Systems Theory

and Modelling
 Seminars

Introduction
Defining Innovation
Innovation Process
Understanding Goals
Defining Objectives
Managing Indicators
Systems Theory and Modelling
Creativity and Idea Generation
Managing Project Portfolios
Leading Innovation Teams
Managing Results and Knowledge

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 This Lecture

• Open Systems
• General Systems Theory (GST)
• GST Traits
• System Classification
• Systems Analysis and Modelling
• Activity Modelling (IDEFo)

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 Reduction vs. Systems

• 1950’s the main approach to

understanding was ‘reductionism’
– divide something into its parts
• Ludwig von Bertalnffy proposed
systems thinking – discover how
something interacts with its
environment

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 Open Systems

• All living and many non-living things are

open systems
• Systems theory gives us a way to ‘think
about’ open systems
• Systems theory lays the foundation for
the analysis and modelling of systems
• Systems theory provides an analytical
framework for comprehending dynamic
interrelated operating systems

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 Open System

Sense Response
OPEN
SYSTEM

ENVIRONMENT

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 University – Open System

Policy
Approved Funding
Industry Needs UNIVERSITY
Students
Funding Requests
New Knowledge
Graduates

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 Systems Thinking

• holistic approach to problem

solving
• reflecting on how the organisation
relates to its business environment
and
• how factors in the environment
can affect the organisation

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 Definition of ‘System’

“... an identifiable, complex dynamic

entity composed of discernibly
different parts or subsystems that
are interrelated to and
interdependent on each other and
the whole entity with an overall
capability to maintain stability and
to adapt behaviour in response to
external influences” [Webster’s]

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 General Systems Theory

• Science of understanding open systems

theory
• GST provides a framework to study open
systems
• GST is not too general nor too specific

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 Boulding’s Explanation

“Somewhere … between the specific

that has no meaning and the
general that has no content there
must be, for each purpose and at
each level of abstraction, an
optimum degree of generality”

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 Beckett’s explanation

"The trust of general systems .. is to

draw attention to the study of
relationships of parts to one
another within the wholes”

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 GST Traits

• Systems …
– are Goal Seeking
– are Holistic
– have Hierarchy
– have Inputs and Outputs
– transform inputs into outputs
– consume and/or create Energy
– are affected by Entropy
– have Equifinality
– have Feedback

© David O’Sullivan, NUI Galway

 Goal Seeking
 All open systems must have goals
 There are two types
 Inner directed goals
 Outer directed goals
 Design strategies are typically “outer
directed” goals
 Maintenance strategies are an “inner
directed” goal

© David O’Sullivan, NUI Galway

 SUB
SUB
SYSTEM
SYSTEM

Holistic Boundry
SUB
SYSTEM
SUB
SYSTEM

SUB
SYSTEM
SUB
SYSTEM
SUB
SYSTEM
• Fredrick Hagel (1770-1831)
– The whole is more than the
sum of the parts
– The whole determines the sum
of the parts
– The parts cannot be
understood if considered in
isolation from the whole
– The parts are dynamically
interrelated and
interdependent

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 Hierarchical
WHOLE
SYSTEM

PLANT LEVEL
MORE GENERAL

SUB
SUB SYSTEM
DEPARTMENT LEVEL
SYSTEM
SUB
SYSTEM SYSTEMS
CELL LEVEL

WORKSTATION LEVEL

SUB
MORE DETAIL
SUB SYSTEM
SYSTEM
PROCESS LEVEL
SUB
SYSTEM

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 Transform Inputs into Outputs
INPUT

ERROR
FEEDBACK
TRANSFORM
INPUT OUTPUT
INPUTS TO
OUTPUTS

INPUT
OUTPUT

TRANSFORM OUTPUT
INPUTS TO
OUTPUTS
INPUT

STATUS FEEDBACK

© David O’Sullivan, NUI Galway

 Entropy

• A measure of the amount of disorder in

a system
• Everything disintegrates over time
• Negative entropy or centropy
• Effects of entropy are offset by the
system transforming itself continuously
• Maintain order through such things as
repairs, maintenance and possibly
growing by importing ‘energy’

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 Energy, Equifinality and Feedback

• Systems create/consume energy

– Physical
– Emotional
• Equifinality is the ability for systems to
achieve goals in a number of ways
• This flexibility allows systems avoid the
effects of entropy
• Systems have feedback - feedback can
allow a system to change its direction

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 System Classification
• Checkland's classification
– Natural Systems (ecological
systems, human beings) Transcendental
9
– Physically Designed Systems 8 Social Oganisation
(bridges, machines)
7 Human
– Abstract Design Systems
(Languages, Mathematics) 6 Animal

5 Genetic-societal
– Human Activity Systems
(Politics, Banking) 4 Open System

– Transcendental Systems 3 Cybernetics

(Beyond knowledge or 2 Clockworks

comprehension) 1 Frameworks

• Boulding’s Classification

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 Boulding’s Classification
• Frameworks
– static structures (e.g. camshaft, skeleton, formal company organisations, rock)
• Clockworks
– timing mechanisms (e.g. self winding clocks)
• Cybernetics
– elementary closed systems with feedback (e.g. thermostats)
• Open system
– elementary forms of life interact with their environment in order to change their
behaviour
• Genetic-societal systems
– exchange information with other subsystems
• Animal system
– mobility, self-awareness, and goal orientation-highly complex
• Human system
– intelligence gives the human system the ability to think about the future, its
goals, and how to reach them.
• Social organisation
– organisations which have their own combined goals, needs
• Transcendental,
– all other systems not yet comprehended

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 Conclusions
• Views of GST are universal
• GST combats ‘isolationist’ tendencies among
engineers, systems analysts, business
analysts, IT specialists, etc. etc.
• GST offers a framework for understanding all
systems
• Benefits of GST to design of systems are
significant
• Theory of GST lays at the foundation of much
new thinking in - including ‘Learning
Organisations’, ‘Structured Analysis’,
‘Sociotechnical Design’ and ‘Strategic Planning’

© David O’Sullivan, NUI Galway

 5 minute break!

• Open Systems
• General Systems Theory (GST)
• GST Traits
• System Classification

• Systems Analysis and Modelling

• Activity Modelling (IDEFo)
© David O’Sullivan, NUI Galway
Systems Analysis
and Modelling
 Modelling

• Represent existing and future systems

• Models are in-complete
• Various models represent different
perspectives and levels of abstraction
• Modelling techniques should be selected
to enhance communications between
designers and users

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 Perspectives
Managing Director

Accountant Manufacturing
Engineer

Manufacturing Software
Manager Engineer
Supervisor

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 Techniques

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 IDEFo

• Background
• Activity Modelling
• Cell Modelling
• Hierarchical Decomposition
• Principles of IDEFo
• IDEFo Approach

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 Background

• IDEFo is an activity or process modelling

technique
• Developed through US AirForce R&D
• Basic idea: Adopt a common language for all
designers
• Original ideas by Ross and his SADT technique
• Sister languages
– IDEF1x used for data structure modelling
– IDEF2 used for dynamic modelling (simulation)
– Etc.
• http://www.idef.com
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 Cell Modelling

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 Cell Modelling

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 Cell Modelling

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 Hierarchical Decomposition

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 Arrows

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 ICOM Codes

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Boundary Arrow Correspondence

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 Tunnelled Arrows

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 Modelling Demonstration

• Choose an activity!
• Choose purpose and viewpoint!
• Creating the A-0 diagram
• Creating the A0 diagram
• Creating the A-1 diagram

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 Node Index and Tree

• A0 Manufacture Product
– A1 Plan For Manufacture
• A11 Identify Manufacturing Methods
• A12 Estimate Requirements, Time, Cost to
• A13 Develop Production Plans
• A14 Develop Support Activities Plan
– A2 Make and Administer Schedules and Budgets
• A21 Develop Master Schedule
• A22 Develop Coordinating Schedule
• A23 Estimate Costs & Make Budgets
• A24 Monitor Performance To Schedule & Budget
– A3 Plan Production

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 Principles of IDEFo

• Cell Modelling Graphic Representation

– Boxes-and-arrows show graphically all activities in a
system
• Conciseness
– Two dimensional ‘structured’ diagrams and text provide
concise detail
• Communication
– Simple boxes and arrows, limitation of detail, structured
presentation of information
• Rigor and Precision
• Methodology
– Step-by-step approach
• Organisation versus Function
– Separation of organisation from function

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 Rigor and Precision

• Detail exposition control (no more than six boxes)

• Limited context (no omissions or unnecessary detail)
• Diagram interface inter-connectivity
• Data structure connectivity (through parenthesis)
• Uniqueness of labels and titles
• Syntax rules for graphics
• Inputs are separate from controls
• Data arrow labelling requirements
• Minimum control of function
• Purpose and viewpoint

© David O’Sullivan, NUI Galway

 IDEFo Methodology
• Select a viewpoint and purpose
• Limit the subject matter
• Create a top level diagram (A-0, one box only)
• Create a context diagram (A-1, if necessary)
• Create AO diagram (A0, two to six boxes)
• Create subsequent diagrams, text and glossary
• Review material and check for purpose and viewpoint
• Additional pointers
– Avoid trivial activities and flows
– Limit necessary detail at each level
– Group related arrows and activities to simplify detail
– Be clear, precise and consistent
– Think control and not flow
– Delay the addition of detail
– If in doubt incoming flows should be controls
– Annotate as you develop each diagram

© David O’Sullivan, NUI Galway

 Sample

• See course notes on 'Enterprise Mo

delling'

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 Summary

• Open Systems
• General Systems Theory (GST)
• GST Traits
• System Classification
• Systems Analysis and Modelling
• Activity Modelling (IDEFo)

© David O’Sullivan, NUI Galway

 Online Assignment

• Develop an IDEFo model for your

organisation
• Produce A-0, A0, and A-1
diagrams
– Graphics plus Description Text
• Upload model into ‘Models’ web
part

© David O’Sullivan, NUI Galway