUENCE OF ACTIVITIES

The final objective of this dissertation work is to optimize the cut

and fill volumes to mitigate the environmental degradation of the project area.
To accomplish this goal some other related studies such as use of modern
techniques in the formulation of ghat road alignment and ghat road drainage
provisions and other related field survey works and desk works using
computers and softwares are carried out. These works and activities are
sequentially compiled and given in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4 Flowchart showing the sequence of activities
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