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Introduction: The Understanding of Culture, Society, and Politics, Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics
Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Gender)

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to discuss gender roles in Philippine society from pre-colonial to the present era.
How do gender roles vary across cultures according to a particular culture’s beliefs and expectations concerning men and women’s roles?
Learn about it!
Gender and Gender Roles
People play different roles in society depending on age and occupation. There are jobs that require a specific gender to perform tasks while other
jobs are open to both men and women.
Gender
 Gender refers to social, cultural, and psychological characteristics or traits related to males and females based on certain social contexts.
 It is different from sex, which refers to the biological characteristics that distinguish a male from a female.
 Thus, sex makes a person male or female, while gender makes a person masculine or feminine.
Gender Roles
 Gender roles refer to attitudes and behaviors that the society expects a person to exhibit based on his or her sex.
 For example, in traditional Philippine society, women are expected to be plain housewives and take care of their children, while men are
expected to be professionals and provide the needs of their family.
 Another example is that society expects women to be more emotional and sensitive while men are expected to be strong and capable of
doing things that women cannot do.
Gender Roles in Pre-colonial Philippine Society
In pre-colonial Philippines, males and females enjoyed the same rights and privileges. Different social functions were assigned to different members
of society. There were functions that were specifically given to males, females, or both.
Aside from being a priestess, the babaylan was also considered a healer, an adviser, and a seer.
Gender Roles in Philippine Society During the Colonial Period
Gender roles during the colonial period changed drastically. Women were restrained from other activities outside their homes, while men were given
more social functions. These roles also changed as the Philippines was occupied by new colonizers.
 With the coming of the Spaniards and the introduction of Catholicism, the babaylan lost their role in the religious life of the community.
This role was taken over by Catholic priests. Women were relegated to doing household chores and taking care of children. More often
than not, young women were not sent to school but instead trained to be good wives and mothers for their future families. Some women
were also forced to marry for economic and political gain.
 During the American period, women had more freedom in society. They were allowed to study and work in any field they wanted. They
also adopted American values. Men and women became equal in the sense that it became acceptable for both genders to have jobs and
be educated.
 Although men and women were able to maintain their status in society during the Japanese period, women were usually kept inside their
houses to protect them from abusive Japanese soldiers. Men also became busy defending the country, with most of them serving as
soldiers.
Gender Roles in Current Philippine Society
At present, Philippine society is more open to allowing both men and women to perform different tasks not based solely on gender, but on an
individual’s capabilities and strengths. For example, fields like engineering, architecture, and medicine, which are often associated with men, have
long been open to women. Likewise, there are also lots of male teachers, nurses,chefs, and hairdressers nowadays.
Explore!
What are your hobbies? Do you have a hobby that is typically done by the opposite sex? What do people say about your "unusual" hobby?
Try it!
Ask five of your friends about their dream jobs. Does any of these jobs tend to be associated with men or women? What do you think about your
friends’ dream jobs?
What do you think?
Is it proper to limit a person’s choices based on his or her gender? Why or why not?
Tips
Gender is a set of characteristics that pertains to a person’s masculinity or femininity while biology determines sex. For example, a man is male
because he has male sex organs. He, however, can be considered effeminate because the things he likes are often associated with women.
Keypoints
 Gender refers to social, cultural, and psychological characteristics or traits related to males and females based on certain social contexts.
 Gender roles refer to attitudes and behaviors that the society expects a person to exhibit based on his or her sex.
 In pre-colonial Philippines, males and females enjoyed the same rights and privileges. Different social functions were assigned to
different members of society. There were functions that were specifically given to males, females, or both.
 Gender roles during the colonial period changed drastically. Women were restrained from other activities outside their homes, while men
were given more social functions. These roles also changed as the Philippines was occupied by new colonizers.
 The present Filipino society has become more open in allowing people of different genders to do things not based on their sex but based
on their capabilities.
Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Socioeconomic Class)
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to define and discuss the different socioeconomic classes that exist in Philippine society.
 What are the different socioeconomic classes in the Philippines?
 How did these socioeconomic classes change through time?
Learn about it!
Philippine society can be categorized into various socioeconomic classes. During prehistoric times, our ancestors developed a society where people
were assigned with different social functions. However, as society changed, differences in societal functions became wider and more diverse.
Socioeconomic Classes during the Pre-Colonial Period
Prior to the coming of the Spaniards, the community was called a barangay. It was headed by a datu or rajah. Our ancestors were divided into three
different groups
maharlika, timawa, and alipin.
Maharlika (Leaders and Royals)
 first social class
 composed of community leaders (datu) and their families
 also called the group of the maginoo, raha, or gat
Timawa (Freemen)
 second or ―middle‖ social class
 composed of all freemen living in the barangay
 consisted of workers, warriors, merchants, and others who were not under debt bondage
 had their own properties such as houses and pieces of land to cultivate
Alipin (Slaves)
 third class
 served another person or family as payment for debt
 became slaves when their families lost to a war with another
 were not bound to their masters for life
 could go back to their previous status as soon as they pay off their debts, or if they marry a maharlika, who will then pay for their debt
 had two kinds
 aliping saguiguilid and aliping namamahay
Aliping Namamahay
 had their own properties such as houses or pieces of land
 often from the timawa class and became slaves because of debt or as punishment for a wrongdoing
 could go back to being part of the timawa class once they pay off their debt
Aliping saguiguilid
 did not have the right to own any property
 often came from a family of slaves or were captives in war
 could also be sold or exchanged for goods or other slaves
Socioeconomic Classes during the Spanish Colonial Period
Upon the coming of the Spaniards, Philippine society changed and a new set of socioeconomic classes was created. During this period, the people
were divided based on their ancestry—peninsulares, insulares, mestizo, and indio.
Peninsulares
 Spaniards in the Philippines who were born in Spain
 came from the word ―peninsula,‖ which was in direct reference to the Spanish peninsula
Insulares
 Spaniards who were of Spanish descent but were born in the Philippines
 came from the word ―insular,‖ which means "from the islands"
Mestizos
 those of mixed ancestry
 usually children of Spanish and Chinese couples or of Spanish and indio couples
 had economic and political power because of their mixed heritage
Indios
 consisted of the natives
 the lowest class in society
 were stripped of their rights and freedom
 were forced to bow down to Spanish colonizers
This kind of system lasted for hundreds of years, until the time when some insulares and mestizos were able to gain some form of power. In the 19th
century, the so-called ―middle class‖ emerged—the principalia and the ilustrados.
Principalia
 consisted of native leaders in the government and their families
 were often educated and served as gobernadorcillo (town mayor) or cabeza de barangay (barangay leader)
Ilustrados
 the children of the principalia who usually studied in Europe
 consisted mostly of the popular artists and scholars of the period, including Jose Rizal
Modern Socioeconomic Classes
Socioeconomic classes changed when the Philippines gained independence from Spain. The Americans introduced democracy and did not impose
any form of socioeconomic class in the country.
At present, a person’s position in society is based mainly on his or her family’s economic status. Social stratification or the division of society based
on occupation, income, wealth, or power is simpler at present than in the past.
In 1987, the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB) divided the population into high-income, middle-income, and low-income classes.
High-income Class
 people earning an average of PhP 200,000 per month
 the ―rich‖ class that accounts for merely one percent of the country’s total population
Middle-income Class
 people earning an average of PhP 36,000 per month
 consists of professionals and small-scale entrepreneurs
Low-income Class
 people earning less than PhP 10,000 per month
 consists of laborers and minimum wage earners
Social Mobility
Unlike in other societies where persons born into a specific class have no choice but to die as part of the same class, people in the Philippines
usually have the opportunity to transfer from a lower socioeconomic class to a higher one.
This process, called social mobility, is:
 the movement of people or families within or between different levels in society, and
 the opportunity to transfer from a lower socioeconomic class to a higher one possibly through education or marriage.
Explore!
Have you ever wondered why young children are often asked what they want to be when they grow up? Most children choose to be doctors,
engineers, lawyers, or any high-earning profession that often comes from long years of education. In some cases, students will choose their college
degrees based solely on their socioeconomic capabilities.
Try it!
Research more about your community, and compare it to other communities in your city or province. If possible, ask local leaders for basic
information about the budget and spending of your barangay. Compare your data with those of your classmates'. Note the differences in budget and
spending in each barangay. What may have caused the differences you noted? Where did each barangay focus its spending?
What do you think?
In which socioeconomic class does your family belong? What can you do to help your family climb up the modern socioeconomic ladder?
Tips
 Knowing about one’s socioeconomic class is not a cause for discrimination. Everyone in the Philippines has the same set of rights
regardless of socioeconomic class.
 If one can move from a lower socioeconomic class to a higher one, it is also possible for the opposite to occur.
Keypoints
 Anyone can move from one socioeconomic class to another, depending on educational attainment and life decisions.
 Social mobility is the movement of people or families within or between different levels in society.
 Social stratification is the division of society based on occupation, income, wealth, or power.
Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Ethnicity)
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to define and discuss different concepts and issues regarding ethnicity and ethnic groups in the
Philippines.
 What is ethnicity?
 What is race and how is it related to ethnicity?
 What are the issues regarding ethnicity?
 What are the ethnic groups in the Philippines?
Learn about it!
Ethnicity and Race
Every society consists of people from different families, ethnic groups, and races. This makes society very diverse and unique.
Ethnicity
 Ethnicity refers to a group of people, also called the ethnic group, who have a common or shared culture, language, history, religion, and
tradition.
 Here, people are divided into groups based on different social factors.
Examples: Filipinos, Malays, Anglo-Saxons, and Muslims.
Race
 Race refers to a group of people that shares the same physical attributes, such as skin color, height, and facial features.
 People are grouped into different races based on their physical appearance.
 Human beings are classified into three major races
Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid.
These classifications are based on the color of the skin, the shape of the face and eyes, texture of the hair, and other prominent physical features.
Two people belonging to the same race may be part of different ethnic groups. For example, Asians belong to the Mongoloid race but consists of
different ethnic groups like the Japanese, the Chinese, and the Malays. They all share the same physical features but have different cultures,
histories, and languages.
Ethnolinguistic Groups in the Philippines
There are more than 180 ethnic or ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines, which are based on the language each group uses.
 There are eight major ethnolinguistic groups in the country:
1. Ilokano,
2. Kapampangan,
3. Pangasinense,
4. Tagalog,
5. Bikolano,
6. Ilonggo,
7. Cebuano, and
8. Waray.
 Other smaller ethnolinguistic groups are the Ibanag, Ivatan, Sambal, Subanon, Maguindanaoan, and Zamboangueño.
There are also indigenous groups in the country that may belong to the same ethnolingguistic groups, but have different cultures or traditions. Some
of them are the Mangyans of Mindoro, the Igorots of the Mountain Province, and the Moros of Mindanao.
Issues About Race and Ethnicity
Ethnicity and race are categories that divide people based on their social affinities or physical similarities. However, differences in ethnicity and race
make some people believe that one ethnic group is superior than others. This belief creates discrimination and prejudice against people from
minorities who are perceived to be of ―inferior‖ ethnicity or race.
There are different types of discrimination against one’s ethnicity or race.
Racism
 Racism is discrimination or prejudice based on one’s race.
 In the 1970s, white Americans (Caucasoids) discriminated black Americans (Negroids) who were descendants of immigrants from African
countries.
Ethnocentricism
 Ethnocentrism is discrimination or prejudice based on one’s culture.
 Recently, Muslim extremists discriminate Christians and non-Muslims in Muslim countries because of their religion.
 In the Philippines, Muslims experience prejudice and discrimination in Christian-dominated regions like Metro Manila. Because of the
ongoing conflict in Mindanao between the government and Islamic militants, Christians tend to think that all Muslims are terrorists.
 On the other hand, some Christians and ethnic groups are discriminated and prejudiced against in Muslim-dominated areas.
Discrimination against one’s race or culture may cause crimes against it.
Genocide
 Genocide is the elimination of a group of people from the same race, ethnic group, religion, or nation.
 It is an extreme action against people from another ethnicity or race.
 The Holocaust during the World War II, executed by the Nazis of Germany led by Adolf Hitler, killed millions of Jews all over Europe.
Ethnic cleansing
 Ethnic cleansing is the harassment, rape, or forced migration of an ethnic group to banish them from a certain area or territory.
 This happens in certain areas in Africa.
Explore!
Research about your family. Look into the ethnicity of your parents as well as your grandparents. Is there anyone from your family who is part of a
different race or ethnic group? If so, how did your parents introduce you to the different cultures and languages of your family?
Try it!
Pick five of your classmates or friends and ask them about Philippine languages that they know. Ask them to share a characteristic or practice that
distinguishes their ethnic group from other groups.
What do you think?
In your opinion, what are the advantages and disadvantages of being ethnocentric?
Keypoints
 Ethnicity refers to a group of people, also called the ethnic group, who have a common culture, language, history, religion, and tradition.
 People from the same ethnic group share a common culture, language, religion, belief, and tradition.
 There are more than 180 ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines.
 Race refers to a group of people that shares the same physical attributes, such as skin color, height, and facial features.
 Racism is prejudice or discrimination against people of other races with the idea that one’s race is superior than others'.
 Ethnocentrism is similar to racism, but it discriminates based on differences in culture.
 Ethnocentrism and racism may lead to genocide or ethnic cleansing which are crimes against a specific ethnic group or race.
Cultural Variation and Social Differences (Religion)
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 explain religion as a form of cultural variation,
 describe the diversity of religions in the world and in the Philippines, and
 analyze issues regarding religion in the world and in the Philippines.
 How is cultural variation explained in terms of religion?
 What are the existing religions in the world and in the Philippines?
 What are the issues surrounding differences in religion?
Learn about it!
Religion as a Cultural Variation
 We live in a world with varying and diverse cultures.
 Cultural variation or differences take many forms within and among societies, one of which is religion.
 Religion can be defined as a set of practices and behaviors that relate to a group of people's belief in a god or a group of gods.
 Sociologists studying religion consider it a part of society's culture.
 In most cases, religion not only affects a person's belief, but one's way of life.
Variety of Religion
 There are many religions around the world.
 Among the major religions in the world are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Taoism, and Buddhism.
 Each of these religions has its own set of beliefs and practices that must be followed by its believers.
 In a society, several religions may exist, and since religion affects an individual’s way of life, we can observe cultural variations in the form
of different religions.
Religion in the Philippines
 The Philippines is a secular country, which means that the government does not prescribe a specific set of activities or laws based on
religion. A citizen's right to choose his or her own religion is protected by the Philippine Constitution.
 In the Philippines, the majority of the population are Christians, with a certain portion of the population practicing Islam, particularly in the
southern part of the country.
 Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism are also practiced by a small number of inhabitants in the archipelago.
 Different religions are being practiced in Philippine society today. This variation in religion is a product of the evolution of Philippine society
across time.
Understanding Cultural Variation in the Form of Religion
 Cultural variations do exist as exemplified through different religions in the world, more so in Philippine society.
 For example, Christians and Muslims believe in one God, Hindus believe in many gods, and Buddhists do not.
 The sets of practices and beliefs of a particular religion influence the behavior of its followers and their interaction with other members of
society.
Issues Surrounding Differences in Religion
Because people have different religions, issues and conflicts between religious groups or denominations cannot be prevented.
Problems or Conflicts
 Since differences in religion do not only mean worshipping different gods, conflicts sometimes arise between believers.
 Some believers of a particular religion feel like they are being marginalized, while some feel like those following other religions are taking
advantage of their number.
 It may be easy to be swayed by religious differences and start a conflict. A believer or follower of a particular religion may offend a follower
of another religion if he or she imposes his or her religious beliefs or practices.
 In history, bloody wars happened because of religious differences, and unfortunately, conflicts continue until now due to varying religions.
Solutions or Actions
 To prevent conflicts, the Philippine government, for example, started recognizing some of the special days celebrated by different religions.
 Employees are not required to work during Holy Week, when Catholics commemorate the suffering and death of Jesus Christ.
 The start and end of the Ramadan are also considered holidays, just like when the Chinese celebrate the start of their new year.
 This way, the government allows followers of different religions to attend to their religious obligations without work getting in the way.
 To those conflicts brought about by differences in religion, the key word is respect. This entails a conscious effort to acquire cultural
knowledge and understand which this course is mainly about.
Explore!
Do some research about the beliefs and practices of your religion and of others' religions. List down their similarities and differences.
Try it!
Find some of your friends or friends of your family who belong to other religions. Ask them how their religion affects the way they behave and interact
in society. You may also ask them how much they know about other religions and their perceptions of the people who belong to those religions.
What do you think?
In your opinion, why is it important to respect differences in religion and religious practices?
Keypoints
 Cultural variation takes many forms, one of which is religion.
 Religion is a set of practices and behaviors that relate to a group of people's belief in a god or group of gods.
 Among the major religions in the world are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism.
 In the Philippines, the majority of the population are Christians, with a certain portion of the population practicing Islam, particularly in the
southern part of the country, while some inhabitants practice Buddhism, Taoism, or Hinduism.
 Protestants also believe in Jesus Christ, but they do not share the same practices as Catholicism.
 The Philippine government started to recognize special days in different religions to give believers freedom to practice their own
religions.
 Despite being largely Catholic, the Philippines remains a secular country. A citizen's right to choose his or her own religion is protected by
the Philippine Constitution.
 Many conflicts happened because of cultural variations such as differences in religion.
 Recognizing cultural variations and showing respect to different religions can help avoid conflict.
 Respect can effectively be achieved through the conscious effort of acquiring cultural knowledge and understanding.
Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Exceptionality/Non-Exceptionality)
Objectives
 describe exceptionality and non-exceptionality as a form of social category or one’s source of identity,
 explain the characteristics that make a person ―exceptional,‖
 discuss the challenges and problems affecting exceptional people, and
 suggest solutions to the problems.
 What makes a person exceptional?
 How similar/different are they from ―non-exceptional‖ people?
Learn about it!
Exceptionality and the Exceptional People
People have different characteristics, needs, desires, lifestyles, and challenges. However, there are people who, from one reason or another, are
described or categorized by the society as exceptional.
What do the words "gifted," "disabled," "challenged," or "different" mean to you? How does society influence your knowledge and attitudes toward
people with such labels and differences?
Exceptionality
 a quality or a characteristic of a person that makes him or her different from an established norm in a society
 various physical and mental interference or problems that affect a person and which makes it difficult for him or her to function properly in
society
Exceptional People
 differ from societal and community standards of normalcy
 have learning or behavioral problems and physical and sensory disabilities
 are intellectually gifted
The characteristics that make a person exceptional may have been acquired from birth, through a medical condition, or through an accident.
Exceptional People: Challenges and Problems
Exceptional people, the disabled, or the intellectually gifted, encounter challenges and issues in dealing with other members of the society.
Here are some common problems and challenges that exceptional people experience.
Overcoming Challenges and Problems

In the Philippines, despite the passage of Republic Act 7277 or the Magna Carta for People with Disabilities (PWDs) in 1991, there are still
significant barriers that keep exceptional people from fully participating in society
including the stigma surrounding disability and society’s poor understanding of the abilities and aspirations of exceptional people. However, the
government, private sectors, media, and some concerned groups have been working together to solve these existing problems.
Here are some ways on how both private and public sectors have been helping them.
The picture below shows the International Symbol of Access (ISA). It is found in locations or spots that are designated for all persons with
disabilities.
Explore!
Aside from those already mentioned, what other rights and privileges do PWDs enjoy?
Try it!
Take note of areas where you see the ISA in malls and public transportations. Compare the number of these spots to the number of PWDs in the
Philippines. Are there enough areas reserved for them in the country?
What do you think?
Research on some notable persons with disabilities who made a difference in the world. What do you think made their achievements unique? What
do their accomplishments say about a person’s ―disability‖?
Keypoints
 Society categorizes people based on their characteristics, needs, desires, lifestyles, and challenges.
 Exceptionality refers to a characteristic of a person that makes him or her different from the established norms in society.
 Exceptional people are individuals who differ from societal and community standards of normalcy.
 Some of the problems and challenges that the exceptional people experience are discrimination, limited access to educational
opportunities, and isolation from society.
 Philippine Republic Act 7277 gives special rights and privileges to persons with disabilities (PWDs).
 The Internationl Symbol of Access (ISA) is placed in all areas that are reserved for PWDs, regardless of their disability.
 By law, all public schools in the Philippines are mandated to offer special education classes for all students with physical or learning
disabilities.
Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Nationality)
Objectives
 define nationality as a concept in cultural variation and social differences,
 explain different concepts regarding nationality, and
 discuss issues regarding nationality and statelessness.
 What is nationality and how is it related to nation and citizenship?
 What does Philippine law say about Filipino nationality?
 How does the United Nations Organization resolve issues regarding the right to have a nationality?
 What is statelessness? What happens to a stateless person?
Learn about it!
Nation, Nationality, and Citizenship
The line of distinction between the terms "nation" and "nationality" is quite thin. Most of the time, "nationality" and "citizenship" are used
interchangeably. However, it is important to note that these words do not mean the same thing and actually pertain to different concepts.
Nation
A nation is a large aggregate of people united by common descent, history, culture, language, and economic life through inhabiting a particular
country or territory.
Example:
The United Kingdom is a country inhabited mainly by people of four nations: English, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh.
A nation emphasizes a particular group of people, and a country emphasizes the physical dimensions and boundaries of a geographical area. On
the other hand, a state is a self-governing legal and political entity.
Nationality
 It is a person’s instinctive membership to a specific nation or country.
 It can be acquired by an individual from the country where he or she was born (jus soli).
 It can be acquired by an individual through his or her parents (jus sanguinis)
 An individual is a national of a particular country by birth. Nationality is acquired through inheritance from his or her parents.
 People with the same nationality often share the same language, culture, territory, and in some cases, ancestry. They share the same
rights and are protected by the same laws.
Citizenship
 It is a person’s legal and political status in a city or state, which means that an individual has been registered with the government in some
country.
 An individual becomes a citizen of a country only when he or she is accepted into that country’s political framework through legal terms.
Examples:
 An individual born in the Philippines has a Filipino nationality. He may, however, apply for citizenship in another country, should he wish to
(e.g. a Filipino national applying for citizenship in Mexico).
 Some people from European Union member countries may have European citizenships that are different from their nationalities (e.g. an
Italian national who is registered as a German citizen).
 No one will be able to change his nationality, but one can have a different citizenship.
Filipino Nationality
 The Philippine Nationality Law is based on the principles of jus sanguinis or "right of blood." Therefore, anyone with a parent who is a
citizen or national of the Republic of the Philippines can acquire Philippine citizenship. This is the primary method of acquiring citizenship.
 For people born in the Philippines to non-Filipino parents, the Administrative Naturalization Law of 2000 (R.A. 9139) provides an
avenue for administrative naturalization.
Issues Regarding Nationality and Statelessness
What are some issues concerning nationality and statelessness?
Right to a Nationality
 Every person has a right to a nationality.
 The right to a nationality is a fundamental human right. It is an individual’s right to acquire, change, or retain his or her nationality. Thus,
a country’s law cannot deprive a person the right to gain a nationality, in case he or she loses it.
Statelessness
 People who do not have a nationality are considered as stateless people.
 According to Article 1 of the 1954 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR), "a stateless person is someone who is not considered as a national by any State under the operation of its law."
 Most stateless people are considered "refugees," while others lose their nationalities due to war or conflict, or if their country is annexed by
another country and loses its sovereignty.
Case Study: Statelessness in Sabah
Most Filipinos living in Sabah, Malaysia are considered "stateless." Thus, they are not recognized as people with a nationality. They do not belong to
any country or nation.
Since Sabah is a contested territory between Malaysia and the Philippines, the people in Sabah experience problems in securing their nationalities.
Filipinos from nearby Sulu and Tawi-tawi, even those who are born in Sabah, are not recognized by the Malaysian government as Malaysians. They
are also denied of their Filipino nationality since they are not properly registered in the Philippines. As a result, they do not enjoy the rights and
privileges that citizens of either country enjoy.
This concern is also true in areas and territories under war and conflict.
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) handles all issues regarding refugees and stateless people. The role of UNHCR
is to identify stateless people and protect their rights, as well as prevent statelessness from happening all over the world. They also aid stateless
people in acquiring new citizenship in other countries.
Explore!
Do some research on the number of stateless people in the world, and list the reasons why they are considered stateless. How do you think can
other countries, like the Philippines, help them in their plight?
Try it!
Look for a foreigner living in the Philippines or a Filipino residing in another country. Ask them the same question: Do you want to be a Filipino
citizen? Why or why not? You can use social media to look for respondents.
What do you think?
Why do you think a lot of Filipinos migrate to other countries and give up their Filipino citizenship?
Keypoints
 Nationality is the person’s automatic membership to a specific nation while citizenship is a person’s political status in a city or state.
 No one will be able to change his or her nationality, but one can have a different citizenship.
 Every person has a right to a nationality because it is a fundamental human right.
 Statelessness is not having a nationality.
 The role of the UNHCR is to identify stateless people, protect their rights, prevent statelessness from happening all over the world, and aid
refugees in acquiring new citizenship in other countries.
Social, Political, and Cultural Behavior and Phenomena
Objectives
 recognize behavior and phenomena in society which are socially, politically, and culturally significant, and
 demonstrate curiosity and open-mindedness to explore the origins and dynamics of society, culture, and politics.
 How should members of society respond toward different social, political, and cultural behavior and phenomena?
 What is the proper attitude toward different social, political, and cultural behavior and phenomena?
Social Behavior and Phenomena
Social behavior and phenomena are broad and complicated sociological concepts. These involve every event between at least two individuals and
include all knowledge and experiences a person acquires in the entirety of his or her lifetime.
Social phenomena are the individual, external, and social constructions that influence a person’s life and development.
The table below shows some examples of social behavior and phenomena.
Political Behavior and Phenomena

In sociology, political behavior and phenomena include events through which authority, governance, and public opinion are put into practice.
A political behavior of a person or a group may be influenced by their political views, ideologies, and levels of political participation. An example of
an act of political behavior is the act of voting.
Political phenomena are not only limited to public offices as these also include how institutions like schools, churches, or companies are ran and
governed.
The table below shows some examples of political behavior and phenomena.
Cultural Behavior and Phenomena
Also known as the bandwagon effect, a cultural behavior is an event where certain individuals behave a certain way merely because other persons
do as well.
A cultural phenomenon happens when something or someone gains widespread popularity. However, it is noteworthy that it is not the subject that
is the cultural phenomenon but rather the process of becoming famous.
The table below shows some examples of cultural behavior and phenomena.
Interactions within Society

Social, political, and cultural behaviors and phenomena in the society are results of interactions within society. People talk and share stories. People
share ways of living among other things. People do things together and work for the attainment of the common good and social order. These
behaviors, be they usual or not, are natural responses to changes and ideologies developing within society as a result of constant interactions
between its members.
Explore!
 How should a person show curiosity about social, cultural, and political phenomena?
 Should people always be open to knowledge and experiences brought about by social, cultural, and political behaviors? Explain your
answer.
What do you think?
Is it possible for a person to gain knowledge and experiences without interacting with other members of society? Explain your answer.
Keypoints
 Social phenomena are the individual, external, and social constructs that influence a person’s life and development.
 Political behavior and phenomena include events through which authority, governance, and public opinion are put into practice.
 Cultural behavior is emphasized when certain individuals behave a certain way merely because other individuals do so as well.
Social, Political, and Cultural Change
Objectives
 define and explain social, cultural, and political changes,
 recognize common concerns or events within society on the phenomenon of change,
 explain the concept of social and cultural change and highlight the mechanisms, and
 analyze social, political, and cultural change within society.
How do changes in society take place?
Learn about it!
Social and Cultural Changes
Social change is the transformation of social institutions over time. Cultural change, on the other hand, is the transformation of culture or the way
people live.
Communication
 Communication is a vital human process. Through communication, people exchange information and thoughts.
 Nowadays, communication is made easier.
 Nowadays, people can share information in just a click. New media
social networking, text messaging, e-mail, and the like
 have defied time and distance.
 While it makes the world seem borderless, this form of communication may produce individuals who lack the basic understanding of direct
and personal connections.
Transnational Families
 A transnational family is where one or both parents live and work in another country while the children remain in their country of origin.
 While these families remain secured financially, their members are also exposed to setbacks.
 Children who become overly unsupervised find themselves facing peer pressure, too much independence, and lack of family orientation.
These may result in alcohol or drug abuse, unwanted pregnancy, mood swings, or early marriage.
Political Changes
Political change happens when the rulers of a country lose power or when the type of governance in the country changes. Governance is the kind
of system or ideology used to express authority in a country. It may be a democracy, monarchy, oligarchy, and others.
Local Public Services
Local public services are provided by the government to people living within its jurisdiction, either directly (through the public sector) or by financing
the provision of services.
Youth Volunteerism
Volunteerism is the use or involvement of a volunteer or free labor in community services.
Mechanisms of Changes
There are different mechanisms or tools involved in social and cultural changes.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the process through which the cultural traits of one society are borrowed, transmitted, and adopted by another and considered as its
own.
Examples:
 Migration
 Globalization
Invention
 Invention is the process where new cultural elements are created to solve social and cultural problems.
 Example: Internet
 Discovery
 Discovery is the process where people recognize or gain a better understanding of already existing elements present in the environment.
 Example: Scientific research
Changes within Society
Change is said to be constant. It is inevitable. It is expected to happen. The big question, however, is what makes it happen? Of course, there are
many factors—social, political, or cultural.
Along with time, persons, environments, and ideologies change. People move in and move out. People live and die. People's stories and
experiences change. People make discoveries and innovations.
The environment changes as well—nature, water, earth, minerals, climate, seasons, sources of raw materials, and energy.
New knowledge replaces old ones. Slavery has been banned. Civil rights were granted to those who were once deprived of them. Same-sex
marriage is on its way to worldwide recognition. Nothing is permanent but change, so they say.
All these contribute significantly to changes people experience socially, politically, and culturally.
xplore!
How should a person react to changes within society? Is it with acceptance or with reservation? Explain your answer.
Try it!
Cite three societal changes. Cite one for each: social, political, and cultural changes. Identify their positive and adverse effects.
Changes within Society
1.
2.
3.
What do you think?
Is change constant? If yes, what makes it consistent in society?
Keypoints
 Social change is the transformation of social institutions over time.
 Cultural change is the transformation of culture or the way people live.
 Political change happens when the rulers of a country lose power or when the type of governance in the country changes.
 Diffusion is the process through which the cultural traits of one society are borrowed, transmitted, and adopted by another and considered
as its own.
 An invention is a process where new cultural elements are created to solve social and cultural problems.
 Discovery is the process where people recognize or gain a better understanding of already existing elements present in the environment.
 Changes are inevitable. Therefore, all changes socially, politically, and culturally must be for the benefit of all.
The Study of Culture, Society, and Politics
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 recognize the importance of the study of culture, society, and politics, and
 identify the subjects of inquiry and goals of anthropology, political science, and sociology.
 What is the significance of having scientific knowledge about culture, society, and politics?
 How do the disciplines of anthropology, political science, and politics help us understand and make decisions in society?
Learn about it!
The Study of Culture, Society, and Politics
Culture is the focus of anthropology, society is for sociology, while politics is for political science. These are disciplines of the social sciences.
The goal of having these disciplines is to prepare people for active and responsible civic engagement through the development of critical thought.
Exposure to these areas of discipline exposes its learners to the following:
 social diversity and inequality,
 self-reflective knowledge and practice,
 appreciation of complexity, and
 advocacy for social change and order.
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humans and their society in the past and present. Dealing with what makes us human, anthropology delves into
objects and materials we have created, our interconnectedness and adaptability with environment, our lifestyle, our modes of communication, and
our understanding of the world around us.
Goals of Anthropology
 to describe and analyze the biological evolution of mankind
 to describe and assess the cultural development of our species
 to explain and analyze present-day human cultural similarities and differences
 to describe and explain human biological diversity today
Political Science
Political science is a social science discipline that deals with systems of government and the analysis of political activities
and political behavior. Primarily, it helps people gain an understanding of ―who gets what, when they get it, and how they get it.‖
Political science helps us understand politics, political institutions and behavior, public policy, and philosophical concepts, such as justice, equality,
fairness, and liberty, and how the said subject matters affect economy, public and private life, law, and public services.
Goals of Political Science

 for people to be immersed in current affairs
 to build an understanding of local, national, and international politics
 to assist people in learning how political activities are organized in and out of our country
 to provide substantially critical and scientific contribution to government and society
Sociology
Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. This discipline mainly focuses on society—its functions, its members, and its
diversity.
Specifically, sociology tackles the basic unit of the society—the family, the functionality and relevance of state as an important human institution,
social issues on religion, crime, race, social class, and the stability and instability of societies.
Goals of Sociology
 to guide in understanding intrapersonal factors
 to build a better understanding of mankind
 to aid in decision-making in the micro and macro level
 to gather systematic information from which to make a decision, provide insights into what is going on in a situation, and present
alternatives
Explore!
Why is it important for the study of culture, society, and politics to be included in the school curriculum?
Try it!
Cite three practical situations where knowledge of anthropology, political science, and sociology can be applied.
What do you think?
Which among the three social science disciplines is most relevant in your life?
Tips
 The study of culture, society, and politics will prepare people for active and responsible civic engagement through the development of
critical thought.
 Learning the areas of anthropology, sociology, and political science exposes its learners to social diversity and inequality, self-reflective
knowledge and practice, appreciation of complexity, and advocacy for social change and order.
Keypoints
 Anthropology is a social science discipline that studies humans and their society in the past and present.
 Political science is a social science discipline that deals with systems of government and the analysis of political activity
and political behavior.
 Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions.
Defining Culture and Society: The Perspectives of Anthropology and Sociology, Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics
Anthropological and Sociological Perspectives on Culture and Society
Objectives
 explain anthropological and sociological perspectives on culture and society, and
 describe society and culture as a complex whole.
 Why should people use different perspectives in recognizing the existence of culture and society?
 Why is culture said to be a product of society?
Learn about it!
Anthropology and Sociology
Humans are interesting subjects to study. The human story has a lot to say from their way of living to the associations they form. The two interrelated
scientific studies of society colloquially known as the twin social sciences are anthropology and sociology.
Anthropology
 Anthropology is the study of people throughout the world, their evolutionary history, how they behave, adapt to different environments,
communicate, and socialize with one another.
 Anthropology provides us with a big picture of what it means to be human.
 The study of anthropology is concerned with the biological features that make us human (such as physiology, genetic makeup, nutritional
history, and evolution) and their social aspects (such as language, culture, politics, family, and religion).
Sociology
 Sociology is the study of human institutions and their relationships. This discipline examines how human actions in modern societies are
shaped by social groups and by wider social, economic, and political pressures.
 Sociology’s subject matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the divisions of race and social class
to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social stability to radical change in whole societies.
Anthropological and Sociological Perspectives on Culture and Society
In sociology, society is the leading concept while culture is subordinate. In anthropology, on the other hand, culture comes first as a subject matter
followed by society.
Let us put the two concepts this way.
 When talking about culture, we are mostly talking about tangible factors which include language, technology, and institutions
, culture also has intangible aspects such as our values and behaviors. It also includes norms, the standards or rules of acceptable
behavior.
society, in terms of sociology, is a group of people living and interacting with one another to create a culture. Its population is bound by a shared
culture-beliefs, attitudes, languages, and institutions.
Society and Culture as a Complex Whole
Edward B. Tylor defined culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, art, belief, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and
habits acquired by man as a member of society."
 With this premise, it can be said that culture is a product of society. These two exist dependently on each other.
 Culture , just like every person in society, is susceptible to change or death.
 Society is not constant. Its members change from time to time. As a result, culture changes along. New trends exist. New technologies are
invented and new means of interaction have been created.
 People evolve over time as a result of their exposure to renewed or changed laws, values, and standards of society.
Explore!
Think about the different factors involved in shaping society and culture. How do they affect continuous societal and cultural changes?
Try it!
Identify three societies or groups of people. Write at least three characteristics for each group.
What do you think?
What is the dividing line between anthropology and sociology? Culture and society?
Keypoints
 Anthropology is the study of humans' evolutionary history and how people behave, adjust, communicate, and socialize in different
environments.
 Sociology is the study of human institutions and their interrelationships.
 Culture is a way of life of a group of people. It involves symbols, languages, values, and norms.
 Society is a community or group of people joined together by sustained bonds and interactions.
Aspects of Culture and Society I (Dynamic, Flexible, & Adaptive; and Shared & Contested)
Objectives
 define society and culture,
 explain the relationship of culture and society,
 identify aspects of culture and society,
 prove that culture is dynamic, flexible and adaptive,
 prove that culture is shared and contested, andIs there something unique that only your family does?
 Do you practice a certain custom or celebrate a special feast in your province?
 raise questions toward a holistic appreciation of cultures and societies.

Culture and Society
Culture and society are two different concepts. Each has its own meaning and function.
Culture
 According to Edward B. Tylor, culture is "that complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms,
artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a member of society."
 Culture also encompasses social institutions like the family, church, school, and government.
 Our culture defines who we are.
 Whatever it is that we do is part of our culture.
Society
 Society can be defined as the interaction among people where a common culture can be shared.
 Society can also refer to people from a particular place that shares the same culture.
 A common location may not just develop a common culture. It can also be formed by gender, shared beliefs, values, norms, or activities.
For example, people from Bicol love spicy food while people from Iloilo are known to be sweet and caring.
Can you identify a common cultural practice in your society?
The Relationship of Culture and Society
Culture and society are two closely related concepts. For culture to exist and to be developed, it needs human interaction. It needs people to interact
with one another, and it needs people to practice it continuously. Without a society practicing their common culture, the culture may cease to exist.
Culture is also essential to society because, without culture, society will be dull and will not continue to thrive. A society without culture is like a body
without a soul and vice versa. Culture and society need each other so they can both develop and prosper.
Aspects of Culture: Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive
There are different aspects of culture like art, music, language, food, daily life, clothing, and religion to name a few. These aspects of culture show us
that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive.
Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of society. It continuously restores itself whenever customs do not fit in the current
situation anymore. It does not remain stagnant.
Examples:
 In the aspect of music, we can see that music may change from time to time. The traditional music during the 1920s was mostly jazz,
ragtime, and broadway music while the popular music during the 1970s was disco music.
 Because we are now more inclined to use computers and tablets especially when playing games, some children are not able to play street
games anymore. This pushed some game developers to introduce Filipino street games as video games.
 When it comes to language, we can also see how culture adapts to changing times. We have already developed new words related to the
internet like memes, netizens, vines, and others.
Aspects of Culture: Shared and Contested
Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture is a shared learning experience. Because culture constantly
changes, we get to share the learning process with other people.
If culture is learned and shared, it is also contested in various ways and situations. Because of diversity, culture is subjected to debate and analysis.
Explore!
Observe your interaction with your classmates. Try to identify what common culture you and your classmates share that made you become friends.
Try it!
Try to ask your parents about popular songs and dances during their teenage years. Find out how different they are from yours and how much they
have changed.
What do you think?
What do you think the Philippine culture will be twenty years from now?
Tips
 Our society needs to preserve and promulgate our indigenous culture so that we can maintain our identity as a nation.
 Culture changes and adapts to current society, but that does not mean that our traditional culture should be forgotten.
 Different cultures exist in the world, but there is no culture greater than another. We should learn to accept our differences, help other
cultures learn ours, and learn other cultures as well.
 We should not judge the customs, norms, and beliefs of others because those are part of their unique culture.
Keypoints
 Culture is a set of behaviors that we have absorbed. It is a set of characteristics that help us relate and bond with other people.
 Society is a group of individuals coming from the same place and shares the same culture.
 It is crucial to preserve and promulgate our culture and traditions if we want to keep them alive. We are facing lots of changes,
developments, and technological advances today that we tend to forget to look back on our old culture and traditions.
 Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It changes based on the current situation of society. Culture continuously restores itself so it
will remain relevant.
 Culture is best learned when it is shared. There are a lot of cultures that exists in our world. We need to share our unique culture with
others to get to know theirs and also spread ours.
 While it is learned and shared, culture is also contested. Because of diversity, culture is subject to debate and analysis.
Aspects of Culture and Society II (Learned Through Socialization/Enculturation and Transmitted Through Socialization/Enculturation)
Objectives
 define socialization and enculturation,
 discuss the different agents of socialization,
 prove that culture is learned and transmitted through socialization or enculturation, and
Recall the very first person you interacted with. Do you think he or she affected the development of your personality?
Review!
Aspects of Culture
There are different aspects of culture such as art, music, language, food, daily life, clothing, and religion.
Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive
Shared and Contested
 Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture is a shared learning experience. Because culture
constantly changes, we get to share the learning process with other people.
 If culture is learned and shared, it is also contested in different ways and situations. Because of diversity, culture is always subjected to
debate and analysis.
Learn about it!
Socialization and Enculturation
Society is different from culture. Within a society are many diverse cultures. While the members of society share many of the same expectations and
experiences, the cultural groups create some that differentiate them from others in the community.
Socialization
Socialization is the process through which people learn to understand societal norms or expectations and societal values as members of society.
Enculturation
Enculturation is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture he or she is immersed in.
Learn about it!
Agents of Socialization
There are different agents of socialization−the family, community, mass media, and religion.
Family
 The family is the first social group that we all have. It is considered as the most important social group that a person has. It is also the
principal agent of socialization.
 We first start to learn things with the help of our parents and family. They are the main source of our traits and behaviors, the values,
norms or rules that we follow, and the ideas we initially believe in.
Community
 Outside our homes, we get to interact with people and institutions from our community. One them is the school. In schools, we become
exposed to ideas, values, norms, and behaviors that may be different from what we learn from our family.
 We also get to interact with other people from our community who become our peers. Research shows that since children and teenagers
spend most of their time with peers, peer groups can create youth sub-culture (Mondal, 2015).
 Our peers can also influence us with the different norms, values, and behaviors that they got from their families.
Mass Media
 One of the biggest influences in our culture is mass media which come in the form of television, movies, books, magazines, and social
networking sites. Mass media plays a major role in shaping the culture and behavior of an individual (Mondal, 2015).
 Unfortunately, both good and bad behaviors can be learned through mass media. It is important that the the youth remain supervised
whenever they are accessing all forms of media.
Religion
Another social agent is religion. Through the family, one is immediately exposed to the teachings of religion. It helps shape and equip individuals
with the attitudes and behaviors that are deemed appropriate.
Learn about it!
Aspects of Culture
We have learned that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It is also shared and contested in various ways and situations.
Aside from these characteristics, there are also other aspects of culture as discussed below.
Learned through Socialization or Enculturation
Socialization is an ongoing process of learning languages, behaviors, customs, values, norms to acquire a personal identity. It helps us learn
culture. Socialization also allows us to interact with others and helps us develop the behaviors that we think are inborn or part of human nature. It is
an essential part of building our character and preserving, spreading, and strengthening our culture.
Another way of learning other cultures is called enculturation. For example, your friend migrated to America with her family. You noticed on her
Facebook that after three months of being in America, she started to act and look differently and she is using some slang words you only hear
Americans say. This is the process of enculturation. Your friend is slowly starting to adapt to the American culture because it is necessary so she
would fit in.
Transmitted through Socialization or Enculturation
Culture can also be transmitted from one person to another, and even from one society to another. One good example of this is the transmission of a
culture of the Spanish to the Filipinos during the Spanish colonization. The transfer of Spanish culture to the Filipinos is done through both
socialization and enculturation. We learned their culture by socializing with them through the church and the schools they established.
Explore!
Do you notice that when you stay at one place for a period of time, you unknowingly learn some of its culture?
For example, you went to Vigan during your summer break. After two weeks, you start to understand their dialect, Ilocano, and speak a little of it.
Can you explain why?
Try it!
Try observing a culture different from yours. Try exploring the culture of a classmate that comes from a different province or has a different religion.
What do you think?
Do you think social media significantly affects and influences our culture nowadays?
Tips
 The people or groups you socialize with will greatly affect your behavior because you learn most of it from them.
 Socialization begins during childhood, right after a person is born. The first group that teaches about socialization is the family.
 Throughout your life, you will get to interact with a lot of different people from different cultures. You will learn different behaviors, norms, or
values from them. It is up to you to identify what you will keep or practice and what you will reject.
 Not all acquired behaviors are helpful. Some learned behaviors can be destructive in the long run.
Keypoints
 Enculturation is the process of adopting the behavior patterns of the culture in which a person is immersed in.
 Socialization is an ongoing process of learning languages, behaviors, customs, values, or norms to acquire a personal identity.
 There are different agents of socialization that aid in acquiring and learning a specific culture. These include the family, school, peer
groups, mass media, andreligion.
 Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It is also shared and contested in various ways and situations.
 Culture is learned and transmitted through socialization and enculturation.
Aspects of Culture and Society III (Patterned Social Interaction, Integrated and at Times Unstable, Requires Language, and Other Forms of
Communication)
Objectives
 explain the different patterns of social interaction,
 prove that culture is a patterned social interaction, integrated and unstable, and requires language for social interaction, and
How are your interactions influenced by culture?
Review!
Aspects of Culture
Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive, may be shared and contested, and transmitted through socialization and enculturation.
Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive
Shared and Contested
Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture is a shared learning experience. Because culture constantly
changes, we get to share the learning process with other people. However, culture is also contested in different ways and situations. Because of
diversity, culture is always subjected to debate and analysis.
Learned through Socialization or Enculturation
Socialization is an ongoing process of learning languages, behaviors, customs, values, norms, and others to acquire a personal identity. It helps us
learn the culture. Socialization also teaches us how to interact with other people and helps us develop the behaviors that we think are inborn or part
of human nature.
Transmitted through Socialization or Enculturation
Culture can also be transmitted from one person to another and even from one society to another. One example of this at the m icro level is the
transmission of an old family recipe from one generation to the next. This can be done through both socialization and enculturation.
Aspects of Culture
We have learned that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive, shared and contested in various ways and situations, and learned and transmitted
through socialization or enculturation.
Let us continue to identify some aspects of culture.
Patterned Social Interaction
Socialization helps us acquire both good and bad parts of our culture. How do we identify the good and the bad?
There are five patterns of social interaction−exchange, cooperation, competition, conflict, and coercion.
Exchange
Exchange or social exchange is the expectation that whenever we do something good, we will receive something good in return (Thompson and
Hickey, 2005, p.129). It is the most basic pattern of socialization.
Example: You help your mother wash the dishes so that she will let you come to your friend's sleepover.
Cooperation
Cooperation is when people or groups of people work together to achieve a common goal. Cooperation is considered to be essential for human
survival because, without cooperation, social life would be unmanageable (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).
Example: A husband and a wife should cooperate in raising their children. Without it, their children will not grow up the way they want them to.
There are also negative social interactions that are necessary in order to develop and sharpen behavior and culture.
Competition
Competition may be viewed as the opposite of cooperation. Instead of working together towards a common goal, competing individuals or groups
battle to achieve the target that only one can have (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).
Example: You studied and practiced hard and eventually won. Even if you had lost, at least you were still able got to enhance your spelling skills.
Conflict
Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by force, or hurt other people just to achieve their goals. However, conflict is not always
considered bad. The existence of a conflict can strengthen the unity within a group because it is threatened by an external factor (Thompson and
Hickey, 2005, p.129).
Example: You and your sibling fight over the TV almost every night, but when conflict arises between you and your parents, you and your sibling
team up.
Coercion
Coercion happens when there is a use of threat or force in persuading others. People usually coerce other people when they cannot achieve their
goals on their own.
Example: You force your brother to do your chores by threatening him that you will tell your mother that he failed his exam.
Learn about it!
Requires Language for Social Interaction
In every interaction, language is the most important tool that is always used.
 Language is the transporter of a large part of our culture because some parts of our culture are passed on through our mouths. There are
no written records (Young, 1930).
 We can do social interaction through the use of language.
 Language is not only restricted to verbal language. It is also used in non-verbal communication or body language during interaction. For
example, our first interaction with a friend is usually with a smile. This shows that language, whether verbal or non-verbal, can help us
learn and acquire culture.
Learn about it!
Integrated and at Times Unstable
The patterns of social interaction are connected to each other and may change from time to time. The type of our social interaction may change. A
simple social exchange may lead to cooperation. A small competition may result in a big conflict.
Example: You and your sibling fight over little things almost every day. When you came to school the next day, you saw your sibling being bullied by
his classmates. You immediately came to his aid, supported each other, and stopped the bullies. This scenario shows that even if you and your
sibling fight almost every day, you will still opt to unite in times of need.
Explore!
Social interaction is a part of our everyday lives. Observe your activities for the day. You will notice that in everything that you do, you get to interact
with another person. Your interaction varies from day to day. This shows how the patterns of social interaction are integrated or connected with each
other.
Try it!
Try staging a little competition among you and your friends. Observe everyone's behavior while the game is ongoing. Also see if alliances will be
formed along the way or the initial competition will turn into cooperation or conflict.
What do you think?
How will culture prosper if language will cease to exist?
Tips
 Social exchange as a pattern of social interaction is not always active. Sometimes, when we do harm to others, we already anticipate that
they will do something wrong to us in return.
 Competition is not always negative as well. There are also good games that push us to do our best to win and, in the process, enhance our
skills.
 Conflict may result in hostility between the conflicting parties, but may lead to unity and cooperation among the members of the same
group.
 Our social interactions are integrated so it varies depending on the situation. We may be friendly and cooperative towards one person
today, but this might change when we feel threatened.
Keypoints
 Social interaction is the mutual influence of two or more people on each other’s behavior.
 There are five patterns of social interaction: exchange, cooperation, competition, conflict, and coercion.
 Exchange or social exchange is our expectation that whenever we do something good, we will receive something good in return.
 Cooperation is when people or groups of people work together to achieve a common goal.
 Competition is when individuals or groups battle to achieve the goal that only one can have.
 Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by force, or hurt other people just to achieve their goals.
 Coercion happens when a person uses threats or force to persuade another person.
 Language is an essential part of social interaction. Without language, we will find it difficult to interact with other people.
 Some parts of the patterns of our social interaction are integrated. This connection affects our behavior towards other people.
 Our social interactions are also unstable. It may change depending on the situation we are in. We may be in conflict with one person today
but may become friendly with him or her in other situations.
 Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive, shared and contested in various ways and situations, learned and transmitted through
socialization or enculturation, patterned on social interactions, integrated and at times unstable, and requires language for social
interactions.
Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism
Objectives
 discuss the differences of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism,
 explain why and how cultural relativism mitigates ethnocentrism, and
 explain the importance of cultural relativism in the proper understanding of cultures of other societies.
 How should we view and understand different cultures?
 How can cultural relativism help us better understand and evaluate other cultures?
Learn about it!
Ethnocentrism
People have a tendency to judge or evaluate other cultures in the context of their own culture. Language, behavior, customs, or religion, which are
understandably unique for every culture are the common subjects of these judgments. Sociologically speaking, this ideology or tendency is known
as ethnocentrism.
Ethnocentrism is the idea that one’s own culture is above or superior than others'. It is also the belief that one's own culture is the main standard by
which other cultures may be measured or understood. Ethnocentrism is failing or refusing to see the world and its aspects in a wider or
encompassing perspective. It may cause people to practice bias and intolerance.
Seeing the belief and behavior of others which are different from yours as brutish, confusing, or unbecoming is an ethnocentric thought or behavior.
The tendency to be avoidant, doubting, or questioning towards members of another culture is also a manifestation of ethnocentrism.
Learn about it!
Cultural Relativism
Not all people are ethnocentric. There are those who use wider perspectives in associating their culture from another’s. There are people who accept
and respect the evident differences of members of the society. When people recognize that each culture is naturally different from others, that
is cultural relativism. Cultural relativism does not mean that we should immediately accept and tolerate cultural differences. Instead, it requires
understanding the culture of other people in their own cultural context that is free from another’s biases.
Cultural relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on their cultural context, and should be treated as such. According to
Franz Boas (1887), "...civilization is not something absolute, but ... is relative, and ... our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization
goes."
With cultural relativism, it is suggested that the way people live should be evaluated not based on their own cultural context but on the social
community the people themselves inhabit. Cultural relativism means respect and tolerance.
In conducting their sociological studies, social scientists are recommended to practice or show cultural relativism. There should be no reservations
and blind opinions while they are immersed in the community of their subjects. One may also practice this concept by learning and recognizing that
there are reasons or cultural significance of why people of a certain community act and talk the way they do.
Learn about it!
How Cultural Relativism Mitigates Ethnocentrism
It is believed that each person, in one way or another, possesses an ethnocentric attitude or behavior. There is nothing wrong with having such
because, unlike social scientists or anthropologists, not all people are equipped with sufficient knowledge and exposure to cultures across the globe,
thus, the hardship in understanding and tolerating others' acts and values. However, we also have to recognize that ethnocentric behavior, if not
controlled, may cause trouble to oneself, especially in this modern time when everyone calls for social or cultural inclusion.
Historically, colonialism was justified by ethnocentrism. When Europeans reached the areas populated by the natives whom they considered as
uncivilized and savage, they saw the promise to civilize and tame them through religion (Christianity) and colonialism. Despite its advantages, we
can say that the Age of Exploration changed the course of world history in a way which deprived the conquered.
It is widely believed in the field of sociology that ethnocentric behavior may be mitigated through the recognition and application of cultural relativism.
A person can practice cultural relativism by recognizing that culture shapes what is considered to be beautiful, ugly, appealing, disgusting, virtuous,
funny, and abhorrent, and that these should not be the basis for evaluating other cultures. Cultural relativism shapes our understanding of different
issues in the society−as to why certain religions believe in this and others do not, or how come this group eats this type of dish, wears this weird
clothing, sings and dances along to music while others prefer not to. What we need is an open heart and an unbiased and critical mind, exposure,
education, and involvement in activities, and programs supporting and recognizing the uniqueness and beauty of every culture for us to truly grasp
what cultural relativism means.
Explore!
What actions can social institutions present to promote cultural relativism and mitigate ethnocentrism?
Try it!
Give three personal stories wherein you have shown or practiced ethnocentrism or cultural relativism.
What do you think?
Is it possible for a society to have individuals who do not practice ethnocentrism?
Keypoints
 Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture is the main standard by which other cultures may be measured. It is also the tendency
to think of one’s culture as superior to other cultures.
 Cultural relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on their cultural context, and should be treated as such. It
calls for an unbiased evaluation and understanding of other cultures.
 Recognizing and applying cultural relativism mitigates ethnocentrism.
Forms of Tangible and Intangible Heritage
Objectives
 identify forms of tangible and intangible heritage and the threats to these, and
 recognize the importance of tangible and intangible forms of heritage in writing down our heritage and history.
What critical roles do tangible and intangible heritage play in the quest for knowing our heritage?
Learn about it!
Cultural Heritage
Legacy is what remains after one’s time. Handed down from one generation to another, legacy magnifies one’s life and living. It is said that legacy is
what cultural heritage is.
According to John Feather, cultural heritage is a human creation intended to inform.
Examples:
 architectures such as buildings, houses, and structures
 artifacts like books, documents, objects, images, clothing, accessories, and jars
 things that make people who they are, like oral stories, values, laws, norms, rituals, and traditions
Cultural heritage helps historians and archaeologists understand and decipher the way of living people of yesterday had. Through these objects, we
are presented with facts and figures which help us draw the landscape of the world as it once was.
Learn about it!
Tangible and Intangible Heritage
Cultural heritage is a representation of the ways of living established by a society or a group that is passed on from generation to generation. Cultural
heritage can be categorized as either tangible or intangible.
Tangible
Tangible means perceptible, touchable, concrete, or physical. A tangible heritage is a physical artifact or object significant to the archaeology,
architecture, science, or technology of a specific culture.
Objects that can be stored are included in this category, such as:
 traditional clothing,
 utensils (e.g. beadwork, water vessels),
 vehicles (e.g. the ox wagon),
 documents (e.g. codes, laws, land titles, literature), and
 public works and architecture built and constructed by a cultural group (e.g. buildings, historical places, monuments, temples, graves,
roads, bridges).
Intangible Heritage
Intangible is the opposite of tangible. Unlike tangible heritage, an intangible heritage is not a physical or concrete item. Intangible heritage is that
which exists intellectually in the culture.
Intangible heritage includes:
 songs,
 myths,
 beliefs,
 superstitions,
 oral poetry,
 stories, and
 various forms of traditional knowledge such as ethnobotanical knowledge.
Learn about it!
Threats to Tangible and Intangible Heritage
There was a time in contemporary history when museums were in constant search and in a hurry to look for historical materials to display. Due to the
increase in demand for cultural materials, opportunists saw this as an avenue to earn money. They invented materials and claimed that these were
excavated or unearthed and were once owned by a cultural group.
 Documents whose authenticity are yet to be determined include the Hitler diaries, crystal skulls of Mesoamerica (tangible), and the status
or story of Saint Nicholas' companion, Black Peter (intangible).
 Authenticity or truthfulness of origin, attributes, and intentions of cultural heritage are one of the issues concerning the sources of our
culture.
 Aside from authenticity issues, preservation, or the act of making a cultural heritage last and exist, is also a primary concern.
Learn about it!
Preservation of Cultural Heritage
In comparison to intangible heritage, tangible heritage possesses qualities and properties which make it easier to recover and preserve. Despite this,
it is noteworthy that they remain susceptible to perishing over time especially if not given proper attention.
The government should work on implementing and enriching existing national policies, projects, training, and researches promoting the preservation
of our cultural heritage. It is true that intangible heritage is harder to preserve, but it should still be given equal attention like what is given to tangible
heritage.
Each nation should take part in maintaining cultural identity and making it a vital driving force for social progress. This objective is cited in the
Convention on the Protection of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
According to UNESCO, ―heritage is our legacy from the past, what we live with today, and what we pass on to future generations. Our cultural and
natural heritage are both irreplaceable sources of life and inspiration.‖ Indeed, whatever we had yesterday is our present, and whatever we make out
of it will be the foundation of our future. We better ensure that it is well taken care of.
Explore!
What actions can social institutions consider to preserve our tangible and intangible heritage?
Try it!
Give three materials or specific samples of either tangible or intangible heritage. Give a short background about each object.
What do you think?
―Without document or proof, there is no history.‖ Agree or disagree?
Keypoints
 Cultural heritage is a representation of the ways of living established by a society or a group and passed on from generation to
generation.
 Tangible heritage is a physical artifact or objects significant in the archaeology, architecture, science, or technology of a particular culture.
It includes buildings, historic places, monuments, etc.
 Intangible heritage is that which exists intellectually in culture. It includes oral traditions, social practices, performing arts, rituals, festive
events, etc.
 Authenticity is the truthfulness of origin, attributes, and intentions of cultural heritage.
 Preservation or the act of making a cultural heritage last and exist should be a top priority of the government.
Human Biocultural and Social Evolution, Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics
Biological Evolution of Man
Objectives
 trace the biological evolution of early to modern humans, and
 recognize national, local, and specialized museums, and archaeological and historical sites as venues to appreciate and reflect on the
complexities of biocultural and social evolution as part of being and becoming human.
 What does the biological evolution of man refer to?
 How can we trace the biological evolution of early to modern humans?
 What physical and biological factors have greatly developed throughout the evolution of the human species?
Learn about it!
Biological Evolution of Man
The current biological makeup of humans has long and complex origins. The biological evolution of man refers to the long evolutionary history of
the human species from primates to its current form, the Homo sapiens. Evolution is not an overnight phenomenon. It took millions of years to end
up with the specific set of biological traits that humanity presently has. In this lesson, the origin, factors, and developments involved in this
evolutionary process will be discussed.
The Meaning and Significance of Human Evolution
Evolution is the process of developing physical and biological change in a species over a period of time. Natural changes and events forced species
to adapt to the environment while some faced extinction for being unable to do so. In this case, modern humans, belonging to the genus Homo, are
seen as by-products of events and processes that occurred in the past.
Human evolution, however, must not be seen as a linear process. Scientists argued that human evolution developed much like the branches of a
tree wherein each branch extends into smaller, more specific stems. It just so happened that among all stems, only one evolutionary profile—the
current human being—was able to adapt and further develop.
Learn about it!
The Transition from Early to Modern Humans
The biological transition of humans from its earliest state to its current physical and biological makeup took millions of years to complete. Despite
this, scientists, through the help of archaeological pieces of evidence and modern technology, were able to identify and distinguish distinct
transitional stages of human evolution. These stages are described below.
Learn about it!

The Significance of Artifactual Evidences in Understanding Evolution
Artifactual evidences are the only source of knowledge in understanding the lifestyle and the developments that occurred in each transitional stage
of human evolution. Early human species were discovered through fossils which are remains preserved in rock. Scientists study the structure,
shape, and development of skeletal properties including head shape and teeth to determine biological differences across early to modern species.
Artifactual evidences can also include tools that are used for hunting and gathering or symbolic writing found in caves. As mentioned previously,
these were used by the Homo erectus, though scientists are still hoping to find further evolutionary data on other species. Below are some authentic
examples of artifactual evidences that greatly contributed in understanding human evolution.
 An antelope leg bone with cut marks was recently discovered in Africa. This prehistoric tool served as evidence for early hunting practices
and carnivorous diet among early stone-tool making humans, the Oldowan hominin.
 A cave discovered in South Africa filled with carbonized leaves and grasses made archaeologists believe that cooking food was practiced
among early humans.
Learn about it!
Appreciating the Past through the Present
It is important for modern humans to learn about their origins and developments. Nowadays, technological advances has made delving into the past
more accessible. Interactive and national museums, for example, make great venues for learning more about the prehistoric past. The great
biological evolution that the human species has been through is complex and developmental. As human beings, we are called to understand and
appreciate these advances.
Explore!
The development of humans have persisted for millions of years. These evolutionary processes have been greatly influenced by natural
phenomenon such as climate change, natural disasters, or the development of other species. Through research, explore how these natural
phenomena might have affected human evolutionary development.
Try it!
Visit the National Museum or any museum near your area of residence. Immerse yourself in the archaeological findings featured in the museum.
Since the museum has several sections, it is highly recommended that you devote time to visit each area. Note the differences in biological makeup
and lifestyle of different human species featured at the galleries.
What do you think?
Is there a possibility of finding evidence for a new human species that existed in the past? Why? Why not?
Tips
 Human evolution always moves forward. It is unlikely that humans will regress in terms of physical and biological makeup in the coming
centuries.
 Note that before the existence of the genus Homo, the Australopithecines first emerged. They are the earlier part of human evolutionary
transition.
Keypoints
 Evolution is the process of developing physical and biological change in a species over a period of time.
 Human evolution must not be seen as a linear process, but rather as branches wherein each branch extends into smaller, more specific
stems.
 The transition from early to modern humans included the Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo sapiens from the genus Homo.
 Fossils are artifactual remains that were preserved in rock.
Cultural Evolution of Man
Objectives
 explain the concept of cultural evolution, and
 trace the cultural evolution of early to modern humans.
 What is cultural evolution?
 How can we trace the cultural evolution of early to modern humans?
Learn about it!
Mobile phones are already part of our everyday lives. In a way, they represent technological advancements due to constant changes in their key
features.
This evolution and development of mobile phones only show how culture changes through time. From the early writings of the cuneiform up to the
present features of the different units of smartphones and tablets, we can say that the way of life of people constantly changes. This concept is
called cultural evolution.
What is Cultural Evolution?
Cultural evolution explains the changes in the beliefs, knowledge, customs, skills, attitudes, and languages of humans over time. It proposes that
as humans transform themselves, their culture becomes progressively complex due to social, environmental, and biological factors.
The cultural evolution of early humans can be traced back to the beginning of the Stone Age when they started creating and using tools made out of
stones. This is the earliest known period of human culture which started roughly 2-3 million years ago and ended around 6000 and 3000 BCE. This
period is also known as theprehistoric period because writing was not yet invented during this time. It is divided into three separate periods:
 Old Stone Age (Paleolithic),
 Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), and
 New Stone Age (Neolithic).
Learn about it!
Paleolithic Period
The Paleolithic period is the first phase of the Stone Age. This period started the creation and use of crude stone tools which are the most primitive
among the three periods. The word "paleolithic" is derived from the Greek words palaios (old) and lithos (stone) to collectively mean "old stone age."
The early humans who existed during this period showed their skills with fire and stones that changed their diet and food consumption. Hunting and
fishing were the primary activities of the early humans during the Paleolithic period. They also had their religious rituals based on nature and
developed their own language based on sounds and hand signals.
Learn about it!
Mesolithic Period
The Mesolithic period is the second phase of the Stone Age. It was considered as the transition period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic
periods. The word "mesolithic" is derived from the Greek words mesos (middle) and lithos (stone) that collectively mean "middle stone age."
Early humans during this period gradually domesticated plants and animals. They also started to form their own settlements and communities.
Hunting, fishing, and food gathering were the primary activities of the early humans. They also started to use microliths or smaller and more delicate
stone tools.
Learn about it!
Neolithic Period
The word "neolithic" was derived from the Ancient Greek words neos (new) and lithos (stone) that collective translates to "new stone age."
The Neolithic period started during the last phase of the Stone Age and at this point, modern humans started to exist. From being food gatherers,
they became food producers and introduced the concept of farming. They also became herders from being hunters during the Paleolithic and
Mesolithic periods. They crafted better stone tools and invented the axe. Pots and jars were evident during this period which served as their food
containers and storage. Modern humans also formed their permanent homes and started to have their own tribes and villages.
Explore!
Based on the development of human culture during the Stone Age and the previous lesson on biological evolution, who were the humans that
existed during the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods? What would be your justification or supporting evidence that these humans existed
during those periods?
Try it!
Make a table of the three periods of stone age and compare the different contributions of each stage. Why do you think these periods are important
in the study of the evolution of human culture?
What do you think?
Following the timeline of the cultural evolution from the Paleolithic period up to the Neolithic period, what do you think would be the next step of
human development?
Keypoints
 Cultural evolution is the idea that the human culture such as beliefs, knowledge, customs, skills, attitudes, and languages change over
time.
 The Stone Age was the earliest period in the evolution of human culture when the early humans started the use of weapons and tools
made out of stones.
 The Paleolithic period was the first stage of the Stone Age. In this age, the early humans began to use fire and stone tools. Hunting,
fishing, and other practices such as religious rituals based on nature and language based on sounds or hand signals also emerged during
this period.
 The Mesolithic period was the transition period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. It witnessed the gradual transformation of
human culture such as the domestication of plants and animals, formation of settlements and communities, and food gathering.
 The Neolithic period was the last stage of the Stone age. This period was when modern humans started to exist. Modern humans
introduced farming, started herding animals, and formed their permanent homes and settlements.
Sociopolitical Evolution of Man: Neolithic Revolution
Objectives
 trace the sociopolitical evolution of man from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of agriculture and settlement,
 discuss the implications of the Neolithic Revolution to the evolutionary process, and
 explore the significance of human material remains and artifactual evidence in interpreting cultural and sociopolitical processes.
From a prehistoric hunting and gathering society, modern society has indeed faced lots of changes and development.
How is modern society able to achieve its current form from such simple beginnings?
Learn about it!
Nature has greatly influenced primal lifestyle. As such, developments in human life also occurred in response to the natural environment. In this
lesson, a significant era of sociopolitical evolution will be tackled—the Neolithic Revolution.
The Neolithic Revolution
The Paleolithic period saw humans as hunter-gatherers in society. They were nomadic people who could easily transfer from one area to another to
hunt animals or gather plants for consumption and survival. This had been the practice until around 12,000 BCE when humans started to
domesticate animals and crops. This era of this newfound lifestyle is called the Neolithic Revolution.
From hunter-gatherers or nomads, people became farmers through domestication, the process of increasing human control in breeding animals or
plants to regulate certain traits that will make them useful for other human needs. The domestication of animals and plants implied that humans
stayed in a particular area to enable their resources to grow and expand. Some plants and animals utilized for domestication included wheat, barley,
corn, nuts, cattle, goats, and sheep.
One of the first Neolithic societies recorded in existence was Mesopotamia, which is at present, the country of Iraq. It was believed that it
concurrently existed with other Neolithic societies in China, the Americas, and Africa.
Learn about it!
Implications of the Neolithic Revolution to the Evolutionary Process
The Neolithic Revolution facilitated an economic and societal shift that paved the way for further developments in the early human lifestyle. As such,
advances in different aspects of human life started during this era.
Below are the implications of the Neolithic Revolution in sociopolitical, economic, and human development.
Sociopolitical Development
 The Neolithic revolution paved the way for the creation of civilization through permanent settlements dictated by reliable food supply.
 Development in domestication techniques and practices allow for a more complex society and the possibility for urbanization.
 With the emergence of towns and cities came the birth of trade and marketplaces. This led to the economy and a hierarchical society with
public leaders and castes.
 A form of social stratification was developed. This created the idea of inequality and ideas of social power and influence.
Economic Developments
 Because of the domestication of crops and animals, abundant supplies of food and resources were maintained.
 A selective breeding process of plants and animals that would allow for the development of new species was introduced.
Biological Developments
 There was increase in lifespan and human population across civilizations.
 People learned to play different social roles apart from being farmers (e.g. craftsman, priest, leader).
Learn about it!
Evidence for the Existence of the Neolithic Revolution
Some artifactual pieces of evidence prove the existence and success of the Neolithic revolution in influencing sociopolitical development.
Here are some actual evidences found to support the existence of this era.
 There were morphological changes among Neolithic people, including brain size and mandible and simple dietary changes from solely
eating plants to consumption of meat.
 A subterranean structure in Abu-Hureyra, Syria was found to have been built during the Neolithic Revolution and served as a communal
storage facility.
 Paleolithic people have fairly healthy teeth, but during the Neolithic Revolution, there was an increased caries rate. Neolithic teeth were
also more worn down and pitted, owing to hard inclusions from poorly grounded flour.
 Molleson (1994) has proven that there were changes in the bones of women that were task-related and associated with cereal grinding.
Explore!
Agriculture considerably expanded throughout the Neolithic revolution. Because of this era, domestication and pastoralism were discovered as
sustainable ways of living. Systems and tools were also developed. As such, civilization was formed.
In your perspective, what could have been the implication if the early humans did not discover the method of domestication and farming?
Try it!
Using a video streaming website, watch videos that detail the Neolithic Revolution and its significance in the development of societies. Try to note
the significant implications and contributions of the Neolithic Revolution to the present community and survival practices.
What do you think?
Why is the Neolithic period called a revolution?
Tips
 The shift from a hunting-gathering society to the Neolithic Revolution occurred gradually. It took thousands of years for this change to
happen.
 If you look at a map of early civilizations under the Neolithic period, you will notice that all early civilizations were situated near a body of
water. This was strategically done by early humans because bodies of water may also function as a source of food and other resources.
Keypoints
 The Neolithic Revolution was a period where agriculture and farming became prominent through plant and animal domestication.
 Domestication is the process of increasing human control in breeding animals or plants to regulate certain traits that will make them
useful for other human needs.
 One of the first Neolithic societies recorded in existence was Mesopotamiawhich is, at present, the country of Iraq.
 The Neolithic Revolution has sociopolitical, economic, and human implications to the evolutionary process.
 A form of social stratification was developed. This created idea of inequality and ideas of social power and influence.
 Many artifactual evidences prove the existence and success of the Neolithic revolution in influencing sociopolitical development.
Sociopolitical Evolution of Man: Early Civilizations and the Rise of States
Objectives
 trace the sociopolitical evolution of man from the rise of civilizations to the development of states,
 discuss the implications of the rise of civilizations and development of states to human biocultural and social evolution, and
 explore the significance of human material remains and artifactual evidence in interpreting cultural and social, including political and
economic, processes.
From a hunting-gathering lifestyle to a Neolithic society, major changes took place in terms of socioeconomic factors of early human life. Despite this
already drastic movement, human lifestyle continued to develop into more organized socioeconomic and political systems.
 What factors contributed to these changes?
 How did these developments influence future sociopolitical movements and policies?
Learn about it!
The Neolithic revolution, through the domestication of plants and animals, paved the way for the beginnings of early civilizations like Mesopotamia. In
this lesson, the development and implications of these civilizations will be discussed and explained.
The Rise of Civilizations
Civilizations began to develop during the Neolithic period when the early humans learned to settle in just one area to domesticate plants and animals
for survival. The first civilizations were found mostly in Asia, particularly in China and Mesopotamia, now Iraq. The latter was part of the Fertile
Crescent, an area in the ancient Middle East that is believed to be the ―cradle of civilization‖ and the birthplace of agriculture, urbanization, writing,
trade, and science due to its fertile land area. This area housed two bodies of water, the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, which were also valuable
resources for the early civilizations.
During these periods, civilizations were mainly agrarian societies that treated both genders equally as the first labor only involved farming,
domestication, and harvesting. Though this may be the case, social roles began to emerge, with some members of the community becoming priests
or priestesses, laborers, and farmers.
Learn about it!
The Development of States
In Mesopotamia, in the region of Sumer in 4,000 BCE, two significant developments took place that influenced the flow of the sociopolitical process
of the early civilizations.
These were:
 the rise of states, and
 the invention of writing.
Historians believe that these developments occurred because of trades among different regions. The early civilizations would have had some form of
writing to document or record traces of their products and deals.
During the Copper Age (5,900-3,200 BCE), the system of commerce grew with prosperity, leading to the development of cities and changes in
sociopolitical positions with some civilizations promoting a kingship to replace priestly rule. This was done to foresee the flow of trade and
negotiations with other regions. This era gave rise to numerous developments such as the invention of the wheel and the transition from the use of
stone tools to copper tools.
In 3,000-2,119 BCE, during the early Bronze Age, copper instruments were replaced with bronze tools. Along with this, the rise of city-states
continued to flourish, thereby laying out a foundation for economic and political stability. As a result, more empires, civilizations, and states began to
rise and develop.
Learn about it!
Implications of the Rise of Civilizations and States
The rise of civilizations and states led to urbanization, economic focus, political power, and material development. These changes allowed both
positive and negative implications that directly affected future developments in the sociopolitical evolution of men.
Below are some implications of the rise of civilizations and states.
 Warfare: Conflict and wars emerged among states as tension grew among them. Soon, professional armies and weaponry began to make
their appearance.
 Metalwork: A huge development in metalwork occurred along with the rise of civilizations and states. During this time, people began to
discover various raw materials, such as iron, copper, and bronze for making tools and weapons.
 Political system: Because of economic factors such as trading, leadership among city-states began to be more organized and developed.
With the kingship system replacing the priestly leaders, each state had its executive branch that centralized decisions and communications
with other states.
Learn about it!
Evidence for the Existence of Civilizations and States
Artifactual evidence prove the existence and occurrence of early civilizations and states.
Here are some of the actual evidences found to support the existence of this era.
 In 1922, archaeologist Sir Leonard Wooley discovered the remains of two four-wheeled wagons that dated back to the time of
Mesopotamia.
 Excavations in the 1840s revealed human settlements in Mesopotamia during 10,000 BCE.
Explore!
The developments within the Fertile Crescent, specifically in Mesopotamia, generated numerous contributions to contemporary lifestyle and
practices. Because of this, the early civilizations became an important aspect of history. It was during this period that an organized sociopolitical and
economic structure was established.
If you were an archaeologist, what aspect of the early civilizations would you prefer to focus on?
Try it!
Using clay and other art materials, create your structure of the early civilizations and states. You may choose one civilization (e.g. Mesopotamia) or
one area of early life (e.g. trading or farming). It is your prerogative to incorporate any structure that you think might exist during the period. Use your
learning in this lesson as a guide.
What do you think?
What form of sociopolitical development would have risen from the implications of the rise of states and civilizations?
Tips
 Mesopotamia, in Greek, translates to ―between two rivers‖. This translation refers to the rivers Tigris and Euphrates that surround the land.
 The Mesopotamian civilization existed even before the Egyptian civilization. After the Middle Eastern civilization began, Egyptian
civilization soon developed along the Nile River.
Keypoints
 The first civilizations were found mostly in Asia, particularly in China and Mesopotamia which is now Iraq.
 The Fertile Crescent is an area in the ancient Middle East that is believed to be the ―cradle of civilization‖ and the birthplace of agriculture,
urbanization, writing, trade, and science due to its fertile land area.
 In Mesopotamia, in the region of Sumer in 4,000 BCE, two important developments took place that influenced the flow of the sociopolitical
process of the early civilizations. These were the rise of states and the invention of writing.
 The implications of the rise of civilizations and states include warfare, developments in metalwork, and changes in political systems.
Sociopolitical Evolution of Man: Democratization
Objectives
 explain democratization as a sociopolitical evolution, and
 explore the significance of human material remains and artifactual evidence in interpreting cultural, social, political, and economic
processes.
 What is democratization?
 How did democratization start?
Learn about it!
The early civilizations created new environments, called city-states which introduced new developments in various aspects of life. What outcomes
have led to these continuous progress and ventures?
The rise of civilizations and city-states paved the way for the introduction of new developments during the Copper and Bronze Age. Now, we look at
how those impacted the following periods and developments.
Democracy and Democratization
Democratization refers to the spread or expansion of democracy.
Democracy means "rule by the people." The term comes from the Greek words demos, which means "people," and kratos, which means "rule."
While democracy is often traced back to the Greeks, particularly the Athenian democracy during 5th century BCE, a form of primitive democracy is
said to have existed during the hunting and gathering period in independent tribes.
The form of democracy during 500 BCE in city-states is said to be a form of direct democracy where citizens participate directly in decision-making.
On the other hand, the evolved form of democracy−**representative democracy**−that became widespread in nation-states is where officials are
elected to represent a group of people.
Learn about it!
Historical Path to a Democratic City-State
Agricultural developments in Asia and Africa eventually spread to the nearby civilizations of Greece and Rome. Both Greeks and Romans adapted to
the farming culture developed by the Mesopotamians, even following the latter’s sociopolitical structure of kingship. Eventually, they were able to
engage in trade as their resources highly developed and impacted socioeconomic growth.
Greece
 Societal status and groups began to develop:
o the king (bearing the highest position in all Greek city-states),
o the aristocracies and noblemen, then
o the farmers.
 Wars were already occurring between city-states, and tension grew between social classes.
 Greek kings had growing ambitions to transform themselves into wealth-laden rulers just like their predecessors from the Bronze Age.
 The need for power was not feasible as the primarily abundant metal during the period was iron, a relatively cheaper metal compared to
bronze. If the king sought greater power, he would not be able to do so easily since weaponry and machinery, primarily made of iron, were
much cheaper, and could be afforded by practically anyone within the city-state.
In 750 BC, with high tension and alarm over the intentions of the king, the noblemen gathered together and ousted him, leading to a successful
establishment of the first republics.
Learn about it!
The Beginnings of Democratization
The developments in the Greek city-states led to the birth of democracy and the rise of democratization in societies.
Oligarchy
 Greek Kings were deposed by the noblemen.
 City-states began to change the form of leadership into oligarchy where rulers were from aristocratic families.
 Because of inexpensive and accessible weaponry and the ongoing wars between city-states, even ordinary people like the farmers learned
to arm themselves and rebel against drastic changes.
 The oligarchic government ruled in favor of the noblemen and aristocracies, so ordinary people also used their collective power against an
abusive government.
Tyranny
 Since there were few noble people in government, city-states, in effect, were ruled by a tyrant, a positive term for a Greek leader that
means ―boss.‖
 Tyrants became effective in ensuring fair treatment for both land owners and farmers.
 For some time, peace and equality emerged among social classes.
 In the second generation of tyrant rule, however, the son of a tyrant made some wrong and abusive decisions that eventually lead to
another revolution, ousting the tyrant rule.
Birth of Democracy
 Because of the tyrant's abuse of power, intelligent leaders of Greek city-states proposed that power must be held by the common people.
 This led to the creation of a more broad-based constitution, eventually developing the city-states to have a democratic setting.
 In 594 BCE, Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event was considered as the rise of democracy in Greece.
It should be noted, though, that not all Greek city-states followed this ruling, especially the poorer, more backward areas. Still, the political change in
Greece soon led Rome to follow a democratic ruling thereafter.
Also, keep in mind that citizen participation in democratic decision-making during this time was limited to males and therefore, did not encompass the
total population.
Learn about it!
Significance and Implications of Democratization
The development of democracy led to changes that greatly impacted the ordinary people by reducing inequality and promoting fair treatment for all.
The beginnings of democratization in Greece laid a foundation for modern-day democracy.
Also, the establishment of a democratic government promoted more cultural and artistic implications that eventually distinguished Greek and Roman
civilizations from any other ancient civilization.
Below are some artifactual evidences of the artistic and cultural implications of democratization.
 Greek literature began its ascent as poet Homer created his epics, the Iliad and theOdyssey.
 Stone temples that appeared as early as 600 BC were improved through classical Greek structures upon the rise of democratization.
Explore!
Attaining democracy in Greek antiquity involved lots of shifts in leadership and political functions like kingship, oligarchy, and tyranny. If you were
living during this period, which among these forms of leadership would you have preferred to be part of? Why?
Try it!
The rise of democracy led to numerous cultural and artistic reforms among Greeks and Romans. Try to search videos or pictures of Greek and
Roman art. Compare them and cite commonalities and differences that you may observe.
What do you think?
The United States and the Philippines are democratic countries. How do you think citizens from these countries still affect or influence the decision-
making process that involves the welfare of these nations?
Keypoints
 In Greece, societal status and groups began to develop with the king bearing the highest position in all Greek city-states, followed by the
aristocracies and noblemen, then the farmers.
 In 750 BCE, with high tensions and alarm over the intentions of the king, the noblemen collectively acted on ousting him, leading to a
successful establishment of the first republics.
 It was in 594 BCE when Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event was considered as the rise of democracy in Greece.
 The establishment of a democratic government had cultural and artistic implications.
 Wars and tensions across Greece and between city-states were one of the primary factors in the rise of democracy.
Importance of Artifacts in Interpreting Social, Cultural, Political, and Economic Processes
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to explore the significance of human material remains and artifactual evidence in interpreting
cultural, social, political, and economic processes.
In your home, you have probably seen objects belonging to your great-great grandparents that were kept by your parents or other relatives. Like
artifacts, these objects help in describing or creating a picture of the past.
 What implications do these objects have at present
 What do they tell about the past?
 What role do artifactual pieces of evidence play in understanding early societies?
Learn about it!
Artifacts
Archaeologists have discovered artifactual pieces of evidences even dating back to the beginning of human evolution. As a result, present-day social
and biological scientists are able to open a window to what life was in the past. In this lesson, the significance and value of artifacts in several
aspects will be described and discussed.
Artifacts are objects made or modified by humans in the past. They are recovered after a long time through archaeological endeavor or by chance.
Apart from serving as windows to the past, artifacts are also deemed significant because they are tangible or authentic proof that a certain period in
history actually occurred.
Learn about it!
The Significance of Artifacts
Artifacts have significant contributions in interpreting social, cultural, political, and economic processes that occurred in the past. Their existence
proves and describes these aspects thoroughly. The discovery of artifacts and the understanding of various processes have provided a stable
foundation for the socioeconomic, political, and cultural growth that humans have come to recognize today.
Learn about it!

The Significance of Artifacts
Artifacts have significant contributions in interpreting social, cultural, political, and economic processes that occurred in the past. Their existence
proves and describes these aspects thoroughly. The discovery of artifacts and the understanding of various processes have provided a stable
foundation for the socioeconomic, political, and cultural growth that humans have come to recognize today.
Learn about it!
Importance of Artifact Preservation
There are various reasons why artifacts must be preserved and taken care of. Below are some of them.
 Artifacts are irreplaceable. Artifacts, being made hundreds, even thousands of years ago, are very delicate objects that cannot be
replaced by any available material in the present time.
 Artifacts are keys to understanding the past. Practices that occurred in the past would not have been known if not for the discovery of
artifacts.
 Artifacts give people a sense of identity. Artifacts greatly describe culture and society. They provide people with an opportunity to
further understand their identities and heritage, as well as some collective qualities that their culture may have.
 The past is yet to be fully discovered. Despite the seemingly great successes archaeologists have made in recent years, there is still
more to discover about history. Treating artifacts like pieces of puzzles will eventually provide a general picture of the past.
Learn about it!
Present-day “Artifacts” for the Future
Many advances have already been made and discovered within this century. It is logical to treat these discoveries as significant elements that can
help shape the future. As such, the technologies and developments that the world has today must also be well-preserved. These must be treated
with certainty that one day, these ―artifacts‖ will be discovered and be understood by future generations.
Explore!
Archaeologists hunt for artifacts for a period of months, some even extending up to several years. They proceed with their digs with caution to
eliminate the risk of damaging any artifact they may find. If you were to place yourself in an archaeologist’s shoes, would you be willing to sacrifice
so much time and effort to know about the past? Why? Why not?
Try it!
Create your own artifact by making a time capsule. Find a container that you can seal. In this container, put anything you want that may have a
significant value to you. You may put in letters, pictures, or toys. Be sure to firmly seal the container once you are done. Keep the container
somewhere safe. Set a specific date in the future when you will open your time capsule.
What do you think?
What could be the social implications if no artifact was ever discovered?
Tips
 Artifacts may consist of any tangible object that was originally part of the distant past but was recently discovered. They may include
bones, fossils, tools, and a lot more.
 Archaeologists are responsible for digging out artifacts. Anthropologists study an area’s culture. Together, they work to create a holistic
picture and identity of a certain group.
Keypoints
 Artifacts are objects made or modified by humans in the past. They are recovered after a long time through archaeological endeavor or by
chance.
 Artifacts have implications in the understanding of social, cultural, economic, and political processes.
 It is important to preserve artifacts because they are irreplaceable, help understand the past, and give people a sense of identity.
 Present-day discoveries and technologies will one day be artifacts for the future generation.
Becoming a Member of Society, Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics

Enculturation/Socialization: Identity Formation (Identities, Disciplines, and Aspirations)
Objectives
 define and explain the different concepts regarding enculturation and socialization,
 discuss the development of one’s self and others as a product of enculturation and socialization, and
 prove that identity, disciplines, and aspirations are necessary for the development of personal and cultural identity.
 What does it mean to be a person?
 In a society where there are many cultures, how do you form your personal identity?
Learn about it!
Enculturation and Socialization
What is the difference between socialization and enculturation? How is enculturation related to socialization?
Society is different from culture. There are many cultures within a society. While members of society share many of the same expectations and
experiences, the cultural groups create ones that differentiate them from others in society.
Enculturation
 the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a person is immersed
Socialization
It is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms, expectations and values as members of society.
Study the chart that further explains the differences and relationships of socialization and enculturation.
Learn about it!

Identity Formation
Identity formation starts when one learns to socialize and be aware of the culture, behaviors, language, morals, and norms of where he or she
belongs in. However, as a person grows, he or she learns to make his or her own set of beliefs, values, and morals. This is how a person develops
an identity. This is what makes a person different from others.
Identity
Identity is what makes a person distinct from others. It is the total knowledge and understanding of an individual about who he or she is.
Types of Identity
1. Personal
 the concept an individual develops about himself or herself
 the sense of oneself as a distinct or unique individual
 may depend on the age and circumstances of a person
Example: Rolen is an African girl. She is the most quiet student in her class. She believes that time is gold, so spends her free time studying her
lessons.
2. Cultural
 the identity of the culture to which a person belongs in
 the feeling or sense of belongingness to a group
 a collective sense of companionship that involves the same beliefs, interests, and fundamental principles of living
Example: In the Philippines, the Agta tribe has been practicing a unique culture for centuries. Old men wear the bahag, a unique style of clothing.
They prefer to stay in the forest than to stay in lowlands. They mainly look for natural food sources.
Study the chart that further explains the two types of identity.
Learn about it!
Discipline
 a way of behaving that expresses a willingness to obey rules or laws
 behavior that is judged by how well a person follows a set of rules or orders
Kinds of Discipline
Discipline is categorized into different types.
1. Discipline of Nature or Reality
A person meets this kind of control every time he or she tries to do something. A person learns to do things on his or her own without the supervision
of others.
Example: Ryan rented a bicycle near his town. He does not know yet how to ride the bike. He fell many times, but he did not stop trying. He was so
motivated to learn how to ride the bike that he tried to learn on his own, and eventually, he was able to ride it.
2. Discipline of Culture or Society
What this discipline instills in every culture is distinct, different, and unique. A person learns according to what he sees in his society or his culture.
Example: Mika wears the trendiest dresses these days. She wears them so she can be ―in‖ with the latest social trends.
3. Discipline of Superior Force
This discipline is the opposite of the discipline of nature or reality. In this training, a person learns through supervision and guidance.
Example: A single mother raised Patricia. Her mother always reminded her not to fall in love because of her personal idea that men are cheaters.
Even if Patricia does not know how it feels to be brokenhearted, she does not entertain any suitor.
Learn about it!
Development of Personal Identity and Aspirations
Personal identity develops in many ways, depending on preferred directions.
 It may be through enculturation and socialization.
 It may also come through observation of a role model.
 You tend to imitate a successful person that leads to changes in personality.
 Your personal identity may change and eventually, you may develop a clear sense of yourself.
Aspiration is a strong desire and ambition with which someone is motivated to work hard.
Example: Rico at 20 years old identified himself as a happy-go-lucky guy. He might discover that, at 35 years old, he is a different person. Perhaps
he is living a good life with his family. He would like his children to have a comfortable life in the future.
Explore!
Observe the different political parties in our country. Can you describe the differences between the Liberal Party (LP), the United Oppositions (UNO),
and the People’s Reform Party (PRP) in the context of different cultures?
Try it!
Ask two persons about their personal identity development and aspirations. Compare them with yours.
What do you think?
Is there a difference between one’s thoughts or feelings and one’s behavior? When is it enculturation? When is it socialization?
Keypoints
 Enculturation is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which an individual is immersed.
 Socialization is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms, expectations, and values as a member of the
society.
 Identity formation starts when you learn to socialize and be aware of the culture, behaviors, language, morals, and norms of where you
belong in.
 Identity is the total knowledge and understanding of a person of who he or she is.
 Discipline is the control that is gained by requiring that rules or orders be obeyed and punishing bad behavior.
 Aspiration is a strong desire and ambition with which someone is motivated to work hard.
Enculturation/Socialization: Norms and Values
Objectives
 define and explain different concepts of norms and values,
 discuss the relations and functions of norms and values, and
 prove that norms and values are essential factors in the development of one’s self, others, and the community as a product of enculturation
and socialization.
What characteristics should a person demonstrate to be considered as a useful member of society?
Review!
experiences, cultural groups create ones that differentiate us from others in society.
Socialization
It is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms, expectations, and values as members of society.
Enculturation
It is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a person is immersed in.
Learn about it!
For society to function well, it must be guided by cultural principles of behavior to maintain stability, peace, and harmony. Every society has its set of
accepted norms and values of its culture that is socially accepted.
Norms
Norms are standards or sets of accepted behaviors that a person is expected to follow or exemplify in the society where he or she belongs in. It
pertains to specific guidelines of conduct in society that guides its members on how to act in particular situations.
Classification of Norms
Norms can be classified in many ways. Norms are either formal or informal.
Norms are also categorized by their relative importance to society. This classification is distinguished from the intensity of feelings they initiate and
the consequences that flow from violations of them.
Folkways
They are the customs of people that came from repetition and routines.
Examples:
 the practice of waiting in line
 courtesy to older people
Mores
 stricter than folkways
 determines what is the moral and ethical behavior
 dictates what is right and wrong
Examples:
 religious doctrines such as the prohibition of pre-marital sex
 the belief that forms of discrimination and suppression are unethical (e.g.racism and sexism)
Taboos
 very strong negative norms
 strict prohibition of certain behaviors that society holds firmly
 violating it results in extreme disgust or expulsion from the group or society
Examples:
 cannibalism
 incest
Laws
 formally instituted by the government
 exist because its violation can result in injury or harm to other members of society
 impose sanction on people who disobey the authority
Examples:
 curfews for minors
 laws against domestic violence
Learn about it!
Values
Values refer to the abstract idea of people about what is necessary or worthwhile. Values are general guidelines that are fundamental parts of our
lives. They stand for the things we believe in. Most of the values we have are learned from family, friends, school, media, and other sources in
society.
Classification of Values
Values can be classified into two types.
1. Individual Values
These values are those that are connected with the development of human personality.
Examples: honesty, loyalty, honor
2. Collective Values
These values are those that are connected with the development of unity in the community or society.
Examples: equality, justice, solidarity
Relationship Between Norms and Values
Here are some significant relationships between norms and values.
Learn about it!

Functions of Social Norms and Values
Values are general guidelines which govern our daily behavior. They are the guidelines for our judgments, thereby playing a vital role in the
maintenance of stability and harmony in society.
Norms are specific guidelines which allow us to function or act appropriately in society. They are a set of behaviors that is perceived to be
acceptable to its members. Following norms results in social order and gives a feeling of security, safety, and harmony.
Social norms and values perform the following primary functions:
Explore!
What are the norms that should be observed during class discussions and examinations?
Try it!
Form a group composed of five persons. Discuss and decide on the top five critical values that society must uphold based on the issues and
challenges that the nation is currently facing.
What do you think?
If a person leaves his present society and transfers to a new one, it is possible that his personal values will also change?
Keypoints
 Norms are the standard or accepted behaviors that a person is expected to follow in society. They are either formal or informal.
 Norms are also classified by their relative importance to society. They are folkways, mores, taboos, and laws.
 Values may be explained as measures of goodness or desirability. They are classified as either individual values or collective values.
 Values provide the justifications for accepting or rejecting specific norms.
 Norms and values are critical factors in the development of one’s self, others, and the community as a product of enculturation and
socialization.

Enculturation/Socialization: Statuses and Roles
Objectives
 define and explain the different concepts regarding statuses and roles as part of the social structure,
 identify statuses and roles played by oneself and others in the community, and
 evaluate the impact of the various statuses and roles of people for the attainment of society's goals.
You have a friend named Paulene, a 30-year-old Filipino-Indian female from New Delhi. She grew up in slum areas. Paulene knew at an early age
that she wanted to be a lawyer. She graduated from college with flying colors and was eventually accepted as a scholar at a prestigious law school.
Now, at the age of 30, she works as a lawyer in a private company in the United Kingdom. It was there that she met her better half with whom she
has four children.
 Can you name Paulene’s roles and statuses?
 What typical roles and statuses do people play in society?
Review!
experiences, cultural groups create ones that differentiate us from others in society.
Socialization
It is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms, expectations, and values as members of society.
Enculturation
It is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a person is immersed in.
Learn about it!
Statuses
Our society is guided by a network of similar statuses and roles that govern human interactions that we call social structure. It also refers to the
manner in which society is arranged into predictable interactions.
Status
 describes the position an individual occupies in a particular setting, in a group, or in society
 defines and clarifies the rights and obligations expected from a person
Example: a farm boy, a teacher, a human rights defender
Classifications of Statuses
There are three kinds of statuses.
1. Ascribed Status
 a position a person holds in a social system that one attains involuntarily or by birth
 inherited and not based on the person’s abilities, accomplishments, or efforts
 can be rigid and unchanging since it is given to a person when he is born and is often involuntary
Example: a Filipino national, a male or a female, a king or a queen, a son of a vendor, a firstborn
2. Achieved Status
 a position one holds in a social system that one attains based on merit or effort
 acquired due to unique skills, knowledge, or abilities, and are based on standards that can be controlled
 a position that has been earned or chosen and is mostly dictated by abilities, skills, and life choices
Example: a student, an employee, a doctor, an artist
3. Master Status
 the greatest role in a person’s life that determines social identity and general position in society
 can be based on any status, such as gender, ethnicity, economic status, religious or spiritual tradition, employment status, or family
responsibility such as a parent or grandparent
 may come with a sense of prestige for some−the consensus from the community around them that a status is to be desired
Learn about it!
Roles
 expectations that are set for a person given the status he or she occupies
 pertains to the norms, behaviors, values, and personal characteristics that are attached to the status of the person
Examples:
 Status: student
Roles: attending classes, studying lessons, communicating with the teacher
 Status: teacher
Roles: teaching, giving feedback, assessing or evaluating the performance of the students
 Status: call center agent
Roles: answering questions, solving problems, researching information
The chart below shows the different statuses and their corresponding roles.
Role Exit and Role Conflict

What are some issues concerning roles?
Role exit pertains to the course of disengaging a person from his or her role that is essential to his or her self-identity.
Example: when a person retires from a long career and must shift from the role of an employee with responsibilities to someone just living a
comfortable life, or when an individual becomes a parent and has to change their lifestyle.
Role conflict arises when incompatible expectations occur from two or more statuses that a person is occupying. Performing the assigned role of
one status makes it challenging for the person to play the assigned role of another status.
Example: It is very challenging for a woman to be the best mother to her children and the best employee to her company all at the same time.
Learn about it!
The Impact of Statuses and Roles in Attaining Society’s Goals
As members of society, people acquire statuses and roles which are necessary for socializing within their society. These statuses and roles are
important elements in the process of socialization because they serve as agents for the fulfillment of society’s goals.
We are all encouraged to fulfill the roles of the statuses we are occupying at present and in the future stages of our lives for us to be better members
of the community.
Explore!
Think of your parents or your guardians. What are the multiple statuses they are occupying at present and the roles attached to those statuses?
Try it!
List at least three (3) roles for each status.
 male or female
 police officer
 business tycoon
What do you think?
What do you think will happen to society if its members fail to fulfill the roles of their respective statuses?
Keypoints
 Status refers to the particular position that a person occupies in a particular scenario or setup.
 Roles refer to the norms, customs, values, and personal characteristics that are attached to the status of the individual.
 Ascribed status is a position a person holds in a social system that one attains involuntarily or by birth.
 Achieved status is an acquired position due to unique skills, knowledge, or ability and are based on standards that can be controlled.
 Master status pertains to the status of the person which determines his or her general position in society.
 Role conflict takes place when two or more statuses are incompatible.
 Role exit pertains to the course of disengagement of a person from his or her role that is essential to his or her self-identity.

Conformity and Deviance: Social Control
Objectives
 explain the inevitable existence of conformity, deviance, and social control in the social processes of our everyday lives,
 discuss the significant part or role of gossip, social ostracism, laws, and punishments to social control,
 analyze the societal goals and socially acceptable means to survive,
 and discuss the consequences of defying and conforming to social order.
Suppose that in one exclusive school, it is the norm for students to be at their best behavior at all times while inside the school premises. All students
therefore continuously make an effort to maintain their grace, poise, and good appearance in order to avoid any sanctions.
Liz, a difficult and problematic student, transferred to the same school last year. In just one year of stay, she was able to set up at least 5 pranks on
her classmates and teachers. Despite being punished for several times, she still cuts classes and comes to school not wearing the prescribed
uniform. There was also a time when she punched two of the school's guards because they did not let her vandalize the principal's office. Liz's
classmates do not want to be friends with her because of her behavior. They call her "Crazy Liz" behind her back.
Analyze the scenario.
 What qualities characterize conformity and deviance?
 How does deviance affect a person's social status?
 Will actions have an effect on social status if they were unintentional?
Learn about it!
Conformity and Deviance
In our everyday lives, we notice that there are specific standards for our actions, simple or complex, set by society. People tend to have different
responses with these imagined pressures depending on their upbringing, values, or ideals. These reactions are called conformity and deviance.
Conformity
 is linked to the obedience of a person to the norms in order to be acceptable in a particular society, group, or social setting
Example: The majority of the class members, through a group consensus, agreed to accept the proposal.
Deviance
 is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct, expectations, or norms of a particular group or society
Example: There are power struggles among netizens who disagree on the re-imposition of the death penalty.
Learn about it!
Social Control
It is believed that society must have a social order to function smoothly. The social order includes social standards, laws, rules, and norms which are
set by society, whether they are by the majority or by a hierarchy. Ideally, people must exhibit social order, but in reality, no society succeeds in
getting all its members to behave as expected all the time. If social order is seen as the only way for communities to survive, they must have ways of
making people conform to social norms.
Social Control Theory
 This is based on the idea that a person's fundamental belief system, values, morals, commitments, and relationships promote a protected
environment.
 Oftentimes, individuals who have these beliefs and commitments have a level of self-control over their actions.
 It examines or evaluates how society affects criminal behavior.
 It emphasizes the idea that when people are involved and in contact with their community, they are less likely to perpetrate criminal acts.
Learn about it!
Gossip, Social Ostracism, and Laws and Punishments
Failure to embrace the accepted norms and values of society or inability to perform the roles of a person’s status may lead to consequences in the
form of gossip, social ostracism, and laws and punishments.
Gossip
 refers to the idle talk or rumors about the personal or private matters of others
 may lead to the discrediting of the reputation of the subject
Social Ostracism
 refers to the exclusion of an individual from being socially accepted
 includes the removal of social privileges and friendship with the general members of the society
 a result of one's actions that give him or her an impression of not being a worthy member of that society
Laws and Punishments
Laws refer to the set of rules by the government to regulate the way in which society behaves.
Punishments pertain to the pain, penalty, or suffering that is imposed on a person who violates a law.
People learn the mechanisms of social control through interactions with other people. Couples who are expected to have a respectable family
choose not to quarrel out loud to avoid being talked about around their neighborhood.
An individual will conform with his peers to avoid social rejection or ostracism. To avoid punishment, people must follow the law.
Learn about it!
Social Processes and Relationships
The illustration below shows the social processes and relationships of deviance, conformity, and social control.
In the given scenario earlier, the school was the representation of society−the students were the conformists and Liz was the defiant one. The school
had particular rules and standard of behaving, and Liz's actions caused disturbance within the school. They did not only cause chaos, but they also
led Liz to be stigmatized.
Negative sanctions will be given to people who exhibit deviant acts, while effective sanctions will be given to those who observe or conform.
Explore!
Bert is invited to an event that requires a particular costume. Not well-informed and not so serious about it, he arrives with no costume at all.
Will Bert be criticized for not conforming to the required attire? Will he feel shy throughout the event? How will Bert behave at the start of the event?
Do you think this deviant behavior will have a psychological effect on him?
Try it!
During recess or class break, try wearing your shirt differently−with its front displayed at your back−and walk backwards as if it is your normal way of
walking. Expect students to stare at you, look confused, and talk about you.
What do you think?
Given the reality in this modern time, do you think that complete conformity to the rules, laws, standards, and norms will result in social order and
deviance will lead to chaos? Why? Why not?
Tip
Note that deviant behavior is relative. A particular society may consider a certain behavior deviant, but the same behavior may be acceptable in
another society.
Keypoints
 Conformity is linked to the obedience of a person to the norms that are acceptable in a particular society, group, or social setting.
 Deviance is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct, expectations, or norms of a particular group or society.
 Social control theory is based upon the idea that an individual's underlying belief system, values, morals, commitments, and relationships
foster a proper environment.
 Social order is considered to be the only solution to achieve societal survival and social control. Conformity is the only way to achieve this.
 Gossip, social rejection or ostracism, and laws and punishments are forms of social pressures that contribute to the exhibition of
social control.
 Deviance, conformity, and social control are always present in a given society or group. These are not limited to a high number of
people but to a group that is capable of setting standards, rules and norms.

Conformity and Deviance: Forms of Deviance
Objectives
 describe deviance as explained by the Structural Strain Theory, and
 identify the forms of deviance.
 What causes deviant responses or behaviors as explained by the Structural Strain Theory?
 What are the different forms of deviance?
Review
Conformity and Deviance
The concept of conformity is linked to the obedience of a person to the norms to be acceptable in a particular society, group, or social setting.
Deviance, on the other hand, is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct, expectations, or norms of a particular group or society.
Note that deviant behavior is relative. A particular society may consider a certain behavior deviant, but the same behavior may be acceptable in
another society.
Learn about it!
Deviance as Explained by the Structural Strain Theory
The forms of deviance are the responses or adaptations by people in a society caused by the imbalance or ―strain‖ between the valued goals in the
society and the legitimate or acceptable means to achieve such goals. This idea is taken from the Structural Strain Theory conceptualized by
sociologist Robert K. Merton. Two variables taken into account in this theory are valued goals and legitimate means to achieve goals.
Valued Goals
These are goals that are defined by society as valuable, or simply, the goals that are typically pursued in a society.
Example: financial success
Legitimate Means to Achieve Goals
These are the acceptable ways people can do to achieve such valued goals in a society.
Example: get a good education
Learn about it!
Types of Adaptation
In our everyday lives, we would notice that there are actions considered to be legitimate or acceptable for a particular society toward achieving
valued goals.
While people usually conform to legitimate or acceptable means to achieve goals, there are people who will not. One reason for this is because the
legitimate means are just not available for them, and so unequal opportunities exist to achieve these goals. Merton identified five typologies of how
people adapt to their value system or the goals-means dynamics of their respective society.
These typologies are:
 conformity–accepts goals and the institutionalized, acceptable or legitimate means of obtaining them,
 ritualism–rejects goals and accepts or adheres to institutionalized means of obtaining them,
 retreatism–rejects both goals and means of obtaining them,
 rebellion–creates new goals and new means of obtaining them, and
 innovation–accepts goals and rejects institutionalized means of obtaining them.
Ritualism, retreatism, rebellion, and innovation are forms of deviance.
Learn about it!
Forms of Deviance
Merton conceptualized four responses that are considered deviant and caused by a strain or imbalance between valued goals and legitimate means
in a particular society.
Ritualism
Ritualism is exhibited when someone rejects traditional cultural goals but still adheres to the culturally approved methods or rules for making
progress towards the same goals.
Example: An employee still stays in his job even though he is aware that it is a dead-end job. In ritualism, people experience feelings of despair and
anomie (social instability) that result to modification or abandonment of the idealized cultural goals, but still persist at a ritualized, unfulfilling line of
work.
Retreatism
Retreatism is the response that rejects or abandons both cultural goals and the institutionalized or legitimate means for attaining them.
Example: Examples of people who exhibit retreatism are drug addicts and alcoholics. The ultimate form of retreatism is suicide.
Innovation
Innovation entails the acceptance of the valued goal but the rejection of legitimate or institutionalized means to achieve them (resorting to criminal
or delinquent acts).
Example: An example of this is when a person wants a nice car but does not have enough money, so he steals money from the bank. Some people
may resort to stealing or dealing drugs to achieve cultural goals.
Rebellion
Rebellion not only rejects the valued goals and the legitimate means of the established society but also actively attempts to substitute new goals
and means. This can be applied to political deviants who attempt to modify the existing structure of society.
Example: Examples for this are neo-Nazis and other hate groups. The rebels will publicly acknowledge their intention to change the norms and the
social structure.
The table below summarizes Merton’s typology of individual adaptations.
Legend:
 "+" signifies acceptance
 "–" signifies rejection
 "+ and -" signifies rejection of prevailing goal or means and substitution of new goal or means
Explore!
In the particular society that you live in, you can observe different people and groups that exhibit any of the five types of adaptations or responses.
Notice their way of expressing their beliefs toward specific ideals, values, norms, or cultural goals and categorize them according to their action or
statement.
What do you think?
In today’s time, different ideologies, religions, cultures, and traditions have already emerged and are recognized, resulting in a diverse society.
Different needs and expectations are expressed by groups and individuals according to their social status. Given this situation, do you think that the
presence of these five adaptations is inevitable in a given society? Why or why not?
Tip
A person can exhibit different types of adaptations depending on the situation. He or she might be a conformist in school, following all the rules, while
also being an innovator when it comes to his or her interests. A person’s response and adaptation is not always linear. It clearly depends on how the
person weighs the situation according to his or her needs.
Keypoints
 Conformity is the obedience to the norms that make a person acceptable to a particular society, group, or social setting.
 Deviance is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct, expectations, or norms of a group or society.
 Robert K. Merton developed the Structural Strain Theory to explore how people respond to cultural values and how they are supposed to
achieve them.
 There are five typologies of how people adapt to the value system of their respective society and these are conformity, ritualism,
retreatism, rebellion, and innovation.
 The four forms of deviance are ritualism, retreatism, rebellion, and innovation.
 A person’s response or adaptation is not always linear. It clearly depends on how the person weighs the situation according to his or her
needs.

Human Dignity and Rights
Objectives
 define and explain human dignity and rights as part of everyone's freedom,
 discuss inclusive citizenship as it advocates policies promoting human rights, and
 help improve the protection of human dignity and rights.
It was on the 10th of December 1948 in Paris when the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was proclaimed to have a common standard
of achievement for all peoples and all nations.
According to its Article 1:
―All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another
in a spirit of brotherhood.‖
Given these, why do you think some people are still repressed from these privileges based on their race, citizenship, or color?
Learn about it!
Human Dignity and Rights
As stated, ―All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.‖ No color of skin, physical disability, sexual orientation, or religious belief
can stop anybody from protecting his or her dignity and enjoying his or her rights as a person. Human dignity and rights go together and are
essential to the attainment of common interest.
Human Dignity
There are two ways to understand human dignity.
The religious aspect believes that humans have a unique place in the world and that human life is sacred.
In moral, ethical, legal, and political discussions, human dignity is used to express the idea that a being has an innate right to be valued,
respected, and to receive ethical treatment.
Human dignity
 an individual or group's sense of self-respect and worth, physical and psychological integrity, and empowerment
 affirms that every person is worthy of respect; that our value as people should never be debated
 means having a quality life and not experiencing oppression or manipulation
 is uplifted when people are granted with their rights
It is, therefore, true to say that any right safeguarded by the International Human Rights Law is substantiated by the dignity of the human person.
Learn about it!
Human Rights
 are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any
other status
 are the freedom and privileges that belong to every person in the world
 guarantees that all people shall be ensured to enjoy life, liberty, and security
Characteristics of Human Rights
Human rights are universal and inalienable, indivisible, interdependent, and interrelated.
Universality and Inalienability
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
Indivisibility
Whether they relate to cultural, civil, economic, political, or social issues, human rights are inherent to the dignity of every human person.
Interdependence and Interrelatedness
The fulfillment of one right often depends on, wholly or in part, the fulfillment of others.
Both human dignity and rights should not be taken away, but sadly, they are denied to some people as manifested by poverty, illiteracy, crime, and
discrimination in society.
Learn about it!
Inclusive Citizenship
Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that promotes human dignity and human rights.
 It focuses on legal equality for each citizen directed at giving all citizens a strong feeling that they are part of the overall society.
 Its policies include laws that provide non-segregated access to all citizens, regardless of their race, gender, religious affiliation, and
socioeconomic status.
 While a government cannot guarantee equality in all private organizations, inclusive citizenship focuses on the legal rights of all individuals
in cases where the government determines their rights of inclusion.
 It establishes a governing foundation where it gives its citizens a sense of security so that they will feel that their government hears and
respects their ideas.
 In return, people will be more inclined to voice out their grievances through proper channels, such as petitioning a representative to
investigate their situation.
 Moreover, this right can motivate the citizens to participate in government activities, raising voter turnout, civic participation, and serving in
the military.
Under inclusive citizenship, there are rights that the government provides for its citizens. Examples of these are the equal right to vote, equal right to
serve in the military, same right to marry, similar tax responsibilities, and equal right to represent others in the government.
Citizens also have access to public funds, public organizations, and equal rights and acceptance by national figures.
Learn about it!
Protection of Human Dignity and Rights
Laws and declaration support the protection of human rights and the dignity of people. The International Human Rights Law constitutes the basis
of fundamental rights. With this law, dignity is also protected. It must be respected, even where a right is restricted. Conventions such as the
1997 European Union Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being are also held to promote rights and dignity
through different fields.
Explore!
In our everyday lives, we can observe different people pursuing their rights as humans and as citizens of the country. Not only government agencies,
but also institutions and organizations promote human rights through billboards, posters, television ads, and even in outreach programs. Notice
these channels in your everyday journey and you can observe how people practice and advocate their rights.
 Since people have different race, citizenship, beliefs, and values, do you think an individual or group practicing human rights and dignity
would deprive another person or group of their rights and dignity?
 If yes, how can we ensure complete observation of human rights and dignity?
Try it!
In today's society, human rights are more emphasized and practiced than before. Some groups promote human rights in different ways. Examples of
these are people who initiate and participate in fun runs for a cause. Protesters are usually seen in open areas or roads, calling the attention of our
countrymen, or in front of government agencies. If you encounter events like these, try to observe their effects on the audience. If they are hazard
free, try joining one.
What do you think?
Since the concept of dignity is said to be difficult to define, there are claims that it is a meaningless slogan and a useless concept in bioethics.
Moreover, there is considerable overlap in the idea of personhood as to whether it is an innate quality of human beings or something that is granted
or attributed to a person.
Thus, according to some philosophers, this cues a few questions, like:
 Is dignity a property of a person or of the way others react to him?
 Can one's dignity be affected by the way one is treated?
 Can dignity be inviolable but at the same time something that can be lost or destroyed?
Keypoints
 Human dignity in a religious sense believes that humans have a special place in the world and that human life is sacred. In a moral,
ethical, legal, and political sense, it is used to express the idea that a being has an innate right to be valued, respected, and to receive
ethical treatment.
 Human rights are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion,
language, or any other status. They are universal, inalienable, indivisible, interdependent, and interrelated.
 Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that focuses on legal equality for each citizen.
 Human rights and dignity are protected and promoted through laws, declarations, and conventions.

The Common Good
Objectives
 define and explain human rights, dignity, and the common good,
 discuss the role played by human rights to the attainment of the common good, and
 help encourage the protection of human dignity, rights, and the common good.
In making a personal decision or a choice, do you think about how such decision would benefit others? Why or why not?
Review!
##Human Dignity
In a religious point of view, it is believed that humans have a unique place in the world, and that human life is sacred. In the secular point of view, a
human is seen as having an innate right to be valued, respected, and to receive ethical treatment.
 Human dignity is an individual or group's sense of self-respect and worth, physical and psychological integrity, and empowerment.
 It affirms that every person is worthy of respect. Our value as persons should never be debated.
 It means having a quality life and not experiencing oppression or manipulation.
Human Rights
Human rights are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language,
or any other status. They are the freedoms and privileges that belong to every person in the world. All people shall be ensured to enjoy life, liberty,
and security.
Human rights are universal and inalienable, indivisible, interdependent, and interrelated.
Universality and Inalienability: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
Indivisibility: Whether they relate to cultural, civil, economic, political or social issues, human rights are inherent to the dignity of every human
person.
Interdependence and Interrelatedness: The fulfillment of one right often depends on, wholly or in part, the fulfillment of others.
Review!
Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that promotes human dignity and human rights.
 It focuses on legal equality for each citizen and directed at giving all citizens a strong feeling that they are a part of the overall society.
 Its policies include laws that provide non-segregated access to all citizens regardless of their race, gender, religious affiliation, or
socioeconomic status.
 It establishes a governing foundation where it gives its citizens a sense of security so that the community feels like the government hears
and respects its ideas.
 Citizens are more inclined to voice their grievances through proper channels, such as petitioning a representative to investigate their
situations.
 Moreover, this right can motivate citizens to participate in the government by raising voter turnout, civic participation, and greater
willingness to serve in the military.
Under inclusive citizenship, there are rights that the government provides for its citizens. Examples of these are equal right to vote, equal right to
serve in the military, same right to marry, similar tax responsibilities, and equal right to represent others in the government.
Citizens also have access to public funds, public organizations, equal rights, and acceptance by national figures.
Learn about it!
The Common Good
The common good refers to:
 what is shared and advantageous for all or most members of a given society, and
 what is achieved by citizenship, be it collective action or active participation.
When dignity and rights are granted to people, the common good is achieved. It happens when society benefits as a whole. The common good is
reached when the majority, a high number of individuals, or society as a whole benefits from a situation or event.
The recognition of people's dignity and rights is the foundation of "freedom, peace, and justice in the world," as stated in the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights in 1948. The common good sustains order and happiness in the community. It is not hard to achieve.
Learn about it!
Protection of Human Dignity, Rights, and the Common Good
Human dignity, rights, and the common good are not new concepts; neither are the issues about their existence in society.
 Can they be granted?
 Can they be achieved?
Since ancient times, literature figures have given criticisms on issues of the existence and absence of human rights, dignity, and the common good.
Among the list are the works of Aristotle, Rousseau, and Machiavelli. In modern times, not much has changed. The same old questions and
problems are asked, but the modern world continues to work towards addressing such concerns.
International organizations and different countries pledged to the United Nations to uphold human rights and dignity. If proven to disobey laws and
rules, one has to be punished in accordance with the law.
Ideally, the common good is protected when all people enjoy their rights and preserve their dignity. For an individual, this means having freedom as
a consumer, owner, and citizen that also includes right to rest and leisure, equal access to public works and services, freedom of association,
religion, or speech and employment.
Explore!
Do you believe that laws and public works were built to function for the common good? Why or why not?
Try it!
Enumerate three (3) situations or events you witnessed where the common good was upheld.
What do you think?
Are the efforts of local and national government agencies on upholding the common good sufficient to ensure its existence in society?
Key Points
 Human rights are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion,
language, or any other status.
 Human dignity is a person's or group's sense of self-respect and worth, physical and psychological integrity, and empowerment.
 The common good refers to what is shared and favorable for all or most members of a given community. The common good is protected
when each person enjoys his or her rights and preserves his or her dignity.
 Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that promotes human dignity and human rights. This focuses on legal equality for each citizen,
and is directed at giving all citizens a strong feeling that they are part of the overall society.
Organization in Society, Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics

Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Kinship by Blood
Objectives
At the end of the lesson you should be able to:
 define kinship and social network,
 explain the Filipino concept of kinship,
 discuss the concepts surrounding kinship by blood and descent, and
 trace your own ancestry by blood up to the third degree.
 How can you be sure that blood relates you to your ancestors?
 How do you draw the line between descent and ancestry?
Learn about it!
We do not live alone in society. From birth until death, we are surrounded by many people. Most of these people are our relatives, friends, and
neighbors, while some are strangers. We are bound to all individuals who are related to us either by blood or by descent.
Kinship Ties and Social Networks
The relations based on blood may be close or distant. The bond of blood which binds people together in a group is called kinship.
 According to the Dictionary of Anthropology, kinship system involves socially recognized relationships based on supposed and actual
genealogical bonds. These relationships are products of social interactions and are recognized by society.
 In a broader sense, kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves and to the study of the patterns of social
relationships in one or more human cultures.
 Kinship or relationship can also refer to a principle by which people or groups of individuals are organized into roles, social groups,
categories, and genealogy through kinship terminologies.
 On the other hand, a social network is a social structure made up of a set of social actors (individuals or organizations), sets of a partner
or dyadic ties, and other social interactions between actors. It represents relationships and flows between people, groups, and
organizations.
Learn about it!
The Filipino Concept of Kinship
 According to F. Landa Jocano, "Kinship characterizes the overall framework of community relations as it enables Filipinos to map their
relationships and be able to work together harmoniously. It lies deep in the heart of every Filipino as it forms the core of the Filipino social
organization. It significantly influences the formation, structure, and functions of institutions, relationships, and values of the Filipinos."
 There is no generic Filipino term for kinship as each language group in the country created its terminology, but the term kamag-
anak or magkakamag-anak, from the Tagalog-based language, is widely used.
 Kinship helps Filipino people in understanding their relationships with others and be able to interact with each other with little or without any
difficulty.
Learn about it!
Kinship by Blood or Consanguineous Kinship
 The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The consanguineous kin is related through blood. The relationship between the
parents and their kids, and that among siblings, is consanguineous kinship.
 Thus, son and daughter, brother and sister, uncle and aunt, nephew and niece, and cousins are consanguineous kin, that is, related
through blood. With this connection, it can be pointed out that blood bond may be actual as well as supposed.
 In polyandrous tribes, the real father of a child is unknown. An adopted child is treated as if it were one's own biological child. As a result,
blood relationship may be established not only on biological basis but also by social recognition.
Genogram
 A genogram is a graphical representation of one's family and its members' relationship to one another.
 It is widely used in medicine, sociology, and genealogy to determine medical, psychological, sociological, or historical patterns of health
and behavior.
Below are the basic symbols used in making a genogram. You should know, however, that more symbols are available to use for more complicated
family relationships.
In making a genogram, make sure to note the following:

 children must be drawn from oldest to youngest and from left to right, respectively,
 one level or layer presents one generation, and
 the shapes corresponding to family members always represent sex, not gender.
Learn about it!
Descent System
 A descent group is any social group wherein membership depends on a common descent from a real or mythical ancestor. This system
of acknowledged social parentage, which varies per society, is where a person may claim kinship ties with another.
 If there is no limitation on the recognition of kinship, everybody would be kin to everyone else. But in most societies, some restrictions are
imposed on the perception of common ancestry so that an individual regards many of his associates as not his kin.
 The importance of descent comes from its use as a means for one person to assert rights, privileges, duties, and status with another
person who may be related to the first, either because one is an ancestor of the other or because the two acknowledge common
ancestors.
 Descent has limited influence when rights to succession, inheritance, or residence follow kinship lines.
One method of limiting the recognition of kinship is to emphasize relationships through one parent only. Such is called a unilineal kinship system.
There are two types of this system−patrilineal systems, in which relationships reckoned through the father are emphasized, and matrilineal
systems, in which relationships reckoned through the mother are emphasized.
In a bilateral descent, all descendants of an ancestor enjoy membership of a common descent group by any combination of male or female
linkages.
See it!
A friend of your family visited your house and noticed that you have several medals and trophies displayed in the living room. She exclaimed, "You
have a very smart child!"
In what other way do your parents reaffirm your relation to them aside from using the expression, "Nasa dugo eh" or "It runs in the blood"?
Try it!
Make a genogram of your family. Try to look over the net for more genogram symbols that may describe any unique relationship within your family
(e.g. engaged but not married couple, adopted children, twins).
What do you think?
Have family and kinship always meant the same thing throughout history? Justify your answer.
Keypoints
 Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves and to the study of the patterns of social relationships in one or
more human cultures.
 A social network is a social structure composed of a set of social actors (individuals or organizations), sets of a partner or dyadic ties, and
other social interactions between actors.
 The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The consanguineous kin is related through blood.
 There is no generic Filipino term for kinship as each language group in the country created its terminology but the term kamag-
anak or magkakamag-anak, from the Tagalog-based language, is widely used.
 A descent group is any social group wherein membership depends on a common descent from a real or mythical ancestor.
 There are different descent kinship systems, such as unilineal (with two main types—patrilineal and matrilineal) and bilateral kinships.

Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Kinship by Marriage
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to define and explain the different concepts of marriage and discuss how marriage becomes the
formation of kinship ties and social networks.
 What types of networks are formed through marriage?
 What are the different kinds of marriages and what causes their formation?
 What factors are to be considered for the residency of newlyweds?
Review!
 The relations based on blood may be close or distant. The bond of blood which binds people together in a group is called kinship.
 According to the Dictionary of Anthropology, kinship system involves socially recognized relationships based on genealogical bonds.
These relationships are the products of social interaction and are recognized by society.
 In a broader sense, kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves and to the study of the patterns of social
relationships in one or more human cultures.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular pattern of links or relations. Social networks are
indicative of a person or an organization's relations, membership, links, and connections. It is noteworthy that these systems serve a role in
the attainment of the goals of society.
 Through networks serving as media for the spread and exchange of ideas, people get connected, get updated, and become aware.
Furthermore, social networks act as social support systems that provide people information and guidance in times of need.
Learn about it!
Kinship by Marriage
 Marriage is a formal and legal union of two people as partners in life. It is the universal social institution that promotes procreation and
establishes the bonds that are the basis of the household, family, and kinship system.
 Marriage is a legally recognized social contract between two people, traditionally based on a sexual relationship, and implying a
permanence of the union. The statuses the spouses acquire go through from institution to companionship that may endure and sustain in
their life cycle (Burgess and Locke, 1945). They play complementary roles to meet their material, sexual, emotional, psychological, and
spiritual needs for their survival.
 Marriage gives the offspring a position in society as he or she may be categorized as a legitimate son or daughter. It establishes continuing
connections between the kin of each party. It is always symbolically marked in some way, usually a public ceremony.
Learn about it!
Cross-cultural Marriage
A cross-cultural marriage is a marriage between two people from different cultures.
How does this happen? As they say, "Love is blind." It does not care about race, color, or culture. We see more and more marriages of people from
different cultures nowadays.
In marrying a person from the same country, distinct differences in family life, values, educational attainment, ideas, and ways of living already exist.
By comparison, marrying a person from a different country has even more differences.
Examples:
 A traditional Ifugao man is married to a liberated Catholic woman.
 A Japanese woman is married to an English man.
In a cross-cultural marriage, it is important to respect your spouse's native culture and deal with your differences in a loving manner.
Here are some tips for avoiding challenges in cross-cultural marriage/relationships:
 embrace the opportunity,
 understand, respect, and compromise,
 get first-hand experience of each other's cultures,
 pass on both cultures to your children,
 think positively about your differences,
 maintain contact with family, and
 when possible, travel together.
Learn about it!
Monogamy vs. Polygamy
By the number of spouses, a marriage can either be a monogamy or polygamy.
Post-marital Residency Rules

After marriage comes a new chapter in a couple's lives. One of the primary concerns couples usually are faced with is where to live. Kinship system,
economic concerns, and personal factors are among the determining factors for residency among newlyweds. Although not a cultural certainty
especially in this modern age, newly married couples opt to live with existing households than establish their own. Now, comes the question: Whose
family is favored or culturally prescribed?
Explore!
What are the personal and societal functions of marriage?
How does marriage extend one’s social networks?
Try it!
Find a newly-wed couple and ask them a few questions based on the lesson. Using the table below and the ideas acquired from your interview, write
the common problems and possible solutions of a married life.
What do you think?

Which type of marriage is culturally significant or accepted in our society?
In your observations, which type of residency is usually practiced? Which is a practical choice for you?
Keypoints
 Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves and to the study of the patterns of social relationships in one or
more human cultures.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular pattern of links or relations.
 Marriage is a formal and legal union of a man and a woman as partners in life.
 Cross-cultural marriage is a marriage between two people from different cultures.
 Monogamy is a wedding between two individuals at a time.
 Polygamy is a common practice among Muslims. It is being married to many spouses at a time.
 Post-marital residency or residence rules are rules or arrangements couples usually consider following their wedding.

Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Kinship by Ritual
Objectives
 explain the different concepts of kinship by ritual,
 discuss how relationship by ritual works as a social network, and
 recognize the importance of ritual kinship in society.
 What advantages does ritual kinship give to society?
 What goals of society are achieved through the realization of targets of a ritual relationship?
Review!
 Kinship is a system of a culture of recognized family roles and relationships that define the rights, obligations, and boundaries of the
interactions of members of a self-recognizing group.
 Kinship and family ties may be determined through genetic relationships, adoption, or other ritualized behaviors such as marriage and
household economies.
 Kinship systems range in size from a single nuclear-family to tribal or inter-tribal relationships.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined together by a particular pattern of links or relations. Social networks
are indicative of a person or an organization's relations, membership, links, and connections. It is noteworthy that these systems serve a
role in the attainment of the goals of society.
 Through networks serving as media for the spread and exchange of ideas, people get connected, get updated, and become aware.
Furthermore, social networks act as a social support system which provides people with information and guidance in times of need.
Learn about it!
Kinship by Ritual
Anthropologist and ethnographers sometimes call kinship by ritual as fictive kinship. The word means "fake" or "created by imagination." This type of
kinship is not false, but it is just that in this type of kinship, relationships among individuals are based neither on blood ties nor by marriage.
 Kinship by ritual refers to relationships among individuals who recognize their associations and obligations despite the absence of blood
or marriage bonds. Fictive kinship may tie people together in ties of affection, concern, obligation, and responsibility. Examples include
adopted or surrogate families, brotherhood, sororities, or peer groups.
 Kinship by ritual function is used in fictive kinship links for non-kinship purposes. Members of a brotherhood or fraternity consider each
other as brothers despite the absence of blood relations among them. Such act naturally builds a harmonious relationship between them.
Look at the table below to know about some examples of ritual kinship.
Learn about it!

Importance and Functions of Ritual Kinship in Society
Kinship by ritual is an essential social network for it is where a good relationship is built and strengthened. It has positive contributions for shaping
our old and new society. Kinship by ritual, in its various forms, serve many functions in the community. It reinforces affinity or relationships within
society by providing a framework for social interaction. Defined by acts of sharing and support, it testifies "friends as family."
Below are specific functions of the different types of ritual kinship.
Explore!
What makes kinship by ritual necessary in society?
Will society remain functional without the existence of ritual kinship?
Try it!
Give three examples of ritual kinship. Identify them according to type. Provide a brief description of each.
What do you think?
Which is more important or necessary in the society: kinship by marriage or kinship by ritual? Explain your answer.
Keypoints
 Kinship tie is a framework from which harmonious relationships within society are built.
 Kinship by ritual refers to relationships among people who recognize their associations and obligations despite the absence of blood or
marriage bonds.
 Compadrazgo is a religious rite of sponsorship in church ceremonies, such as marriage, baptism, or confirmation.
 Blood brotherhood is a sociological custom where two biologically unrelated persons or groups establish a close relationship through a
variety of ceremonies and methods of blood-letting.
 Adoption is the process wherein a non-kin is incorporated into the kin group either traditionally or legally.

Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Family and the Household
Objectives
 trace kinship ties within the concept of family and household,
 differentiate family and household, and
 identify one’s type of family and household.
 What is a family?
 What is a household?
 How is family related to kinship ties and social networks?
Learn about it!
Kinship and Family Dynamics
Kinship are social relationships derived from universal experiences of mating, birth, and nurturance. Kinship means being related to others. Being
related to other people is something that is defined by culture and not necessarily determined by biological relations.
A family is a socially recognized group, strengthened by the concept of kinship, where people are connected by blood, marriage, or adoption, and
where a caring relationship mainly occurs. Although kin group and family are not one and the same, the family is actually one of the strongest kinship
ties in our society.
The family has a very important role in society.
 It forms an emotional connection among people and serves as an economic unit of society.
 It is considered as the basic building block of society.
 It is the institution mostly responsible for the ―achievement of adult satisfaction and social integration.‖ (Ross and Sawhill, 1975)
 It is also responsible for the distribution of economic resources from those who earn them in the marketplace to those who are dependent
on those earnings. (Ross and Sawhill, 1975)
Learn about it!
Functions of Family
The family as a form of kinship serves very important functions in society.
 It is the smallest unit that cooperates in production and distribution.
 It enables and promotes socialization processes for the youth.
 It creates alliances with other family units.
 It regulates sexual behavior.
 It provides care and protection.
 It is the foundation of social placement and social status.
 It gives emotional support and affection.
Learn about it!
Types or Forms of Family
A family can be classified based on birth, marriage, nature of residence, ancestry, size, or nature of relations.
On the Basis of Birth
 family of orientation–the family into which a person is born and in which early socialization takes place
 family of procreation–the family that is formed through marriage and by having or adopting children.
On the Basis of Marriage
 polygynous family–a type of family consisting of one husband, and more than one wife, and all the children born to all wives or adopted
by each of them.; It is based on polygynous marriage.
 polyandrous family–a type of family consisting of one wife and more than one husband, and the children, either born or adopted by each
one of them; It is based on polyandrous marriage.
 monogamous family–the family consists of one husband and wife, including children, and is based on monogamous marriage
On the Basis of the Nature of Residence
 family of matrilocal residence–a type of family where the wife remains in her mother’s household after reaching maturity and brings her
husband to live with her family after marriage
 family of patrilocal residence–a type of family where the husband remains in his father’s household while his wife leaves her family to
move in with him
 family of changing residence– a type of family where the family stays in the husband’s house for some time, and moves to wife’s house,
stays there for a period of time, and then moves back to the husband’s parents or starts living in another place
On the Basis of Ancestry or Descent
 matrilineal family–a type of family where the ancestry or descent is traced through the female line or through the mother’s side
 patrilineal family–a type of family in which the authority is carried down the male line, and descent is traced through the male line or the
father’s side
On the basis of size or structure
 nuclear or the single-unit family–a type of family consisting of a husband, a wife, and children (unmarried), naturally-conceived or
adopted; It is the nucleus of family structures. It is more or less an autonomous unit that is not under the control of adults or elders of the
family. It consists of two generations only. The adoptation of children legally happen through an adoption process where the legal
responsibilities and privileges of being a parent or parents are transferred from the biological parents to adoptive parents.
 joint or extended family–a type of family that consists of three generations living together under the same roof, and sharing the same
kitchen or economic expenses; It consists of three nuclear families living together. In this setup, aunts, uncles, and grandparents may live
in a family of parents and their children.
 reconstituted or blended family–a type of family that is formed out of another relationship, otherwise known as a step-family
On the Basis of the Nature of Relations
 conjugal family–a type of family made up of adults among whom sexual relationships exist; It refers to a family system of spouses and
their dependent children. The emphasis is placed on the marital relationship that exists between spouses.
 consanguine family–a type of family where blood relation exists, or those who are consanguineal kin (e.g. a family consisting of parents
and children, or siblings)
Learn about it!
Kinship and Household Dynamics
A household is a residential unit or dwelling that carries out economic production and consumption that coordinates work, inheritance, child rearing,
and provision of shelter. It is important to note that family and household are not one and the same.
A household may be made up of a person, or persons, who lives in a shared space or dwelling. A household can be a family household or a non-
family household. It would mean that persons living in a household maybe related or unrelated.
Example of a non-family household: Two friends living in the same condominium unit are considered a household.
There are different kinds of households:
 nuclear household–a domestic group that contains one adult couple that may or may not have children,
 extended–a domestic group that contains more than one adult married couple, and
 single-person or single-parent–a domestic group that is composed of one adult person that may or may not have children living with him
or her.
Explore!
 How is the concept of family related to the concept of kinship?
 How do you identify your type of family and household?
Try it!
Try and trace your family kinship ties through proper agencies or online research. See how far you can trace your family's roots.
What do you think?
Compare and contrast nuclear and extended families and households. What are the advantages and disadvantages?
Keypoints
 A family is a socially recognized group that is strengthened by the concept of kinship where people are connected by blood, marriage, or
adoption.
 A household is a residential unit or dwelling that carries out economic production and consumption that coordinates work, inheritance,
child rearing, and provision of shelter.
 Family and household are not one and the same. A household may be a family household or non-family household. It would mean that
the people living in a household may be related or unrelated.
 A household can be classified as a nuclear, extended, or single-person household.
Objectives
 explain the concept of politics of kinship,
 discuss how politics of kinship affect the functions of society to people, and
 recognize the existence of issues arising from the politics of kinship.
 What caused the existence of politics of kinship?
 Is politics of kinship an advantage or disadvantage?
 How does the politics of kinship affect society?
Review!
 Kinship is a system of a culture of recognized family roles and relationships that define the rights, obligations, and boundaries of the
 Kinship and family ties may be determined by genetic relationships, adoption, or other ritualized behaviors such as marriage and
household economies.
 Kinship systems range in size from a single, nuclear family to tribal or inter-tribal relationships.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular pattern of links or relations. Social networks are
indicative of a person or an organization's relations, membership, links, and connections. It is noteworthy that these systems serve a role in
the attainment of societal goals.
 Through networks serving as media for the spread and exchange of ideas, people get connected, get updated, and become aware. Aside
from that, social networks act as social support systems which provide people with information and guidance in times of need.
Learn about it!
Politics of Kinship
 The idea that "blood is thicker than water‖ and similar concepts apply to politics. Kinship is the primary source of political support and
action in small or even bigger societies.
 Kinship alliances are naturally formed and traditionally remain a power bearer that dominates Filipino culture.
 An explanation for this phenomenon would be the family orientation of the Filipinos. For some reason, the obligation to one's kinship group
compels one to prioritize his or her family before the rest of society. This, from time immemorial, has generated issues in power allocation
in our community.
 Topics include political dynasty, padrino system, and the use of political power to build business empires or personal gains.
Learn about it!
Concepts of Power in Filipino Kinship Politics
Ideally, merit is the top qualification for any position of consideration, particularly in politics.Certain circumstances resulting from the interplay of
Filipino values, family, and power have influenced codes of honor on selection processes.
Here's a list of some of Filipino values which have affected the way we make decisions and view power.
Learn about it!
Issues Concerning the Politics of Kinship
Kinship means family, which could mean the ―world‖ to some people. Without a doubt, we place the family first on our list of priorities, and there is
nothing wrong with that, as long as you do not put public interest at stake.
Here is a list of issues concerning the politics of kinship.
Explore!
What are the positive and negative effects of politics created by kinship?
How does kinship affect power allocation in Filipino society?
Try it!
Give at least one example for each Filipino value enumerated below:
 debt of gratitude (utang na loob)
 shame (hiya)
 the act of yielding to the majority of the kin group (pakikisama)
 competition for greater status (palakasan)
What do you think?
Is it possible for Philippine society to eliminate bad politics created by kinship?
Keypoints
 Kinship is a system of a culture of recognized family roles and relationships that define the rights, obligations, and boundaries of an
 A political dynasty is the concentration, consolidation, or continuation of public office and political power by persons related to each other.
 Alliance is a relationship between people, groups, or states that have joined for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose,
regardless if explicit agreement has been worked out amongst them.
 The padrino system is the practice, among those with power or influence, of favoring relatives or friends.
 Political activism is the way people participate or get involved in various political processes to promote, impend, and raise awareness of
an issue.
 Utang na loob is a way of reciprocity of debt of gratitude to others within the family circle or primary group.
 Hiya is the inability to say "no" to offers for the fear of what others will think, say, and do.
 Pakikisama is characterized by togetherness and allegiance to your group with a concern for what others feel.
 Palakasan is a system wherein those in power compete to obtain special privileges and exemptions from regulations by bending the rules
of law for their kinship group.
Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions, Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics
Social Organizations: Groups within Society (Primary and Secondary)
Objectives
 explain how society is organized,
 describe the organized nature of social life and rules governing behavior,
 define social organization and social groups, and
 differentiate primary and secondary groups in terms of their duties in society.
 How would you describe your relationship with your family?
 How would you describe your relationship with your classmates and teachers?
 What makes your relationship with your family members and school teachers different from each other?
Learn about it!
How Society is Organized
People have organized themselves into groups with common rules of living. The organization of such a group is called society. Different institutions
are found in every community, such as the family, kin relationships, childcare, and division of work based on gender and age.
All societies, small or large, are organized around an uneven division of labor and decision-making. Present societies are expected to provide
protection, economic security, law and order, and a sense of belonging to their members.
Societies usually adapt to changes around them, like in the environment or in technology. Most changes happen slowly, but some significant events
such as war or revolution can completely transform societies.
Learn about it!
The Threefold Nature of Social Life
Applying Goethe’s method to social life, Rudolf Steiner thought that if we apply the phenomenological, participatory method to human social life as a
multifaceted, multilayered whole, we can distinguish three different spheres of activity:
1. cultural–everything involving the growth and expression of the human spirit: education, art, science, religion, journalism, and publishing
2. legal or political–involving human rights and relationships between people and organizations
3. economic–having to do with the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
Human society, Steiner claimed, will only flourish if these three spheres are recognized and each is organized according to its own inherent
principles, dynamics, and ideals.
Social Groups and Organizations
Sometimes, organization refers to associational groups. It includes corporations, armies, schools, and banks. Society composes many of such
organizations. A state is considered as a political organization, or school may represent an educational organization, and so on. They are all social
organizations.
Organization is a state of being or a condition in which various institutions in society are functioning by their recognized or implied purposes (Elliott
and Merrill, 1950).
Social organization or social system refers to the interdependence of parts in groups. These groups may differ in size and nature. It makes
possible the complex activities where members of a complex society participate in.
Learn about it!
Groups within Society
People do not live in isolation. They live in groups. Social groups consist of two or more individuals who identify with one another and regularly
interact as a result of shared norms, values, and expectations. Being in a group entails realizations of activities and events in one's life that help
people build and define their stories, interests, and contributions to society.
Different group categorization exists in society. Categories include primary and secondary groups, in-groups and out-groups and reference groups.
Primary Group
First formulated by Charles Horton Cooley, the concept of a primary group is an essential unit of social organization and social life. A primary
group is characterized by personal and lasting relationships with its members.
It has been identified that relationships in a primary type of team is unconditional and not prearranged. Setting aside family relations, members of
primary groups share lots of things in common, like interests, stories, or personalities.
The best example of a primary group is the nuclear family. Relationships and attachments organized in this group are permanent as one's identity,
lifestyle, and stories are tied to this group. A group of close friends is another example of this group.
The term 'primary' is used with these groups because they are the primary or main source of socialization and relationships. Relationships in primary
groups give us security, love, and companionship. We also learn norms and values from our family and friends that stay with us for most of our lives.
Learn about it!
Secondary Group
By contrast, secondary groups are formal, small or large, and usually short term. These groups are typically found at work and school.
An example of this group is a political party organized to plan the best campaign for the election. Members of the board meet infrequently and for
only a short period. Team members may have some similar interests, but the main purpose of the group is on the task instead of the relationships.
Classroom and work environment are other examples of a secondary group.
Sometimes, secondary groups become informal, and members of the team get to know each other well; however, even if their friendships exist in a
limited time, they will not necessarily remain close beyond.
Unlike the primary group, members play their roles in a secondary group based on arranged and conditional contract. Members of this group need
not to convene based on shared interests or personalities.
Explore!
Why is having a companion, a partner, or a group important in our personal lives and future careers?
Try it!
List three groups in campus and classify them as either a primary or secondary group. Make some observations regarding their characteristics.
 name or description of the group
 characteristics
(members, regulations, nature of work, etc.)
What do you think?
Which type of group contributes more important roles in maintaining a balanced life and orderliness in society? Why?
Keypoints
 People have organized themselves into groups with common rules of living. The organization of such groups is called society.
 Applying Goethe’s method to social life, Rudolf Steiner concluded that if we apply the phenomenological, participatory method to human
social life as a multifaceted, multilayered whole, we can distinguish three different spheres of activity−cultural, legal or political, and
economic.
 Social organization or social system refers to the interdependence of parts in groups. These groups may vary in size and nature.
 A social group consists of two or more people who regularly interact and share a sense of unity and collective identity.
 Primary groups are groups that are tightly united, typically small scale, with intimate relationships, and are usually long lasting.
 Secondary groups can be small or large, are mostly impersonal, and usually short term. These groups are typically found at work or at
school.
Social Organizations: In-group and Out-Group
Objectives
 recognize the existence of in-groups and out-groups in one’s life and society,
 compare different social groups of a social organization according to their manifest and latent functions, and
 discuss the issues surrounding in-groups and out-groups.
Is being a member of a particular group a matter of choice?
Review!
Sometimes, 'organization' refers to associational groups. It includes corporations, armies, schools, and banks. Society is composed of many such
organizations. A state is considered as a political organization and school may represent an educational organization. They are all social
organizations.
Organization is a state of being or a condition in which the various institutions in society are functioning by their recognized or implied purposes.
(Elliott and Merrill, 1950)
A social organization or social system refers to the interdependence of parts in groups. These groups may differ in size and nature. It makes
Learn about it!
Different Social Groups of Social Organization
Each community is made up of smaller groups and associations that are built on social class, personal interest, or common goals.
The power elite is run by a small group representing the wealthiest, most powerful, and most influential people in government, business, and the
military.
Example:
A generous business person may make substantial contributions to a political candidate.
Voluntary associations are groups that people choose to join, wherein members are united by the pursuit of a common goal.
Example:
a parent-teacher association at a particular school
Formal organizations are secondary groups organized to achieve specific goals. Legal organizations tend to be larger and more impersonal than
voluntary associations.
Example:
A corporation is usually a formal organization. The very specific goal of most companies is to increase profits.
Bureaucracy is a type of formal organization in which a rational approach is used to handle large tasks. The bureaucratic organization is highly
organized with a high degree of formality in the way it operates.
Examples:
colleges and universities
Learn about it!
People do not live in isolation. They live in groups. Social groups consist of two or more individuals who identify with one another and regularly
interact as a result of shared norms, values, and expectations. Being in a group entails realizations of activities and events in one's life that help
people build and define their stories, interests, and contributions to society.
Different group categorization exists in society. Categories include primary and secondary groups, in-group and out-group, and reference groups.
In-Group and Out-group
An in-group is an exclusive social group formed out of shared interest and identity. This is the ―we‖ group in society from which people’s loyalty is
bestowed upon. This type of group satisfies the old saying "birds of the same feather flock together.'' It is in this group where people feel more
comfortable and secured, with no threat, intimidation or conflict of interest. Members of this group consist of those who share common experiences
or ideas in life.
Examples include friendship groups, families, and religious groups.
An out-group, on the other hand, is a social group associated with competition or opposition as its nature is different from one’s own. This is the
―they‖ of society, where a person is not a part of or does not belong to the group. The formation of out-groups is the result of perceived differences.
One’s out-group includes those groups one dislikes or disregards. It is also that group where one does not feel happy personality-, interest-, or
ability-wise.
It should be noted that out-groups should not be given negative connotation as they only involve non-membership to a certain group. After all, people
are created differently. This should be celebrated in the same regard as we give to shared interests. People should respect what others can and
cannot do. That is the very purpose of recognizing the existence of out-groups.
Learn about it!
Issues Surrounding In-groups and Out-groups
In-groups and out-groups are formed as a result of the following:
Social groups, despite functioning actively in realizing tasks of society, draw a boundary between people in the community. The concept of social
group classification of in-groups and out-groups brings defined and perceived differences to a different level. Lack of sense of belongingness,
isolation, rivalry, tension, and threat of violence may result from well-defined in-groups and out-groups.
In-group favoritism happens when a person favors or offers special treatment to in-group members over out-group members. This activity may
disregard merit and result to serious social situations such as corruption, crime, and padrino system.
Out-group homogeneity is the tendency of a person to classify those people who are not in their in-group as being similar to one another. In short,
people overgeneralize and label out-groups in a negative manner.
Explore!
What are your in-groups and out-groups? How do you choose your in-groups? How do you resolve conflicts with your out-groups?
Try it!
Write three measures or guidelines on how society and its people avoid the adverse effects of the existence of in-groups and out-groups.
What do you think?
Without the boundaries caused by in-groups and out-groups, would the world be a better place? Justify your answer.
Keypoints
 Social groups are a specified number of individuals formed to interact with one another and other people outside the group based on the
statuses and roles assigned to them.
 There are different social forms of social organization. These include The power elite, voluntary associations, formal organizations,
and bureaucracy.
 An in-group is an exclusive social group formed out of shared interest and identity.
 An out-group is a social group associated with competition or opposition as its nature is different from one’s own.
 In-group favoritism happens when a person favors or offers special treatment to in-group members over out-group members.
 Out-group homogeneity is the tendency of a person to classify people who are not in their in-group as being similar to one another.
Social Organizations: Reference Groups
Objectives
 explain how reference groups work in a person’s life and society, and
 recognize the different types of reference groups and how they apply to real life situations.
 What is a role model for you?
 Who are your role models?
 How do they influence you in your daily life?
Learn about it!
People do not live in isolation. They live in groups. Social groups consist of two or more people who identify with one another and regularly interact
as a result of shared norms, values, and expectations. Being in a group entails realizations of activities and events in one's life that help people build
and define their stories, interests, and contributions to society.
Different group categorization exists in society. Categories include primary and secondary groups, in-groups and out-group, and reference groups.
Learn about it!
Reference Groups and its Normative Functions
Reference Groups are groups that serve as our standards in setting and evaluating our own behaviors and attitudes.
When reference groups serve a purpose of setting your norms and values, these are normative reference groups. These groups directly influence
the behavior of a person, serving as a role model, standard, or base point.
Your immediate family and friends are considered a normative reference group. The way they are is the way you are. Your mentors or celebrity idols
also shape your personality. In hopes of being identified with them, people opt to act, speak, dress, and think the way they do.
Learn about it!
Reference Groups and its Comparative Functions
Some reference groups exist to provide people with means of comparison for behavior, style, and achievement. Such are comparative reference
groups whose norms and values serve as points of comparison for certain behaviors.
For body figure, teenagers look up to supermodels as references. For skills in basketball, enthusiasts play by the rules of professional basketball
players from the NBA or PBA. To check whether he fares well in his exams, a student may compare his score from that of his class's best students.
Learn about it!
Group Influences
It is a natural response of people to socialize, build connections, and get influenced. With either good or bad influence, our social groups or reference
groups play vital roles in shaping who we are and becoming who we want to be or what society wants us to be.
Reference groups come in different forms and classifications.
Aspirational reference groups refers to people or groups of people with whom we want to be compared with. Product advertisers and celebrities
like athletes, movie stars, or talk show hosts are fine examples of this reference group. People think that by supporting their favorite celebrity, they
become associated with them.
Associative reference groups refer to groups where we belong and take part in. These people include our neighbors, coworkers, club members, or
church members. People have a tendency to confine with what is on trend in their immediate community.
Dissociative reference groups refers to groups that people have no interest in being associated with. This group of people includes those with
whom we share conflicts in interest, attitude, or behavior.
Explore!
How do you show your support or associations to your reference groups? Do you do what they do? Do you act, speak, and think the way they do?
What benefits does having reference groups give you?
Try it!
Give one reference group of yours for each type. Name the person or the group, describe its nature, and state your reason for classifying them under
such type.
What do you think?
How do reference groups change the way people think about themselves and others?
Keypoints
 Social groups consist of two or more people who identify with one another and regularly interact.
 Reference groups serve as our standards in setting and evaluating our own behaviors and attitudes.
 Normative reference groups set a person’s norms and values.
 Comparative reference groups are groups whose norms and values serve as a point of comparison for certain behaviors.
 Aspirational reference groups are groups of people with whom we want to be compared with.
 Associative reference groups are groups where we belong and take part in our immediate life.
 Dissociative reference groups are groups people have no interest in being associated with.
Social Organizations: Networks
Objectives
 discuss what a social network is and how it works, and
 recognize the role networks play in a person and in society.
What roles does social media play in your life?
Review!
Sometimes, social organizations refer to associational groups. It includes corporations, armies, schools, and banks. The society is composed of
many such organizations. A state is considered as a political organization and a school may represent an educational organization. They are
all social organizations.
Organization is a state of being or a condition in which the various institutions in society are functioning by their recognized or implied purposes.
(Elliott and Merrill, 1950)
Social organization or social system refers to the interdependence of parts in groups. These groups may differ in size and nature. It makes
Learn about it!
Groups Within Society and the Rise of Social Networks
A social group is a team of two or more individuals that are dependent on one another. Its organization rests on the purpose of working and
achieving the goals of society. Humans are social beings whoa are constantly longing and needing association or support.
Different group categorization exists in the society. Categories include primary and secondary groups, in-group and out-group, and reference groups.
The existence of different social organizations in society and the connections or ties that bind them together give rise to a social network.
Social Networks
A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a certain pattern of links or relations. Social networks are indicative of a
person or an organization's relationships as either casual and informal or personal and intimate. This is often regarded as individuals' basic tool to
connect to society.
Designed to connect people and make the world seem borderless, social media websites like Twitter or Facebook are social networks. In a click,
updates about an individual may reach his friends and friends of friends as well. People listed in your phone book are your social networks.
Membership to organizations or companies guarantees a social network.
Learn about it!
Ties and Nodes
As mentioned, social networks are composed of individuals and the connections or links that bind them together. These components of a network
are called 'nodes' and 'ties.'
The person or organization playing a part in a network is known as a node. On the other hand, ties are the links or connections that bind individuals
or organizations together.
They may be weak or strong. Measured by strength, strong ties are the result of intimate and personal links. Meanwhile, weak ties are connections
caused by informal, casual, and business-like relationships.
Learn about it!
The Importance of Social Networks
Through networks, social linkages or connections are formed. It is important to note that these networks serve a role in the attainment of the goals of
society. Through networks, people get connected, get updated, and become aware.
Networks are media for the spread and exchange of ideas. News awareness, information relay, and rumors are good examples. Some people also
use their networks to obtain a position in a company, to make a business successful, or to earn a living. Social networks undoubtedly serve as social
support and provide people with information or guidance in times of need.
Explore!
How do your social networks affect your personal life? Do they influence your values, behaviors, and perspectives?
What makes social networks significant in society? How does their existence achieve the goals of the community?
Try it!
Name at least three social networks you use. Write a short description for each. Include their functions and significance in your life. Also identify the
types of members for each social network.
What do you think?
Can a person survive without the people with whom he or she has shared his or her life with?
Can society survive without the existence of social networks?
Tip
In a social network, a node refers to the individual or organization playing a part in a network. In a physical system, it is an active electronic device
that is attached to a network and is capable of creating, receiving, or transmitting information over a communications channel.
Keypoints
 A social group is a team of two or more individuals who are dependent on one another.
 Nodes are the persons or organizations playing a part in a network.
 Ties are links or connections that bind individuals or organizations together.
 Through networks, people get connected, get updated, and become aware.
Social and Political Structures: Political Organizations
Objectives
 discuss how political organizations operate as an entity which maintains societal functions,
 recognize the differences among different types of political organizations, and
 analyze social and political structures.
 In a classroom setting, what are the functions of the elected class officers?
 Do you believe that their existence is needed for the maintenance of order in the class?
Learn about it!
Social and Political Structures
Social and political structures are both constructs formed as a result of large scale ties and relations in society.
Social structure, in a general sense, refers to patterned institutions or groups in society where people work, act, and live together.
Examples: Social class and social institutions like the government and legal community, LGBT community, and professional community
The political structure, on the other hand, is used to call on the institutions and political entity organized in agreement with regulations, laws, and
norms of society or of the entity itself. A society based on political structure may follow totalitarianism, authoritarianism, or democracy.
Learn about it!
The Need for Political Organizations
The need for social order, public affairs and functions, and conflict resolution are perennial or inevitable. In this premise, the foundation goals of
political organizations are required.
Political organizations are entities in a society formed for administrative or political functions. They refer to the scheme or design of power and
authority in society. Political organizations define the scope and limits of power.
Society, to achieve and maintain its goals and functions, needs an authority figure to set social control and lead people. Issues like allocation of
social and political roles, the exercise of political power and authority, and resolutions for conflict and clash are among the recurring problems every
society faces.
The questions rest on who takes the lead in addressing such problems. On this ground lies the need for political organizations. Serving as the
authority, they set rules and roles and direct actions to take.
Special interests of a particular group may also be addressed through political organizations such as labor unions, political parties, interest or
advocacy groups.
 Labor unions collaborate or negotiate with the company administration to raise employee concerns regarding salary increase, benefits,
and labor rights.
 Political parties are formed for staging interest in the government seat.
 Advocacy and interest groups are designed for campaigning the rights, privileges, and concerns of a particular group of people in
society. Such group of people may not be represented in government
Learn about it!
Types of Political Organization
There are four recognized types of political organizations. They are bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and states.
Band
The band is the most traditional and smallest type of political organization. Familial ties connect a band. Politically independent, a band usually does
not recognize the formal government. There are no written codes or laws. There is no organized group of leaders. This is the result of their tendency
and nature of moving from one place to another in search of food or shelter.
Tribes
Tribes are traditional societies comprised of people or group of people connected by social, religious, ancestral, or cultural ties. Bigger than a band,
tribes are usually settled in one place and do not rely on hunting and gathering but on agriculture for subsistence. Just like bands, tribes do not
observe formal governments.
Bands and tribes are egalitarian societies. This means that they see people of the same age and gender as equals. For instructions and decision,
they rely on group consensus.
Chiefdom
Chiefdom, unlike tribal societies, is a permanent and formal government. Chiefdoms are formal political organizations in a traditional society based
on kinship or the leadership of selected families.
State
A state is a formal political organization in a modern or industrial society regarded as an organized community under a government. Characteristics
of a state include owning a certain territory, having a particular group of people to lead it, a group of people to take administrative roles, and freedom
from external or foreign control.
Explore!
Why does society need an authority figure?
What type of leadership or leaders should people have to achieve maximum success in maintaining peace and order?
Try it!
Give at least three political organizations. Write their objectives and projects in society.
What do you think?
Imagine the world without political organizations. What do you see?
What can we expect from people or from a society which works and operates without the supervision of a political organization?
Keypoints
 Social structure refers to patterned institutions or groups in society where people work, act, and live together.
 Political structure is used to call the institutions and political entities organized in accordance with regulations, laws, and norms of society
or of the entities themselves.
 Political organizations are entities in a society formed for administrative or political functions.
 A band is a group of nomadic people connected by familial ties.
 Tribes are traditional societies comprised of people or groups of people connected by social, religious, ancestral, or cultural ties.
 Chiefdoms are a formal political organization in a traditional society based on kinship or the leadership of selected families.
 A state is a formal political organization in a modern or industrial society regarded as an organized community under a government.
Social and Political Structures: Authority and Legitimacy
Objectives
 enumerate and explain the three types of authority,
 discuss how power, authority, and legitimacy work as essential components of a social and political structure, and
 analyze social and political structures.
 Are power and authority the same? Are authority and legitimacy different?
 How do these components work together in a social and political structure?
Review!
Social and Political Structures
Social and political structures are both constructs formed as a result of large-scale ties and relations in society.
Social structure, in a general sense, refers to patterned institutions or groups in society where people work, act, and live together.
Examples: Social class and social institutions like government and legal community, LGBT community, and professional community
The political structure, on the other hand, are institutions and political entities organized in agreement with regulations, laws, and norms of the
society or of the entities themselves. A society based on the political structure may follow totalitarianism, authoritarianism, or democracy.
Learn about it!
Power
According to Thomas Hobbes, power is a natural inclination that is sought continuously by individuals. In sociology and politics, power is the ability
to get others to do things even when they might not want to. Put into action either through coercion or persuasion, power, in simpler terms, is the
ability 'to do.' Power may be exercised through coercion or the use of sanctions, punishment, or threat.
The presence of unlikely consequences may force people to do things. Sometimes, the use of coercion is not necessary to get people to work.
People may work freely and willingly if persuasion, reason, and incentives or positive reinforcements are presented. It is noteworthy that society
works based on power. Ideally, though, a society imposing its power without the use of coercion is most efficient.
States have power because they can make laws. The police enforces laws by the use of force. If you disobey the law, you will be fined or jailed.
However, we want to be able to make a difference between cases in which it is right that the state has power, and cases in which it is objectionable
or wrong in some way. To make this distinction, the concepts of authority and legitimacy is needed.
Learn about it!
Authority
Authority is the right to command. Authority is observed when an individual has a command to make a person do things. Such act is a response to
that person’s perceived power. This person can be your boss, your superiors, or those who hold high positions in society.
Aside from what has been mentioned above, authority is shown when a person is an expert in a particular matter. We ask engineers to make our
buildings and structures stand firm. We ask specialists for some health concerns. We ask teachers for learning strategies.
To clarify the concept, take this example. Public officials are elected by the people and are bestowed with rights to rule and exercise administrative
roles based on existing societal laws. Professionals, on the other hand, gain authority after effectively learning through years of practice in their
respective fields. Authority is more than power. Authority is guaranteed by legitimacy or in a formal manner. Authority is the sum of power and
legitimacy.
Having all these things presented, authority is the quality of a person, institution, rule, or order. It is also the right or control over giving commands,
making verdicts, or enforcing actions.
Learn about it!
Legitimacy
Legitimacy gives form to authority. Together with power, legitimacy dresses authority. It is said to be a symbol or representation–like professionals
having their licenses, employees wearing their uniforms, and laws being written as formal documents.
In the most basic sense, a state is said to be legitimate if it exists and operates according to the law. If a government is legitimate, then in some way,
the fact that it has power is justified. If so, then we can argue that we ought to obey it. If power is objectionable, then we do not tend to have an
obligation to follow it.
Legitimacy is a belief that a rule, institution, or leader has the right to govern. Legitimacy is the force that makes an action of a governing body
necessary.
Three Types of Authority
According to the sociologist Max Weber, there is a category as to how authority is legitimated as a belief system. These are traditional, charismatic,
and rational.
Explore!
In your opinion, which type of authority or legitimated rule is more applicable and valid in modern times?
Try it!
Give two evident examples (government, religious order, or scenario) for each type of authority or legitimate rule.
 traditional
 charismatic
 rational
What do you think?
Why are authority and legitimacy vital components in acquiring and maintaining peace and order in society?
Keypoints
 Power can be defined as the ability to get others to do things even when they might not want to.
 Authority is the legitimate or socially approved use of power.
 Legitimacy is the right and acceptance of authority, usually a governing law or a régime.
 Traditional authority is based on a system in which authority is legitimate because it "has always existed."
 Charismatic authority rests on the unique qualities of a leader who shows that he possesses the right to lead under magical powers,
prophecies, heroism, etc.
 Rational authority is based on a system of rules that is applied administratively and judicially per known principle.
Economic Institutions: Reciprocity
Objectives
 define and explain the functions of economic institutions,
 discuss the concepts of reciprocity in line with sociology and economics,
 analyze the activities of different economic institutions and their impacts on the global community, and
 relate the practical application of reciprocity to one’s daily life.
If you have been given something, is it expected for you to return the favor? Why or why not?
Learn about it!
Economic Institutions
The term 'economic institutions' has a broad meaning. Let us find out.
The term 'economic institutions' refers to:
 a network of commercial organizations that determine how goods and services are produced, generated, distributed, and purchased
Examples: producers, manufacturers, retailers, wholesalers, buyers
 the particular agencies or foundations devoted to the gathering or studying of economic data, or authorized with the job of supplying goods
and services that are necessary to the economy of a country
Examples: the Philippine Bureau of Internal Revenue, the U.S. Federal Reserve, the National Bureau of Economic Research
 the popular and thriving arrangements and structures that are part of culture or society
Examples: competitive markets, the banking system, a system of property rights
Learn about it!
Reciprocity
What is reciprocity?
In Sociology
It is defined as the a system of voluntary exchange among individuals based on the understanding that the giving of favor by one will be reciprocated
in the future either to the giver or to someone else.
Example:
Filipinos practice utang na loob. This act is part of our culture. When a person shows you an act of kindness, it is a must for Filipinos to return the
favor.
In Economics
It is defined as an exchange of equal advantages.
Example:
Japan and Philippines made an economic agreement to remove traveling restrictions to flourish the tourism of both countries.
Types of Reciprocity
What are the types of reciprocity?
Generalized
Generalized reciprocity is giving something without the anticipation of an instant return.
Example:
When a friend gave you a birthday gift, it is not expected that you will also give that friend a gift in return on the same day, although it is anticipated
that you will give him a gift or token sometime in the future or when his birthday comes.
Balanced
Balanced reciprocity is giving out of something with the anticipation of immediate return.
Example:
When you get something from the store and walks out without paying for the goods, you will be stopped by shop employees because you have not
reciprocated with money the goods that you picked from the store.
Negative
Negative reciprocity occurs when the exchange of something already involves taking advantage of someone or the situation. Most of the time, this
type of exchange involves trickery, intimidation, or hard bargaining.
Example:
Province X has no source of electricity for a long time. X Electric Company made an agreement with the officials of the province to provide them with
power supply. In exchange, the whole area should not entertain any other electric company to offer the same services to them.
Learn about it!
Economic Institutions, Reciprocity, and the Impacts on the Global Community
We have learned in Chapter 2 that economic institutions involve activities such as producing, generating, distributing, and purchasing goods and
services. These activities have an impact on the global community.
See the illustration below.
Legends:
 blue: economic institutions
 red: activities of economic institutions
 yellow: global community
The activities with economic institutions play vital roles in shaping and maintaining the stability of world community. If one system fails to do its
activity, there will be an imbalance that will highly affect the whole community.
Learn about it!
Practical Application
Reciprocity always necessitates adequacy of responses but does not mean that it should be of the same amount or volume. More than economic
gain, reciprocity is more of a social benefit. We have to make use of this principle to bring us closer to our neighbors, friends, family, and loved ones.
Explore!
Think of at least three scenarios or situations where generalized reciprocity can be applied.
Try it!
Compare and contrast generalized from balanced reciprocity. Give examples for each.
What do you think?
How does negative reciprocity affect the activities of different economic institutions? What do you think will be the impact of these on the global
community?
Keypoints
 Generally, economic institutions refer to the network of commercial organizations that determine how goods and services are produced,
generated, distributed, and purchased.
 In sociology, reciprocity is defined as the system of voluntary exchanges among individuals based on the understanding that the giving of
favor by one will be reciprocated in the future either to the giver or to someone else.
 In economics, reciprocity is defined as an exchange of equal advantages.
 There are three types of reciprocity: general, balanced, and negative.
 The activities of economic institutions play vital roles in shaping and maintaining the stability of the global community.
 More than economic gain, reciprocity is more of a social benefit.
Economic Institutions: Transfers
Objectives
 explain the concepts of transfer or transfer payment concerning economics, and
 analyze the level of activities of different economic institutions concerning transfer and the impacts on the global economy.
 Are you aware of the different kinds of goods and services that private and government sectors provide for the people?
 Does the present government provide more goods and services than it did in the past?
 How does the government redistribute more income?
Review!
Learn about it!
The Functions of Economic Institutions
The economy of a particular country like the Philippines is composed of different institutions that play a significant role in providing the needs of the
people. These institutions perform economic activities that start from production to distribution of goods and services to the people.
Here are some of the functions of economic institutions in society:
 Enhance development through financial services
 Provide business opportunity to people by financing and loans
 Fund research projects aimed at improving the lives of the individuals in the society
Transfers
In economics, transfer or transfer payment is a redistribution of income or resources in the market system. It refers to payments or transactions
where there is no value added to the economy. There is no additional production of goods and services but just a transfer of money from private
hands to government.
Examples:
 Taxes
 Social security
 Private pension benefits
 Housing
 Health care
Transfer payments can originate from either government or business sources. Business transfer payments include corporate gifts to non-profit
institutions, payments for personal injury, and taxes paid by domestic corporations to foreign governments. Far more important, both, in terms and
policy significance, are transfer payments originating from government sources.
Learn about it!
How Transfers Work in the Government
The government as an economic institution also provides commercial goods to the people in the form of public services and transfer payments.
In the Philippines, the government is allocating a huge amount of money to finance different programs like education, infrastructures, health, and
defense.
Among the government agencies that received the highest allocations are:
 the Department of Education (DepEd) with PhP 411.905 billion,
 the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) with PhP 384.287 billion, and
 the Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG) with Php 124.229 billion
In the United States, transfers are payments made to individuals by the federal government through different social benefit programs.
In Canada, transfers are payments made to all provinces and territories by the federal government.
Learn about it!
Economic Institutions, Transfers, and the Impact on the Global Economy
Transfer as an activity of every economic institution, such as the industry, finance, and services, distribute part of their income or profit to provide
essential services and assistance to some segments of society, especially the underprivileged, to help uplift their living conditions without expecting
anything in return.
To help you analyze statement above, look at the diagram shown below:
In the circular flow of the economy, households and firms pay taxes to the government. In return, the government distributes transfers in the form of
services to the household and subsidies to the firms.
The activities of the household, markets, businesses, government, or financial institutions as economic systems have a great impact on the global
economy because they provide goods and services needed by people not only of a particular country but also by the world community. The stability
of a country's economy has a direct impact on the global community for it determines its ability to provide the needs of its people. It also contributes
to the stability of the world.
Explore!
Imagine that the Philippine government is doing its job in solving the rampant problem of smuggling. More taxes are collected, and local and foreign
industries are protected. In the end, more effective and efficient services are provided to the people. How do you connect this scenario to the lesson?
Try it!
If you become a wealthy individual who is willing to share part of your fortune to others, which among the basic needs (food, housing, education,
health) will be your priority? Justify your answer.
What do you think?
Why are there many Filipino families who still do not have access to essential goods and services to support their everyday living?
Keypoints
 Economic institutions are sectors of the economy that provide goods and services to the people.
 One of the activities of different economic institutions of a particular country is to provide transfers.
 A transfer or transfer payment is a redistribution of income or resources in the market system.
 The circular flow of economy helps explain the interrelationship of different sectors of the economy.
 Government and private enterprises play major roles in the world economy.
 The activities of the economic institutions of a particular country have a great impact on the global community.
Economic Institutions: Redistribution
Objectives
 explain the concepts of redistribution in relation to sociology, economics, and politics;
 analyze the level of activities of different economic institutions concerning redistribution and the impacts on global community; and
 recognize the various forms of redistribution in own community.
 What do you expect the government will do with the taxes they collect from the people?
 In your church, in what programs or projects do you think they spend the donations coming from the members?
Review!
Learn about it!
Redistribution
What is redistribution? Why is it an important activity of societies? How do you compare redistribution from reciprocity?
In relation to Sociology
Redistribution is an everyday activity of societies. Members of the society contribute by giving their goods that would be collected by the head of
the community followed by a distribution of the goods among the members.
Example:
A) Church tithes
The church acts as the central organization that pools the goods donated by its members in the form of tithes or donations. The church manages
these tithes and donations for the maintenance of the church itself and its projects and programs in which most of the time, its members are the
recipients. By that process, the tithes or donations given by the members are being redistributed to them, especially the less fortunate members.
B) Potlatch
It is a ceremonial distribution of property and gifts celebrated by most Pacific Northwest tribes. In every celebration, each person invited to
a potlatch receives a gift. Ceremonial formalities were observed in the distribution of gifts or goods by the donor according to the social rank or status
of the recipients.
Potlatch in Relation to Economics
Traditionally, the potlatch is the economic system of the natives of South America. Today, the potlatch is still evident in our economic system. How?
Example:
In our society today there are rival companies. Let us consider these companies as the rival groups of Native Americans. Company A releases one
product to the market; the Company B will try to surpass that product by releasing their product better than the product of the Company A.
Learn about it!
In Relation to Economics
Redistribution refers to the collection of goods and services of people and groups to be given by a central authority for allocation.
Example:
When the government collects taxes from its population, the government becomes the centralized authority where all taxes are pooled and
managed. The taxes that were pooled will be returned to the people in the form of social services, welfare benefits, infrastructures, and others which
the government will spearhead.
In Relation to Politics
Redistribution is the process by which electoral districts are added, removed, or changed. This process is a form of boundary delimitation that
changes electoral district boundaries, usually in response to census results. In democratic governments, redistribution is required by law or
constitution.
Example: In the United States, redistribution happens after each ten-year census. The state legislature approves most states' legislative district
redistributions. The highest court rulings require that congressional districts have roughly equal populations.
The table shows a comparison between redistribution and reciprocity.
Learn about it!

Economic Institutions, Redistribution, and their Impacts on the Global Community
As we have learned in Chapter 3, redistribution refers to the collection of goods and services of people and groups to be given by a central authority
for allocation. Both producers and consumers are economic institutions in which the government or central authority collects taxes from them
and allocates these funds for projects which are also for the use of economic institutions. If one failed to do his function, there would be dysfunction
and economic imbalance in society.
Redistribution in the Family or Community
Redistribution is evident in our society. Family, as the smallest unit of society, performs simple redistribution. The mother or father, as the head of the
household, collects a part of his or her children’s income and allocates it to food and pending bills. This serves as the basis for sustained community
efforts under a political leader.
Explore!
Think of ways on how redistribution is being effectively practiced in your family, school, barangay, and municipality or city.
Try it!
Get a partner. Think of at least three situations where small-scale redistribution can occur in the community.
What do you think?
How does redistribution contribute to the development of society?
Keypoints
 Economic institutions refer to the network of commercial organizations that determine how goods and services are produced, generated,
distributed, and purchased.
 In sociology, redistribution is the system of exchange that involves the centralized collection of products from members of a group
followed by the distribution of those goods among the members.
 In economics, redistribution refers to the collection of goods and services of people and groups to be given by a central authority for
allocation.
 In politics, redistribution is the process by which electoral districts are added, removed, or changed.
 Potlatch is a ceremonial distribution of property and gifts by the donor according to the social rank or status of the recipients.
 Taxation is the process where the government collects taxes from people to turn into social services.
 Church tithes are the donations that are given to religious institutions to be used for their programs and projects.
 A redistribution is a form of reciprocity. It differs from mere reciprocity, which is a back-and-forth two-party exchange.
 The activities of the economic institutions play vital roles in shaping and maintaining the stability of the global community.
 Family, as the smallest unit of society, performs redistribution.
Economic Institutions: Market Transactions
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
 define market, market transactions, and market equilibrium,
 enumerate the different kinds of market structures and market transactions,
 demonstrate an understanding of market transactions as mechanism of distribution of goods and services by making wise and informed
decisions, and
 analyze economic organization and its impacts on the lives of people in society.
 What is a market?
 What is a market transaction?
 How do markets and market transactions affect the lives of people in a society?
Learn about it!
Market
A market is a place or medium where buyers and sellers interact to transact economic goods and services. The meaning of market is not limited to a
certain place, location, or geographic area; rather, it focuses on people who are willing and capable of buying or selling goods and services.
In a capitalist economy, markets answer the three basic economic problems of: what to produce, how to produce, and for whom to produce.
Learn about it!
Market Structures
Market structure is the classification of a market with regard to key characteristics, such as number of sellers and buyers, entry barriers to the
market, the control and determinant of pricing, and types of products in the market.
 A pure competition market is a market structure characterized by a large number of sellers and buyers, homogenous products, and
complete freedom of entry and exit of market players.
 A monopoly is a market structure characterized by a single seller of a well-defined product for which there is no available substitute and
high barriers of entry of other market players. The seller has complete control of the pricing of goods and services.
 Amonopolistic competition is a market structure characterized by a large number of independent sellers, each producing a differentiated
product in the market with a low barrier to entry of other players.
 An oligopoly is a market in which only few sellers comprise the entire industry with a relatively larger number of buyers. Sellers, therefore,
have the power over the price of products.
 Amonopsony is a market in which there is only one buyer.
Learn about it!
Market Transactions
A market transaction is the exchange of goods and services through a market where buyers and sellers agree on the price and quantity of goods
and services to be bought and sold in a specific place and time.
Market transactions taking place in the economy could be a tool in:
 measuring the total output of the economy or the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country thereby becoming one indicator of growth
and development of a society, and
 providing the basic data that are used by economic planners and forecasters.
Learn about it!
Types of Markets
There are different types of markets. Each one has unique characteristics and functions.
Physical Markets
This is a set up where buyers can physically meet the sellers and purchase the desired merchandise from them in exchange for money.
Examples: shopping malls, department stores, retail stores
Non-Physical Markets or Virtual Markets
In such markets, buyers purchase goods and services through the internet. The buyers and sellers do not meet or interact physically, but transact
online instead.
Examples: Rediff shopping, eBay, Amazon
Auction Market
In an auction market, the seller sells his or her goods to the highest bidder.
Market for Intermediate Goods
Such markets sell raw materials (goods) required for the final production of other goods.
Black Market
This is a setup where illegal goods like drugs and weapons are sold.
Knowledge Market
This is a setup that deals with the exchange of information and knowledge-based products.
Financial Market
This market deals with the exchange of liquid assets (money). Financial markets can be further categorized into the following types:
 stock market–a form of market where sellers and buyers exchange shares
 bond market–a marketplace where buyers and sellers are engaged in the exchange of debt securities, usually in the form of bonds.
 foreign exchange market–a market where parties are involved in the trading of currency; In this market, also called currency market, one
party exchanges one country’s currency with an equivalent quantity of another.
 predictive market–a setup where the exchange of good or service takes place for future use
Explore!
Imagine yourself in a street where lots of goods are being sold for lower prices. Will you still buy these goods even though you are aware that these
goods are most probably counterfeit? Will you still be patronizing them?
Try it!
Make a simple business plan for a unique product to be sold in a monopolistic market.
What do you think?
How does the continuous decrease of the price of petroleum in the world market affect the producer and seller of the product? Does it affect the
world's economy as whole? How?
Keypoints
 A market exists whenever there is an interaction between buyers and sellers.
 Market structures are mechanisms of the economy to answer the basic economic problems of production, distribution, and consumption.
 Market equilibrium became the balancing force between demand and supply of goods in the market.
 A market transaction occurs because of the exchanges of goods and services between consumers and producers.
Economic Institutions: Markets and State
Objectives
 differentiate the role of markets and states in running the economy,
 determine the dividing line between markets and states, and
 discuss the four competing economic models and analyze their impact in the world community.
 Why do many countries remain poor while others are rich?
 In our country, the rich become richer and the poor become poorer. Is there any explanation for this?
 Who will take the lead to solve these problems?
Review!
Learn about it!
Markets and State
 A market is a place where buyers and sellers transact economic goods and services. It is also a mechanism used by society for allocating
and distributing the goods and services produced.
 A state is a group of people, more or less numerous, with a definite geographical area, with defined territorial boundaries, independent of
external control, and ruled by a government through laws where inhabitants have to conform by force in the common interest. In
economics, a state is always referred to as thegovernment.
 The market, as a mechanism used by different economic institutions in the distribution of goods and services that the economy produced,
always relies on the very mechanism it uses−the price of the products. Meanwhile, the state uses its inherent power and authority in
allocating goods and services.
Learn about it!
The Dividing Line Between Markets and States
 In the Philippines, some products are purely market-driven. with some products, the government can intervene in production and pricing.
An example of this are utilities and selected essential services.
 In a global perspective, model market economies such as the United States and Singapore are characterized by freedom of choice and
enterprise, private ownership of all economic resources, a prevalence of competition, and the presence of market mechanism. While in a
state-driven economy like China, the government largely controls the industry.
The two mechanisms significantly differ in the way they allocate goods. In a market economy, those who can afford the price of the product have
more, while a state-run economy has a principle of having something according to the need.
Learn about it!
Competing Models of Economic Organization and Their Impacts on Global Community
Market Economy Model
The market economy model of Taiwan, Korea, and Singapore prevails in the production of goods, competitiveness, flexibility, and high growth rates
that are manifested in the economy. A high level of inequality prevails, resulting to a high incidence of poverty among people, a problem in the
environment, and vulnerability to financial crisis.
State Capitalist Model
The state capitalist model of Russia and China shows the power of government in the production of goods but with passivity in social and
environmental issues. High and steady growth rate evident but a high level of inequality is also manifested.
Central Planning Model
The central planning model of North Korea dominates the entire economic activity of production as well as the social context. This model wants to
create a classless society. In the long run, it is counter-productive, and lower growth rate or even economic stagnation occurs.
Social Market Economic Model
The social market economic model of most European countries depends heavily on the role of the market in the distribution and allocation of
products. The economy and the government is very active in providing social welfare to the people. This leads to equality and harmony among
people and government, but a high level of taxation is evident.
Let us analyze these four competing economic models and their impacts on the global community. It is notable that the government, private
corporations, and multinational companies have to join hands in uplifting the lives of the people, protecting and preserving the environment, and
creating a caring society so that this world would be a better place to live in.
Explore!
Imagine yourself in North Korea as a travelling journalist-economist. What kind of story will you be writing about the country?
Try it!
Based on this lesson, make a travelogue showing what countries you will be visiting based on economic status or model.
What do you think?
There are fundamental standards or criteria in analyzing economic models as suggested by some economists. These are:
 Is the living condition of people in society improved?
 Is the growth of economy aimed at raising the standard of living?
 Is the societal income equally distributed among members?
 Is there a guarantee that a standard of living is being maintained?
 Do established institutions respect human rights?
 Are there enough provisions for the education and health of the underprivileged?
Are these standards fit for the four competing models of economic organization? Why? Why not?
Keypoints
 Economic institutions evolve to distribute efficiently and allocate goods and service to members of society.
 A market is a place where buyers and sellers transact commercial goods and services. It is also a mechanism used by society for
allocating and distributing the goods and services produced.
 The state, always referred to as the government, is a group of persons, more or less numerous, with a definite geographical area, defined
territorial boundaries, independent of external control, and ruled by a government through laws where inhabitants have to conform by
force.
 In the Philippines, some products are purely market-driven. In some, the government can intervene in production and pricing.
 In the United States, the model market economy is characterized by freedom of choice and enterprise, private ownership of all economic
resources and prevalence of competition, while in China, the government largely controls the industry.
 The four competing economic models that greatly affect the global community are market economy model, state capitalist
model, central planning model, and social market economic model.
Nonstate Institutions: Banks and Corporations
Objectives
 define non-state institutions, banks, commercial banks, corporations, and articles of incorporation,
 enumerate the different kinds of banks and non-banking institutions,
 analyze the role of banks and corporations in the economy of the country, and
 discuss the functions of banks and corporations in the economy.
 What are non-state institutions?
 How do non-state institutions such as banks and corporations affect society?
Learn about it!
Non-state institutions
Non-state institutions refer to institutions that are organized by private individuals or groups for the purpose of providing services to the members
of society. These institutions are not controlled by the government but are regulated through laws and statutes of the state.
There are non-state institutions that play vital roles in the economy because they are the ones providing the needs of the people that the government
cannot provide. However, a corresponding price or payment is needed in exchange for their services.
Typical examples are different kinds of financial institutions, specifically a bank, and different kinds of business organizations, specifically a
corporation.
Learn about it!
Financial Institutions
Financial institutions are organizations that serve as bridges or intermediaries that facilitate the flow of money in various transactions. This means
that financial institutions serve as links between the source of funds, the depositor, the fund user, and the borrower.
Banks receive savings and deposits of their clients. These may be loaned out to borrowers.
Example:
Juan dela Cruz has PhP 10,000.00, which he has saved from his salary as a manager. He deposits it at Maharlika Bank, which offers a 2% interest
per annum. This would mean that if he does not withdraw any of his savings, he will get 10,000.00 + 2% = 10,200.00 after one year.
Now, Mr. Entrepreneur needs PhP 7,000.00 because he wants to put up a sari-sari store. He borrows PhP 7,000.00 form Maharlika Bank.
Can you see the flow of money? Juan gets more than PhP 10,000.00 after a year. At the same time, he is able to help Mr. Entrepreneur put up a
business. These would not have happened without the help of Mahalika Bank since Juan and Mr. Entrepreneur do not know each other.
Banks started during the Renaissance period in Italy. The word 'bank' traces its origin from the Old Italian word banca which means 'table' or 'bench,'
and is where transactions occurred at that time.
The role of a financial institution as a link in the transfer of money from the source to the borrower is very important to our economy.
Banks provide safe-keeping place for money and valuables of individuals. They also perform a role in settling payments and credit intermediation.
Learn about it!
Banking Institutions
The Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas is known as the banks of all banks in the Philippines. It is the bank responsible for the regulation, creation, and
management of monetary supply in the country.
These are the different types of banks:
 Commercial banks accept savings deposits, check deposits, and time deposits. Examples of Philippine commercial banks are Bank of the
Philippine Islands andMetrobank.
 Thrift banks are categorized into stock savings and loan associations, savings and mortgage banks, and private development banks.
They consolidate the savings deposits of their members into a fund from which their members can draw loans with interest. They also
accept deposits from the public and provide loans for small- and medium-scale enterprises.
 Rural banks cater primarily to farmers and small business people, mostly in rural areas.
Learn about it!
Corporations
A corporation is an organization of people legally bound by a charter to conduct some type of business. It has a legal entity separate from its
owners. The type of business that a corporation wants to venture in depends on its articles of incorporation.
Articles of incorporation are written applications to the government requesting permission to form a corporation. This will give the name, address,
and type of business for the corporation; the names of the officers, and the initial amount of money being put into the business.
Alfred Chandler, a renowned business historian, explained how modern corporations propelled the growth of modern economy and was fascinated
on how the people that make up large corporations managed to "coordinate complex production processes" and "produce the wealth of the nations."
The following are the advantages of corporations as business organizations in the economy:
 easy to raise funds–since the corporate form is the most effective for raising money
 limited liability–the concept that owners of the business are only responsible for its debts up to the amount they invest in the business
 unlimited life–not ceasing to exist if a major stockholder dies
 specialized management–affording to have specialized managers to run the business
 shared risks–spreading business risks among many owners
The following are the disadvantages of corporations as business organizations in the economy:
 difficult to start–needs government approval before starting the business
 less direct control–owners that are usually far from the day-to-day operation of the business
 double taxation–corporate taxes that need to be paid by the corporation and the owner who received dividends from the profit
 limited activities–limited activities by the article of incorporation
Explore
One of the hottest issues in the Philippine banking industry is the $81 million allegedly stolen from the Bank of Bangladesh and laundered into the
Philippines through the banking system and casinos.
What do you think is the impact of this particular case to the Philippine banking industry and to the whole Philippine economy? Are you in favor of the
on-going investigation by the Senate about the issue? Will you still trust our banks and big financial corporations?
Try it!
Put aside a portion of your weekly or monthly allowance in a bank. Document your experience in opening your savings account.
What do you think?
Matthew, Mark, and John, being good buddies since high school, decided to put up a corporation named MMJ Corp. The articles of incorporation
state that they will be selling beauty products. They borrowed money from the banks using their cars as collateral. The first 3 years of operation
became successful because they were able to dominate the market.
As years passed, numerous competitions emerged, their sales gradually dropped, and their profits are now dwindling and near bankruptcy. They are
behind in loan payments, owes money from suppliers, behind workers' compensations, and owes taxes to the government.
It seems as if MMJ Corp. will go out of business. Matthew, Mark, and John are worried that creditors will force them to turn over their personal
savings and sell their cars to have money to pay their business debt.
1. Can MMJ Corp. creditors force Matthew, Mark, and John to turn over their personal savings and sell their cars to pay the debts? Why or
why not?
2. Do you think it is fair to the three buddies? Do you think it is fair to the creditors? Explain.
Keypoints
 Non-state institutions refer to institutions that are organized by private individuals or groups for the purpose of providing services to the
members of society.
 Financial institutions are organizations that serve as bridges or intermediaries that facilitate the flow of money.
 The Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas is known as the banks of all banks in the Philippines.
 There are three kinds of banks: commercial banks, thrift banks, and rural banks.
 A corporation is an organization of people legally bound by a charter to conduct some type of business.
 The advantages of corporations are: easy to raise funds, limited liability, specialized management, and shared risks.
 The disadvantages of corporations are: difficult to start, less direct control, double taxation, and limited activities.
Nonstate Institutions: Cooperatives and Trade Unions
Objectives
 define cooperatives and trade unions,
 explain the different types of cooperatives and examples of trade unions,
 enumerate the purposes of organizing cooperatives and trade unions, and
 discuss the functions of cooperatives and trade unions as non-state institutions that promote self-help among people in society.
 Are there ways to improve the predicament of many low-income individuals who continually struggle to meet their daily needs?
 Do people have the power to improve their lives through collective efforts?
 Is social justice attainable in this country?
Review!
Non-state Institutions
 Non-state institutions refer to systems that are organized by private individuals or groups of people for the purpose of providing services
to members of society. The government does not control these institutions, but they are regulated by laws and statutes of the state.
 Non-state institutions play vital roles in the economy because they are the ones providing the special needs of the people that the
government cannot easily give.
 Two crucial non-state institutions promote self-help and self-reliance among its members and at the same time give leverage to people for
development. These are the cooperatives and trade unions.
Learn about it!
What are Cooperatives and Trade Unions?
A cooperative is a voluntary organization of people who have agreed to pool their resources together to undertake an economic enterprise to meet
their everyday needs. A cooperative is something that they democratically manage, control, and share the economic benefits by participation and
patronage (Cooperative Development Authority, CDA).
Trade unions or labor unions are voluntary associations of either employees, employers, or independent workers to protect their interest and
become an instrument of defense against exploitation and maltreatment.
The commonalities of these two non-state institutions are the following:
 organized and formed by a group of people to protect their interest,
 promotes the common good among members, and
 voluntary in nature.
Below are the different types of cooperatives.
Here are some examples of trade unions.
Learn about it!

The Differences Between Cooperatives and Trade Unions
As to the Purpose:
As to Function:
Learn about it!
Cooperatives and Trade Unions as Means of Promoting Self-help Towards Economic Development
Cooperatives are self-help organizations presently utilized by the government as more efficient tools for economic development. These are also
business enterprises which affiliates own, manage, and control following accepted democratic principles. Members are not organized primarily for
profit nor to serve other persons, but to address the needs of their members. Memberships in cooperatives are voluntary and open to all those who
need their services. Members share economic benefits from unions in proportion to the individual member's patronage of the business or enterprise.
Trade unions are always fighting for better wages by improving employees pay and other benefits such as holiday entitlements.
Functions:
 Secure improvements in employees' working conditions, including hours of work, health or safety at work, improving pensions, and industry
injury benefits.
 Provide improved standards of living.
 Safeguard the interest of workers by encouraging firms to increase employee participation in decision-making.
 Prevent employees from exploitation.
With trade union on a place, strikes can be avoided, thus resulting in stability and growth of the firm. This promotes unity, spirit of self-reliance, and
self-respect, and may lead to economic development.
Explore!
Imagine a construction worker earning minimum wage with no additional benefits from the employer, no security of tenure from his work, and can be
terminated any time of the day. What can cooperatives and trade unions do to improve his condition?
Try it!
Now, you are aware that cooperatives and trade unions are vital institutions in the economy that foster self-help and self-reliance. Soon, if given a
chance, what role do you prefer to play, an employee or an employer? Why? How would you promote the importance of cooperatives and trade
unions?
What do you think?
We are aware that different kinds of cooperatives and trade unions were organized and formed in various parts of the country, but still, some of their
members are struggling every day to meet their needs. What do you think is the reason why most cooperatives and trade unions failed in fulfilling
their functions? Are there external factors that contribute to their failure? What do you think are these factors?
Keypoints
 Non-state institutions refer to institutions that are organized by private individuals or groups of people for the purpose of providing
services to the members of society.
 A cooperative is a voluntary organization of persons who have agreed to pool their resources together to undertake an economic
enterprise to meet their everyday needs.
 A trade union is a voluntary association of employees, employers, or independent workers to protect their interest.
 The different types of cooperatives are consumer, credit, producer, marketing, and service.
 Examples of trade unions are transport groups, workers welfare organizations, and employers’ associations.
 The functions and purposes of organizing and establishing cooperatives and trade unions are critical in promoting economic
development.
Nonstate Institutions: Transnational Advocacy Groups
Objectives
 define transnational advocacy groups,
 explain the functions of transnational advocacy groups, and
 discuss the significance of transnational advocacy groups in society.
You may already know that non-state institutions exist to play its part in local and international politics and policy-making.
Do you know the specific functions and roles these non-state institutions play in society?
Learn about it!
There are numerous kinds of non-state institutions that play roles across macro-level social concerns. One of these institutions is a transnational
advocacy group which will be discussed and elaborated in this lesson.
What are Transnational Advocacy Groups?
Transnational advocacy groups are networks, not bound by any national or international border, that defends a cause or proposition. They are a
group of people from different walks of life who advocate for policy changes that are in line with their interests and the interests of others.
Transnational advocacy groups are greatly established through interactive and communicative networks across numerous countries that operate
under the same advocacy or principle. Though they may have little power in the traditional politics, they have learned to appropriate their limited
power in such a way that they can influence social change and belief systems.
Learn about it!
What are Transnational Advocacy Groups?
Transnational advocacy groups use a variety of political tools to influence international policy and practice. These tools are:
 information politics–the ability of groups to control or limit the release of information so as to provide a realistic and broader picture of a
certain issue; Doing so does not necessarily guarantee a good image for the government.
 symbolic politics–linking past events to another in order to provide a possible outcome for a similar, presently-occurring event.
 leverage politics–creating linkages with other groups to gain moral and financial support in advocacy.
 accountability politics–monitoring the action of states to ensure their commitment; The responsible state or company’s accountability on
the matter shall be made known to the public should any discrepancy between commitment and result occur.
Transnational advocacy groups may be made up of non-government organizations (NGOs), politicians, bureaucrats, or representatives from private
corporations and businesses.
Examples of Transnational Advocacy Groups
 International organizations for human rights (e.g. Center for Individual Rights)
 Non-government organizations for environmental welfare (e.g. Earth Rights International)
 Groups advocating for women’s rights (e.g. International Women’s Tribune Center)
Learn about it!
Functions of Transnational Advocacy Groups
 They change political and policy-making focus: Issues raised by transnational advocacy groups are actual issues of the common
population. Implicating moral and emotional forces, these groups refocus the most important issues in society.
 They redefine issues: These groups, through wise use of information, repackage issues into more general and unbiased forms. As such,
positions on various issues are influenced to change, with some being on the advocacy networks’ favors.
 They reframe information: As mentioned, transnational advocacy groups learned to control the flow of information to include unbiased
and broader pictures of existing issues. In doing so, a moral and emotional appeal will likely influence people to raise their advocacy and
concern for the phenomenon.
 They give a voice to the voiceless: Because of their moral and emotional impact on the public, coupled with their advocacy for
vulnerable groups, transnational advocacy groups give the voiceless and vulnerable people a chance to raise their concerns in the
international scene.
Learn about it!
Significance of Transnational Advocacy Groups in Society
Transnational advocacy groups have become the voice of the people in raising important, realistic issues that a vast number of people are
experiencing worldwide. In society, these groups maintain considerable influence through information dissemination—enough to shift the focus of
states in dealing with more immediate causes and concerns. As a result, transnational advocacy groups may change international policy or practice
to fit any raised concern or issue.
What makes transnational advocacy groups so important is their advocacy.
Explore!
Transnational advocacy groups have gained success because of their take on important issues that are relevant in the international scene. Can you
identify some of these issues that may be advocated by such groups?
Try it!
Think of a cause that you are very much interested to advocate. Create a poster or infographic that tells about your chosen advocacy. You may use
actual drawing materials or online software to create your poster. Be creative in making your poster. Once finished, you may opt to upload your
advocacy poster in any social media platform.
What do you think?
How are transnational advocacy groups able to get control of information dissemination?
Tips
 Transnational advocacy groups are made up of people with the same set of advocacies and beliefs. Being part of support does not require
any educational or career accomplishment.
 Transnational advocacy groups may form networks that span across countries or continents. This is the reason why they can easily involve
themselves in tackling international issues.
Keypoints
 Transnational advocacy groups are networks, not bound by any national or international border; that defend a cause or proposition.
 Transnational advocacy groups make use of political tools such as information, symbols, leverage, and accountability to ensure the
success of their advocacies.
 Transnational advocacy groups may be made up of non-government organizations (NGOs), politicians, bureaucrats, or
representatives from private corporations and businesses.
 Transnational advocacy groups primarily utilize their ability to control information in tackling international concerns and issues.
 What makes transnational advocacy groups so important is their advocacy.
Nonstate Institutions: Development Agencies
Review!
Non-state Institutions
 Non-state institutions refer to systems that are organized by private individuals or groups of people for the purpose of providing services
to members of society. The government does not control these institutions, but they are regulated by laws and statutes of the state.
 Non-state institutions play vital roles in the economy because they are the ones providing some special needs of the people, something
that the government cannot easily do.
Learn about it!
Development is an issue that all nations face. While the state has always focused on the matter, some non-state institutions also play a part in
targeting specific aspects of society for development.
What are Development Agencies?
Development agencies are local or international groups committed to pursuing specific developmental agendas of the state. Initially seen as an
immediate response to a common emergency, the rise of such agencies began after the World War II when there were war damage, industrial
decline, and dereliction. Over time, development agencies became popular methods of shaping economic strategies that can uplift the state. It is
reported that there are over 15,000 such organizations existing worldwide today.
These are the features and functions of a development agency:
 Economic roles: A development agency can take on entrepreneurial approaches—mediating between the government and the market—
especially when such tasks are outside of government responsibility. As leverages are formed, investment failures are avoided.
 Leadership roles: Development agencies set out long-term developmental goals. As independent groups, their capability to shape goals
and outcomes are not influenced by electoral or political changes.
 Governance and coordination roles: Agencies coordinate with the state in the attainment of developmental practices and methods. They
help overcome the jurisdiction of the public sector in making a sole decision on developmental goals.
 Implementation roles: A development agency can formulate its team to facilitate attainment of a defined growth strategy. This team is
focused on project management, instrument development, and business or investor-facing services.
While development agencies exist to aid in the attainment of developmental goals, their local and international functions are continuously updated
and reinvented to suit the needs of the state.
Examples of Development Agencies:
 International Development Organization
 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
 Overseas Development Institute
Learn about it!
Significance of Development Agencies in Society
 Development agencies assist the government in attaining a well-developed society through well-studied developmental strategies and
policies.
 Development agencies exist to promote business efficiency and competitiveness to increase economic growth and sustainable
development.
 Development agencies actively provide avenues for honing employment strategies and opportunities.
Learn about it!
Millennium Development Goals and the Role of Development Agencies
In 2000, the United Nations (UN) sought measures to enhance human life by aiming to attain eight developmental goals by the year 2015.
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) project, as they are collectively called, called action and support from nations and local and
international development agencies to promote the following causes by 2015:
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender equality and empower women
4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop a global partnership for development
The assistance provided by all agencies involved proved to be significant as the UN was able to gather enough data to assess and address each
MDG. However, according to reports, further data are needed for a post-2015 development agenda that will be tackled by the United Nations in the
following years.
Explore!
Development agencies are not only limited to the local scene but also active in tackling and addressing international policies and issues.
Partnerships with such groups continue to expand because of the seemingly successful businesses and developmental strategies brought about by
various groups on different issues.
In your perspective, what would occur if no development agencies existed to aid states?
Try it!
Read about the Millennium Development Goals and choose one of the eight major issues tackled. Upon making your choice, try to find a movie or
video clip that talks about your chosen issue. You may watch more than one clip if you like. After watching, try to reflect on the impact of such global
concerns to your local community or country.
What do you think?
What development issues should development agencies prioritize to resolve?
Tips
 Development agencies are available and functional in any country, regardless of that country's level of development. Wealthy and
developed countries are no exemption from needing the help of development agencies to reach their full potentials.
 Development organizations may be based locally or abroad, and may tackle local or international issues that are relevant to an individual
nation or state.
Keypoints
 Development agencies are local or international groups committed to pursuing specific developmental agendas of the state.
 Development agency has four functions and features, namely: economic, leadership, governance and coordination,
and implementation.
 Development agencies assist the government in attaining a well-developed society through well-studied developmental strategies and
policies.
 The Millennium Development Goals project was created by the United Nations in 2000 to address eight relevant issues and
developmental challenges by 2015.
Nonstate Institutions: International Organizations
Objectives
 define international organizations,
 explain the functions of international organizations, and
 discuss the significance of international organizations in society.
You may be familiar with groups that are actively existing across various nations. Seemingly, there is a headquarter in every country for such groups.
 What are these groups?
 What are the reasons they are situated across many countries?
Learn about it!
Organizations that have branches in numerous countries are known as international organizations. These organizations play a prominent role in
facilitating global and international changes and advocacies that demand the betterment of a certain cause. In this lesson, you will learn more about
international organizations and their contributions to society.
What are International Organizations?
International Organizations are groups that promote voluntary cooperation among its members. These started out during the rise of city-states in
Greece, but significantly emerged during the French Revolution. Further improvements on the purpose and functions of international organizations
were laid out during the early 19th century when nations decided that such a group is needed to preserve the status quo and avoid inter- and intra-
state conflicts.
At present, international organizations may or may not be handled by the government. It was reported that there are 6,000 non-government
organizations compared to only 250 under the government.
International bureaucracies manage International Government Organizations (IGOs), but authority remains ultimately in the state. IGOs work
together with non-government international organizations to successfully reach a common goal. However, note that in this lesson, international
organizations are only taken and discussed in the context of non-state or non-government organizations.
Learn about it!
What are International Organizations?
The following conditions should be met for one group to be called an international organization:
 There must be membership from at least three states or nations.
 Activities must occur across several states.
 Members must have formally agreed to be part of the organization.
Apart from the abovementioned conditions, international organizations must also follow the rules set by the International Law Commission to function
legally as a recognized international organization.
Examples of Non-Government International Organizations
 United Nations Environment Program
 European Union
 World Health Organization
Learn about it!
Functions of International Organizations
 an acquaintance of information: International organizations have the capability to access relevant information for a specific cause. They
also have the capability to monitor trends and progresses of longitudinal empirical researches.
 provide service and aid: These organizations, especially the bigger ones, provide various types of services to people depending on the
cause. For example, an international organization tackling health may provide free vaccines to a specific nation hit by a dangerous
epidemic.
 provide avenues for communication: Being part of an international organization means that members from different parts of the world
get to easily voice out their concerns to one another. This may lead to easier communication and work flow.
 provide avenues for settling disputes: Because international organizations’ members continuously communicate with each other,
disputes and misunderstandings over certain issues and concerns may easily be resolved. As such, organizations provide opportunities for
communication through regular meetings and updates.
Learn about it!
Significance of International Organizations in Society
International organizations establish a connection to issues not only occurring in a certain nation, but also across the organizations’ various
locations. Because of this, an international issue can be made into a cause.
People of different societies and nations—not limited to social class or status—are made part of a global community that will aim to resolve, as one
unified group, identified international conflicts as well as provide outcomes suitable to address global issues being tackled.
Explore!
Long-existing international groups have already made a name for themselves on the world stage. With many issues and challenges to tackle, each
international group had made a specific focus on their cause, function, and existence.
If you were to put up your own international group, which countries would you choose to put it up? What cause will you advocate?
Try it!
Get a piece of paper and list down all international groups that you are familiar with. Take your time in doing so. Once finished, search online a list of
other international organizations you may not be familiar with.
What do you think?
How does an international organization operate if it is situated in different countries?
Tips
 International organizations may vary in size—dependent on the number of offices and countries they partnered with. Some organizations
are big, with headquarters in more than 100 countries.
 International organizations, like development agencies, may also put a focus on developed countries. While most international
organizations’ agendas are focused more on developing countries, the aim to target a rich and well-developed country is also plausible.
Keypoints
 International Organizations are groups that promote voluntary cooperation among its members.
 The following conditions should be met for one group to be called an international organization: (1) there must be membership from at
least three states or nations, (2) activities must occur across several states, and (3) members must have formally agreed to be part of the
organization.
 Functions of international organizations include: an acquaintance of information, provide service and aid, provide avenues for
communication, and provide avenues for settling disputes.
 International organizations establish a connection to issues not only occurring in a certain nation but also across the organizations’
various locations. Because of this, an international issue can be made into a cause.
Education: Functions in Society
Objectives
 define education as a fundamental human right,
 explain the functions of education in society,
 evaluate the effect of education in one’s and society’s growth and development, and
 help promote primary education as a human right.
―Education is a right for developed countries and a privilege for developing countries.‖
 Why is education a right?
 What makes education important?
Learn about it!
Education
Education is a fundamental human need by which human existence of striving and developing depends on.
 Education is a fundamental right.
 Education is a process of learning.
If put together, the equation would be:
Education + Right = A right to an education.
When put into effect, education helps people acquire knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits to communicate better with himself or herself,
society, and the world.
Formal and Non-formal Education
Formal education happens inside a classroom and facilitated by a professional teacher. It is a classroom-based, structured, and sequentially
graded system. It includes primary, secondary, undergraduate, and graduate schools.
Non-formal education is any learning experience or training outside the organized formal system. This type of teaching may include attending
seminars, workshops, and community-based sports program. Unlike formal education which is based on concrete structure or curriculum, non-formal
education follows less structured guidelines.
Learn about it!
Functions of Education in Society
Education does not only serve an individual, but also the society where one belongs. Formal or non-formal, it is an avenue where people acquire the
knowledge needed in dealing with the demands of daily living.
Here, people learn religion, philosophy, law, grammar, history, literature, arithmetic, music, arts, and sciences. Through education, learners learn
values desired to survive and face challenges which happen on a regular basis.
Skills are also taught in school. Students are exposed to activities like singing, dancing, encoding, selling, and other life skills. When all these are
applied, people are led to community-building.
Effects of Education in Society
Education contributes to the economic progress and social environment in a community or society.
Self-actualization
Lifelong learning or education may lead a learner in attaining self-actualization. Self-actualization, in Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, is
considered as the highest level of human need. It is becoming everything that one is capable of. Self-actualization is manifested when individuals
experience real and passionate joy and wonder. Following these experiences of joy and wonder is people becoming exposed to inspiration, power,
or transformation.
Productive Citizenry
Education helps society produce informed, responsible, and capable citizens. Productive citizens are those who work and maximize their potentials
and skills. They are those who contribute to the realization of individuals and collective success.
Learn about it!
Primary Education as a Human Right
The right to education is a universal prerogative to education. Everyone has the right to education. Regardless of your race, age, gender, ethnicity,
disability or status, you are entitled to enjoy this fundamental human right.
International Legal Basis
 The right to education is on Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Articles 13 and 14 of the International Covenant
on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights.
 The right to education has been reaffirmed in the 1960 UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education, the 1981 Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, the 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, and the
African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights.
 In Europe, Article 2 of the first Protocol of 20 March 1952 to the European Convention on Human Rights states that the right to education is
"recognized as a human right and is understood to establish an entitlement to education."
Learn about it!
Fulfillment or Implementation
The 21st century has been a witness to the progress that global education underwent. Presently, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics,
more than four out five can read and write. Illiteracy, on the other hand, translates to 757 million adults and 115 million youth worldwide.
These trends of global and sustainable education and decreasing illiteracy figures are the result of growing calls and programs for upholding
education as a fundamental human right. Despite the aforementioned, poverty, inaccessibility, and lack of political initiative remain on the scene, and
if left unresolved, might suppress future improvements.
Explore!
Is attending class for five days in a week essential in your life? Why or why not?
Cite some daily experiences which prove that education is important in one’s life.
Try it!
Why is education important in your life? Write at least five reasons.
What do you think?
What is education’s biggest contribution to society’s growth and development?
Keypoints
 Education is a basic human right. It helps man acquire knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits to communicate better with himself,
the society, and the world leading to progress and development.
 Formal education is a classroom-based, structured and sequentially graded system of education.
 Non-formal education is any learning experience or training outside the organized formal system.
 Self-actualization is manifested when individuals experience real and passionate joy and wonder.
 The productive citizenry is achieved through political, social, and economic development.
Religion and Belief Systems: Animism
Objectives
 recognize animism as an essential belief system, and
 recognize how animism is expressed in other religions of the world.
 What is animism?
 How did animism influence the growth and development of the major religions of the world?
Learn about it!
Animism and its Beliefs
Animism is the belief that all natural entities have spirits or souls. It views all things like animals, plants, and inanimate objects as sacred life forms.
In the ancient times, people worshipped nature for adoration, blessings, thanksgiving, and protection. They prayed for sustained abundant harvest,
good health, good fortune, and peace in their community.
Animism is an act of respect. In animism, all things are to be honored. Our human ancestors displayed this through rites like offering sacrifices,
dancing, and praying in dedication to spirits, souls, nature, and even rivers, mountains, the sun, moon, and stars.
Learn about it!
Origin of Animism
Animism came from the Latin word anima which means 'breath', 'spirit', and 'life.'
It is widely believed that the inception of animism can be traced back to the ancient times before organized religions were formed. Because of its
primitive beginnings, animism is regarded as the foundation of the spiritual life of all cultures. Due to its unrecorded history, no one is credited as its
founder.
Early inhabitants of traditional hunting-gathering, agricultural, or pastoral territories were believed to have practiced animism. To name a few,
Indonesia, China, Thailand, Philippines, and other Southeast Asian territories were the cradles of animism in the olden times. Before Christianity,
ancient Filipinos worshipped spirits in nature to appease them and to provide them with life-sustaining resources.
Learn about it!
Animism: Religion or Belief System?
Animism is not like any of the major religions of the world. It has no worship site or structure, unlike the mosques of Muslims or church of the
Christians. It does not possess scriptures like Qur’an of the Muslims or Bible of the Christians. It cannot provide us with statistics about how much it
is practiced now and then.
According to anthropologist E. B. Tylor, animism is a theory of religion and is not a type of religion. Some academics argued that the use of this term
to pertain to the indigenous belief of existence of spirits in inanimate objects is no longer appropriate and necessary. These reasons are why debates
about its nature exist.
Religion is an organized system of beliefs and practices that explains the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe. It involves societal
organization and moral code that governs human affairs and order of existence. For every religion, there is a belief system. Belief systems are sets
of principles that help interpret natural and supernatural occurrences that affect lives.
No religion exists without a belief system. However, belief systems may exist with or without religion or an organized entity.
Learn about it!
Animism Today
Today, animism is not practiced in isolation but expressed in many forms and observed in both modern and traditional settings. Manifested by their
respect and worship rites for natural elements, religions around the globe clearly apply teachings of the primitive religion. Hinduism, Jainism, and
Shintoism are some religions whose beliefs and practices subscribes to that of animism's.
Shintoism, the native religion of Japan, worships the existence of natural objects such as mountains, rivers, rocks, and trees.
Hinduism, which originated in India, believes that the earth is an expression of their gods and therefore must be preserved and venerated.
Jainism, a traditional Indian religion, observes non-violence towards all creatures.
Explore!
What are your thoughts about animism? Do you find it worth applying in your life?
Try it!
Write four personal experiences or situations wherein your actions subscribed to the teachings of animism.
What do you think?
How does respect for inanimate objects help people build a moral attitude?
Keypoints
 Animism is the belief that all natural entities have spirits or souls. It views all things, like animals, plants, and inanimate objects, as sacred
life forms.
 Religion is an organized system of beliefs and practices that explains the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe. It involves societal
organization and a moral code that governs human affairs and order of existence.
 A belief system is a set of principles that helps interpret natural and supernatural occurrences that affect lives.
 Shintoism is the native religion of Japan which worships the existence of natural objects such as mountains, rivers, rocks, and trees.
 Hinduism is a religion that believes that the earth is an expression of their gods and must therefore be preserved and venerated.
 Jainism is a traditional Indian religion known for observing non-violence towards all creatures.
 Animism is not practiced in isolation but expressed in many forms and observed in both modern and traditional settings.
 Early inhabitants of Indonesia, China, Thailand, and other rice-growing or agriculture-based territories were believed to have practiced
animism. People worship nature for adoration, blessings, thanksgiving, and protection.
Religion and Belief Systems: Monotheism and Polytheism
Objectives
 classify major religions of the world as either monotheism or polytheism, and
 discuss the differences between monotheism and polytheism.
 How does monotheism differ from polytheism?
 Which of the existing religions belong to monotheism? Which belong to polytheism?
Learn about it!
Religion and Belief System
Religion is a set of beliefs and practices that provides its followers with an explanation or narration of how the universe, nature, and existence
works.
Every existing organized religion has its unique belief system. Belief systems are sets of principles that help interpret natural and supernatural
occurrences that affect lives.
Learn about it!
Theism
Theism is a category of religion that means 'the belief in the existence of a god, goddesses, or deities.' It comes from the Greek word theos, which
means 'god.' Theism is one of the principles that binds the belief system of religions of the world. In religion, these deities and gods are supernatural
beings who are believed to be sacred or divine creators, rulers of the universe, and sources of ethical authority.
Under theism, a religion may be a form of monotheism or polytheism. In a polytheistic religion, gods and goddesses are usually referred to as
"deities" as opposed to the usual term of "creator" or "supreme being" of monotheistic religions.
Monotheism
Monotheism is the belief that there is only one god to be worshiped as the supreme being. The word 'monotheism' was derived from the Greek
word monos, which means 'one', and theos which means 'god.'
The beginning of monotheistic religions can be traced back to ancient Egypt during the rule of Pharaoh Akhenaton who propagated the belief in one
god. The denial of existence of other religions' gods is a feature of monotheism.
Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are organized religions known to be a form of monotheism. Considered as the world’s largest religion with 2.4 billion
followers,Christianity is based upon the teachings of Jesus Christ who is believed to be the Son of God and Savior of Humanity.
Judaism is a religion that started in West Asia and founded by Moses. Its beginning, though, can be traced back to the time of Abraham. Jews
believed in the existence of only one god with whom they have a covenant.
Islam, just like Judaism and Christianity, is an Abrahamic and monotheistic religion that follows the teachings of Qur’an, their sacred text, revealed
by Allah to their prophet Mohammad. It is the world’s second largest religion with 1.6 billion followers worldwide.
Polytheism
Polytheism is the worship of many gods. The word 'polytheism' was derived from the Greek word poly, which means 'many,' and theos which
means 'god.'
Polytheism has always been equated with pluralism as it engages and promotes acceptance, diversity, and tolerance of differences. Polytheistic
religions are known to embrace the existence of the gods of other religions.
Hinduism is the best modern example of a form of polytheism, having known to worship over 300 million gods. Started in India 400 years ago, it is
the world’s oldest existing religion.
Explore!
Try to make observations on the beliefs and practices of monotheistic and polytheistic religions that exist in various countries, including ours. You
may also check video resources available online. Analyze your observations to have a deeper understanding of monotheism and polytheism.
Try it!
Think of essential things you can learn from being a follower of monotheism or polytheism. Write at least three (3) on the table.
What do you think?

 How does monotheism or polytheism affect the society where it is being practiced?
 In your opinion, is the number of gods one worships a measure of one’s faith?
Keypoints
 Religion is a set of beliefs and practices that provides its followers with an explanation or narration of how the universe, nature, and
existence works.
 Belief systems are set of principles that help interpret natural and supernatural occurrences that affect lives.
 Theism is the belief in the existence of a god or gods. Theism is a category of religion, and under it are monotheism and polytheism.
 Deities and gods are supernatural beings who are believed to be sacred, divine creators and rulers of the universe, and sources of ethical
authority.
 Monotheism is the belief that there is only one god to be worshiped as the supreme being. Christianity, Islam, and Judaism are examples
of monotheistic religions.
 Polytheism is worshipping more than one god. Hinduism and Shinto are examples of polytheistic religions.
Religion and Belief Systems: Institutionalized Religions
Objectives
 define and explain institutionalized religion as part of the belief system,
 describe the similarities and differences among organized religions in the Philippines, and
 analyze the roles an institutionalized religion plays in an individual and society.
In the Philippines, children are taught by their parents on what religion to write down in any school form. They will often continue to declare their
given religion until they fully understand their beliefs.
What does the given scenario imply?
Learn about it!
Religion and Belief Systems
Let us take the general and straightforward meaning of religion and belief system.
Belief System
 It is an ideology or set of principles that helps people to interpret everyday reality. This ideology could be in the form of religion, philosophy,
political affiliation, or spirituality, among many others.
 It defines people's personal sense of "reality." Every person has a belief system that he or she utilizes, and it is through this mechanism
that he or she individually "makes sense" of the world.
Religion
 It originated from the Latin word religo which means 'ritual' or 'good faith' and from the Greek word threskeia which means 'to tie fast or
bind together.'
 It focuses on the creator-creature relationship or connection. It revolves around the thought of how the creator relates to his creation,
especially humanity, and how humanity ought to relate to the creator.
Religion is limitless and open. It is something that exists as time exists but, when changed or tampered with or separated and ripped in different
directions, becomes an institutionalized religion.
Learn about it!
Institutionalized Religion
 It is formed by a sect, meaning, it is closed but not limitless.
 It is also known as organized religion, a social institution established to express people's belief in a divine power. Its beliefs, practices,
and rules are formally organized and codified.
Determined by their number of followers and believers, the Philippines' leading institutionalized religions are Roman Catholicism, Protestantism,
Islam, and Buddhism.
Each organized religion has its unique belief system.
Buddhism
Buddhists believe that all beings suffer, desire causes suffering, desires can be overcome, and that enlightenment or ultimate reality may be
achieved.
Islam
Muslims believe that there is only one god, Allah, and one prophet, Muhammad.
Roman Catholicism
Roman Catholics believe that both the Bible and sacred Roman Catholic tradition, such as belief in the purgatory, prayers to saints, and worship of
Mary are necessary.
Protestantism
Protestants believe in the sufficiency and authority of the Scripture for salvation.
Learn about it!
Religious Rituals and Practices
What are some of the rituals and practices of different institutionalized religions?
Protestantism
Protestant churches' necessary rites are the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's supper. The worship of images and statues is prohibited.
Roman Catholicism
The Catholic church has many rituals and practices like the holy mass, baptism, confession, receiving communion, praying the rosary, and anointing
of the sick. The Mass is the most important ritual among Catholics because it seen as a celebration of God's grace.
Islam
Islam's practices include daily confession of faith through prayers five times a day, almsgiving, fasting on Ramadan, and a pilgrimage to Mecca at
least once in their lifetime.
Buddhism
Buddhism rituals and practices include meditation, eating vegetarian meals, going for refuge, offering homage or respect to the Buddha, making
offerings, confession of faults, calling on spiritual forces for support or protection, and a dedication of merit.
Learn about it!
The Roles of Institutionalized Religions in Society
Institutionalized religions aim to provide people with answers to their questions about life, nature, or existence. These social institutions gather
people to have a common system of symbols, beliefs, values, and practices. Organized religion is more than just mere beliefs and practices. It is a
socialization agent who helps a group to form a particular identity of their own and gives people sense of belongingness. Religions make people
intact out of their similarities.
Religions may have differences in beliefs and practices, but they sure do share the same goals of uniting people, and understanding existence.
Explore!
Many grown adults consistently institutionalize a particular religion despite being agnostics or atheists. They consider themselves part of that religion
simply because their parents are, or because they are baptized into it. This is what happens when religion has become established in society. Even
when the fundamental beliefs in the religion have faded, its numbers remain high as a result of people's habitual form-filling behaviors.What are your
thoughts on these?
Try it!
Ask a friend whose religion is different from yours to invite you in to their religious service. After attending, compare and contrast the beliefs and
practices of your religion and your friend's. List down at least three differences and similarities.
What do you think?
What do people get from being a part of a particular religion? Why does it matter in people's lives?
Key Points
 Religion focuses on the creator-creature relationship or connection.
 A belief system is an ideology or set of principles that helps people to interpret their everyday reality. This ideology could be in the form of
religion, philosophy, political affiliation, or spirituality.
 An institutionalized religion is a social institution established to express people's belief in a divine power wherein beliefs, practices, and
rules are formally organized and codified.
Religion and Belief Systems: Separation of Church and State
Objectives
 explain the concept of the separation of Church and State, and
 identify the manifestations of the separation of Church and State.
 How did the concept of the separation of Church and State come about?
 What are the manifestations of the separation of Church and State?
Learn about it!
The Separation of Church and State
The church is a social institution composed of a group of people formed for religious purposes. The state, on the other hand, is a community
occupying a certain territory occupied by a population of common origin that has its own government which is free from foreign control.
The separation of church and state means freedom from each other. This principle draws a line between these two institutions. The state has a
freedom to conduct activities, enact laws, or enforce rules and regulations without the church interfering. On the other hand, the church can
implement its ecclesiastical affairs without the influence of the state. in other words, the government cannot support a religion, endorse religious
beliefs, or involve people to practice a specific faith.
Historical Background
In ancient history, leaders of early societies are deemed to have some form of divinity that legitimized their rule. During this period, religion and state
seems to be intertwined.
Later on, as religion and government became separate institutions (based on the history of Europe and the Roman Catholic religion), frequent
struggles of power between the two could be seen, especially during the medieval period. It was during the period of Reformation and Enlightenment
that the modern concept of separation of church and state began to take shape. Enlightenment philosophers such as Locke, Montesquieu, and
Voltaire tackled this concept and made numerous writings about religion and government.
The Age of Enlightenment is said to be influential to the drafting of the Constitution of the United States. The exact term ―separation of church and
state‖ was used by Thomas Jefferson in 1802 in a letter addressed to the Baptists as he tried to explain to them the First Amendment of the United
States Constitution about the freedom to exercise religion without the interference of the government.
In laying the foundation of a strong state, to avoid division in the society caused by differences in religious beliefs, and to prevent the establishment
of a national church, United States forefathers considered the separation of the two societal institutions.
Learn about it!
The Separation of Church and State Today
When it comes to the talk of the separation of church and state, the world is divided.
Following the principle that the government should not, in any way, form interaction with a church, countries which adhere to the concept include the
United States, Australia, India, and South Korea. It is noteworthy that these countries practice the separation of church and state differently or in
varying degrees of separation.
As opposed to the concept, certain countries like Spain and Islamic states declare official religion. Spain is officially a Roman Catholic state just like
the Vatican, Monaco, and Malta. Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Libya, Pakistan declared Islam as a state religion. Teaching and practicing ideas contrary to
the national religion is considered illegal in some countries. Such act can be seen as an anti-government behavior and may be a basis for one’s
imprisonment or death.
Learn about it!
The Separation of Church and State in the Philippines
In Article 2, Section 6 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, the fundamental law of the land, it is stated that the separation of Church and State shall
be inviolable. In the Constitution, the word ―Church‖ refers to all kinds of faith and the word ―State‖ refers to our country, the Philippines. What does it
mean to the country and to the Filipinos? See diagram below.
Learn about it!
Issues Regarding the Separation of Church and State
According to some, the existence of the concept of the separation of Church and State is a myth. Questions still linger and remain unanswered. Is it
not true that the United States was founded as a Christian nation? Is it not true that Philippine politics influence by how religious groups operate?
Does this concept discriminate the religious minorities?
Despite the existence of a wall that divides these institutions, it is important to keep in mind that this wall is not hostile or discriminatory, at least in
most countries. They are just there to define limitations and set up order in society in order to avoid conflict of interests.
Explore!
Cite events or instances wherein the principle of separation of church and state is upheld or violated. What good does this principle bring to society?
Try it!
Are you for or against the separation of church and state? Cite your arguments.
What do you think?
What kind of society will we have if the separation of church and state is not safeguarded by the 1987 Philippine Constitution?
Keypoints
 The church is a social institution composed of a group of people formed for religious purposes.
 The state is a community occupying a certain population of common origin that has its own government which is free of foreign control.
 The constitution is the fundamental law of the land.
 The separation of church and state is a principle based on the idea that the state has freedom to conduct activities, enact laws, or
enforce rules and regulations without the Church interfering. On the other hand, the church can implement its ecclesiastical affairs without
the influence of the state.
Health: Culture-Specific Syndromes and Illnesses
Objectives
 define health in a medical context,
 enumerate and explain culture-specific syndromes and illnesses, and
 discuss the diversity of culture-specific syndromes or folk illnesses in anthropological and medical perspectives.
Are there syndromes and illnesses that only your culture experiences?
Learn about it!
Health
As they say, "health is wealth." Good health is valuable. Without this, a person cannot enjoy the pleasure of being wealthy even if he or she is the
richest person in the world. Money cannot buy health and happiness.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health is "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity."
Health is achieved through proper nutrition, regular physical exercise, sufficient rest, and relief from stress. Poor health may lead to diseases.
Diseases come in different classifications and symptoms. There are diseases which are due to widespread and regular occurrences and are
distinctively known. There are also those which are rare and incurable. Interestingly, some diseases are very rare that they become particular to a
specific culture or population.
Learn about it!
Culture-specific Syndromes and Illnesses
Every culture is unique. To explain its uniqueness, we have to take beliefs and practices into consideration, such as in the case of culture-specific
syndromes and illnesses.
Also referred to as cultural disorders, folk illnesses are tendencies of mental or physical sickness which are particular to a small cultural population.
This physical or psychological instability does not follow the Western classification of ailments.
In the Philippines
 Usog or balis is a Filipino cultural syndrome where an affliction or disorder is attributed to a greeting by a stranger. It usually affects a
child, infant, or toddler. Vomiting, fever, nausea, or incessant crying may be signs of usog.
 Binat is a condition of critical ache or pain that is a consequence of continuous physical unrest. A person may experience this when after a
stressful work day, sickness, fatigue-inducing activity, physical activity, or failure to take a rest.
 Pasma pertains to a folk illness exclusive to the Filipino culture that is believed to be normally caused by exposure to cold (lamig) and
water in many forms. Triggered by heat and cold, symptoms include sweaty palms and uncontrollable shaking of the hands.
Learn about it!
In Some Parts of the World
The existence of culture-specific syndromes or folk illnesses is not limited to the Philippines. In other countries, there exist disorders which are
believed to be unknown in other parts of the world.
 In Malaysia,amok is believed to be an unexplained condition wherein the affected person is acting aggressively, killing residents and
animals.
 In New Guinea, kuru is a fatal culture-particular disease of the brain and nervous system, found among the South Foré people. Symptoms
include contracted face muscles, palsy, and the loss of motor control resulting in the inability to walk and eat.
 Windigo psychosis, which thrives among the North American tribes, is believed to be a condition characterized by intense craving for
human flesh for consumption or eating.
Many culture-specific syndromes or folk illnesses have been reported around the world by medical professionals and anthropologists.
Learn about it!
Medical Perspectives
Despite their existence and influence in the Filipino community and international setting, the nature and incidence of culture-specific illnesses are still
up for debate as there are no scientific claims considering them as medical conditions. In fact, the divide between psychiatrists and anthropologists
around the globe has been set up as a result of differences in perspectives to explain such isolated medical cases.
The American Psychiatric Association claims that culture-specific syndromes or folk illnesses are "limited to particular culture areas or societies
and are localized and diagnostic categories that frame coherent meanings for certain patterned, repetitive, and troubling sets of experiences and
observations."
Explore!
How does culture affect the existence, symptoms, and treatment of the different illnesses confronting the population of a community?
Try it!
Below is a list of cultural syndromes unique in the Philippines. Draw a check mark if you have personally experienced that particular syndrome;
otherwise, draw a cross mark. State the treatment for a particular cultural syndrome whether you have experienced it or not.
1. usog
2. binat
3. pasma
What do you think?
Given the fact that science cannot explain the existence of some rare diseases, should we still consider their existence as a fact of life and as part of
our lives?
Keypoints
 According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health is "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely
the absence of disease or infirmity."
 Culture-specific syndromes are tendencies of mental or physical sickness which are particular to a small cultural population.
 Usog or balis is a Filipino cultural syndrome where an affliction or disorder is attributed to a greeting by a stranger.
 Binat is a condition of critical ache or pain that is a consequence of continuous physical unrest.
 Pasma is believed to be normally caused by exposure to "cold" and water in many forms.
 In Malaysia, amok is thought to be an unexplained condition wherein the affected person is acting aggressively, killing residents and
animals.
 In New Guinea, kuru is a fatal culture-specific disease of the brain and nervous system. Symptoms include contracted face muscles,
palsy, and the loss of motor control resulting in the inability to walk and eat.
 Windigo psychosis, which thrives among the North American tribes, is believed to be a condition characterized by intense craving for
human flesh for consumption or eating.
Health: Diagnosis, Prevention, and Healing
Objectives
 explain the different concepts surrounding health like diagnosis, prevention, and healing, and
 discuss the cultural diversity of healing such as traditional, Western, and alternative systems.
 Can you name top ten most common health issues in the Philippines today?
 What made them highly-occurring in our society?
Review!
Health
As they say, "health is wealth." Good health is valuable. Without this, a person cannot enjoy the pleasure of being wealthy even if he or she is the
richest person in the world. Money cannot buy health and happiness.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health is "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity."
Health is achieved through proper nutrition, regular physical exercise, sufficient rest, and relief from stress. Poor health may lead to diseases.
Diseases come in different classifications and symptoms. There are diseases which are due to widespread and regular occurrences and are
distinctively known. There are also those which are rare and incurable. Interestingly, some diseases are very rare that they become particular to a
specific culture or population.
Learn about it!
Diagnosis, Prevention, and Healing
Aside from being familiar with diseases themselves, it is equally important to be aware of some terms that you may hear when talking about bodily
misfortune. Such terms include 'diagnosis', 'prevention', and 'healing.'
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is the identification of the nature of illnesses or other problems by examining symptoms. This is made possible by a systematic analysis
of the symptoms or signs, assessment of test results, review of the background, and study of the possible causes.
Prevention
Prevention pertains to aiding individuals to avoid getting sick. This may also refer to detecting diseases early on so treatment can begin.
Healing
Healing is the restoration of well-being. After suffering from discomfort as a result of bodily disease, healing occurs when tissues, organs, or the
biological system are repaired or renewed. It is followed by the reappearance of normal functions of the body.
Learn about it!
Diagnosis, Prevention, and Healing
To easily understand, let us check this example.
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome or AIDS is an illness characterized by vulnerability to infections and diseases as a result of weakened
immune system. This is caused by a Human Immunodeficiency Virus or HIV. Symptoms include fevers, weight loss, fatigue, or night sweats.
Diagnosis:
The doctor can diagnose HIV by testing blood for the existence of HIV antibodies or disease-fighting proteins.
Prevention:
The cure or vaccine for HIV is yet to be discovered. People are asked to practice protected sex, and avoid sharing needles for injection.
Healing:
Despite the absence of drugs to combat HIV, researchers have designed therapies that extend years and quality life.
Learning the diagnosis, prevention, and healing process will not lessen the pain a person faces when afflicted with a certain ailment, but it inevitably
makes us more aware. It gives people the notion that after naming a disease and learning how to stop it, healing begins.
Learn about it!
The Cultural Diversity of Healing Practices
The vast variety healing practices are found around the world and represented in most urban areas. A general model of healing includes the
physiological processes central to the biomedical theory and the practice of healing that have physiological, psychological, and social effects.
Traditional
The World Health Organization notes that traditional medicine refers to traditional Chinese medicine, Indian ayurveda, and
Arabic unani medicine, as well as to various forms of indigenous medicine around the world. Traditional medicine accounts for approximately 40 %
of health care in China, and 80 % in Africa, with methods including the use of herbal medicines and animal parts or minerals, manual therapies,
and spiritual therapies to maintain well-being, to diagnose and treat illness (World Health Organization 2002).
Western
Western medicine is an evidence-based treatment of medical conditions with medications by medical practitioners and other healthcare providers
who engage methods developed according to Western medical and scientific traditions. Its origin can be traced in countries in Europe and Americas;
thus, the name. Examples include chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation performed by doctors, specialists, therapists, and nurses.
Alternative
Alternative medicine is any healing practice not supported by scientific method and biomedicine but is believed to have the same effects with that
of prescribed medicine. It tries to prevent and treat different conditions with techniques such as healing touch, energy, and herbal medicines.
Examples are acupuncture, chiropractic medicine, magnetic field therapy, and others.
Try it!
Below is a list of common illnesses. Write practical measures you follow to prevent the occurrence of such illnesses, and write measures you usually
take to get rid of them.
 flu
 sore throat
 stomach ache
What do you think?
What type of healing practice is most useful at present? Why?
Keypoints
 Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
 Diagnosis is the identification of the nature of illnesses or other problems by examination of the symptoms.
 Prevention pertains to aiding individuals to avoid getting sick.
 Healing is the restoration of well-being.
 Traditional medicine is the use of herbal medicines, animal parts or minerals, manual therapies, and spiritual therapies to maintain well-
being, to diagnose, and to treat illness.
 Western medicine is the treatment of medical conditions with medications by medical practitioners and healthcare providers who engage
methods that are developed according to Western medical and scientific traditions.
 Alternative medicine is not supported by scientific method and biomedicine, but is believed to have the same effects with that of
prescribed medications.
Health as a Human Right
Objectives
 explain the concept of health as a fundamental human right,
 discuss basic human rights standards as guides in designing a health care system, and
 determine the roles of society in enforcing health as a human right.
 Is health care a basic human right?
 Should rights for one cost money for others?
Learn about it!
Health
 It is defined as the state of a person being free of any illnesses or injuries with complete physical, mental, and social well-being.
 Health becomes a dynamic condition because of a body's constant adaptation and adjustment in response to the changes in his
environment.
Health as Human Right

Health is wealth as they always say. It might sound cliché, but it is a simple truth. If a member of the society is unhealthy and sick, there will be a
dysfunction in the community. It is the main reason health is considered as one of the primary concerns in every society. Thus, it became one of the
human rights.
In effect, World Health Organization first articulated the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights mentioned health as part of the human right.
Learn about it!

Human Right to Health
 It means that every person has the right for the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health which guarantees a health
system protection for everyone.
 It also covers the access to all medical services, adequate food, sanitation, decent housing, healthy working conditions, and clean
environment.
Human Right to Health Care
 It means that health care must be financed by the government for the people as a public good.
 There should be an accessible, acceptable, and good quality of hospitals, clinics, doctors’ service and medicines for everyone, on an
equitable basis, when and where it is needed.
Fundamental Human Rights Standards as a Guide in Designing a Health Care System
The design of a health care system must be steered by the following:
Universal Access
The access to health care must be universal, meaning, every person must have access to comprehensive, affordable, and high quality health care,
wherever and whenever it is needed.
Availability
There must be an availability of medical assistance, infrastructures like hospitals and health centers, well-trained health professionals, goods such as
drugs and medical equipment, and services like care and mental health in all communities.
Learn about it!
Quality
All health care provided must be of high quality, guided by quality standards, and are medically appropriate.
Acceptability and Dignity
Every health care institution must respect the dignity of people, must provide culturally sensitive care, must comply with medical ethics, and must
protect confidentiality. They must be sympathetic to the needs of every person based on age, culture, gender, and language.
Non-discrimination
Health care must be provided without any discrimination on health status, income, social status, ethnicity, race, age, gender, disability, language,
national origin, or religion.
Transparency
Any health related information must be accessible to every person. This will enable people to protect their health. Any finance and health care
transaction must operate in the most transparent way.
Participation
Every individual and community must take an active role in all decisions affecting people's right to health care.
Accountability
All public agencies and private companies must be held accountable for protecting people's right to healthcare. It can be through enforcing
standards, regulations, or independent compliance monitoring.
Learn about it!
Health Care Challenges in the Philippines
The country’s public healthcare system is harmed with problems. Some of these problems are:
 the shortage of health staff,
 the absence of sufficient facilities, and
 the socioeconomic hindrances of the poor in accessing health care.
According to the Philippine Health Service Delivery Profile, only four of the country’s seventeen regions meet the standard hospital bed to population
ratio.
In the proposed budget to be transmitted by Malacañang to Congress for review, PhP 87.1 billion has been allocated to the DOH, almost 50% higher
than their 2014 allocation.
Role of Society in Enforcing Health as a Human Right
As society helps to enforce health as a human right, its member will feel secured knowing that they have a right to the highest attainable standard of
physical and mental health that guarantees a health system protection for everyone. If every member is secured and is free from any illness or injury,
whether physical or psychological, its functions to society will be fulfilled. However, if society fails to contribute in enforcing health as a human right,
there will be a dysfunction in the community.
Explore!
What do you think might happen if health is not considered as an essential human right? How does it affect society?
Try it!
Think of the nearest health care center or hospital in your area, and assess if they follow the fundamental human rights standards in designing their
health care system. Put a check (/) on every standard that is evident in their health care system and answer the questions below.
Are all standards evident in their health care system?

If not, what can you suggest to fulfill these standards?
Keypoints
 Health is defined as the state of a person being free of any illnesses or injuries with complete physical, mental, and social well-being.
 Human Right to Health means that every person has the right for the highest attainable standard of physical and psychological health
which guarantees a health system protections for everyone.
 Human Right to Health Care means that health care must be financed by the government to the people as a public good.
 Universal Access refers to the accessibility of any health care whenever and wherever it is needed.
 Availability relates to the availability of health care infrastructure, well-trained health, goods, and services.
 Quality refers to the good quality that must be provided by the medical centers and hospitals.
 Non-discrimination means that health care must be supplied without any discrimination in intent or effect.
 Transparency means any health-related information must be accessible for every person concerning information, decision-making, and
management.
 Participation means the health care system must enable meaningful public involvement in all decisions affecting people's right to health
care.
 Accountability means the health care system must be accountable to the people it serves.
Social and Political Stratification, Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics

Social Desirables
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
 differentiate social from political stratification,
 explain the meaning and characteristics of social desirables,
 identify features of the systems of stratification, and
 examine stratification in the functionalist and conflict perspective.
Your financially-challenged friend is a service crew at a well-known fast food chain. The management considers him as the best member in the area.
One time, the owner came to visit the store. Your friend was assigned to assist, but instead of successfully aiding the owner, he made numerous
mistakes and failures throughout the site visit.
 In your perspective, what made your friend fail at such simple task?
 Is there a difference in terms of power between the service crew and the owner?
Learn about it!
Society is divided into several groups or classes that are different from each other in terms o socioeconomic capability. In the previous example, it
was clear that there was a difference in social class between the worker and the owner, thus making interaction varied and complicated.
This difference can be accounted by social desirables, a sociological concept that exists in all societies.
Social and Political Stratification
The dictionary defines stratification as 'something that has been arranged into categories.'
Social stratification refers to the kind and degree of distribution of resources within a social system.
Examples: wealth, status, prestige, and privilege
Political stratification is best explained as the extent to which such inequalities are enclosed in, or influenced by, political structures and processes.
Examples: involving influence, authority, or power
Learn about it!
The Meaning and Characteristics of Social Desirables
Social desirables are factors that affect social stratification. A social hierarchy exists because of the unequal distribution of social desirables—
property, power, and prestige—in a society where the larger population of financially-challenged individuals have less social desirables than the
smaller group of rich people.
The following describes each social desirable:
 property" income-producing assets that people own (e.g. real estate) that increase financial wealth
 power: the capacity to influence individuals or activities to achieve wealth and prestige
 prestige: an individual’s status among his peers in society
These three factors dictate one’s place in society. Ideally, the greater social desirable a person has denotes a higher position in society. Because
social desirables come hand in hand, more top class people become well-known and influential in society and, as such, are treated with greater care
and professionalism.
Examples:
 Service quality in high-end restaurants significantly differ from casual dining venues.
 In significant societal functions, good seats are usually reserved for high-ranking individuals.
 People quickly follow trends set by powerful and influential people.
Learn about it!
The Role of Social Desirables in a Functionalist Perspective
 In a functionalist society, all social elements are seen as contributing factors in reaching social equilibrium and balance.
 Social desirables serve as rewards for fulfilling certain social goals.
 Inequality is seen as universal and, therefore, allows unequal distribution of power, prestige, and property without disrupting the social
structure.
 The most important positions in society are rewarded the most.
Learn about it!
The Role of Social Desirables in a Conflict Perspective
 A conflict perspective views the attainment of social desirables as a constant competition for scarce resources.
 Inequality greatly exists in a society that drives people to compete for resources, resulting to social change and continuous conflict.
 People with social desirables are given more importance and priority than ordinary workers and individuals.
 Social desirables dictate how one should be treated in a society of inequality.
Explore!
Nowadays, people who have power, prestige, and property are not limited to politicians or businesspeople. They extend to local and international
celebrities who were found to be hugely influential especially among young populations.
Being part of the youth yourself, how do think these celebrities influence your peers? Do they affect you positively or negatively?
Try it!
List down ten people you know. These may be celebrities, relatives, friends, or anyone you know. On a sheet of paper, create three columns and
label them "Higher", "Middle", and "Lower" respectively. Try to categorize the names you have identified into one of the categories you have made.
Note that a person may only fall under one category. Once you have already categorized all names, identify the reasons why you placed them in
your chosen category.
What do you think?
Can all social desirables be passed on from one generation to another? Why? Why not?
Tips
 Social class may change depending on social desirables. For instance, if a poor person won big in the lottery and managed to develop
successful businesses from his winnings, then he is most likely to belong to a higher class than he did before.
 Power, prestige, and property do not necessarily need to be at high levels at the same time. A person, for example, may have power or
influence at societal issues but do not necessarily have properties at par with businesspeople, yet he remains to be at a high social
position.
Keypoints
 Social stratification refers to the kind and degree of distribution of resources within a social system while political stratification is best
understood as the extent to which such inequalities are encapsulated in, or influenced by, political structures and processes.
 Social desirables are factors that influence social stratification.
 A social hierarchy exists because of the unequal distribution of social desirables in a society where the larger population of financially-
challenged individuals have less social desirables than the smaller group of rich people.
 In a functionalist society, all social elements are seen as contributing factors in reaching social equilibrium and balance.
 A conflict perspective views the attainment of social desirables as a constant competition for scarce resources.

Social Mobility Systems
Objectives
 examine stratification in the functionalist and conflict perspectives, and
 identify characteristics of the systems of stratification.
 What is social mobility?
 What role does it play in society?
Learn about it!
Society has always consisted of different classes that are usually set apart by socioeconomic factors. However social and financial resources are not
always the basis for defining social class. There are various systems involved in social stratification, two of which will be highlighted in this lesson.
Social Mobility and its Systems
Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups from one social status to another. A movement may be vertical—going up or down the
social hierarchy, or horizontal—simply changing a social role within the same social class. Oftentimes, social status is seen as mainly dependent
upon socioeconomic factors like power, prestige, and wealth. However, in some cases, status is determined by cultural or spiritual norms. These
variations only specify that social mobility may also involve systems that may or may not be open to social change.
Social mobility may also be looked into in terms of generational factors.
An intragenerational mobility specifies the vertical or horizontal movement of social status in the course of one’s lifespan. A man who was poor as
a child but became rich as an adult is an example of this.
On the other hand, intergenerational mobility refers to the movement of social status across several generations. In this case, a man may be able
to live a high-status, lavish life because of the hardwork of his poor grandparents as blue-collared workers and the perseverance of his middle-class
parents to finish a college degree, eventually uplifting the financial status of their family and allowing their children to live better lives.
Learn about it!
Meaning and Types of Social Mobility Systems
A social mobility system may be an open or closed system. As expected, an open system is less constrictive compared to a closed one. Below are
their descriptions.
Open System
 This is composed of achieved statuses where social status is gained through merit or effort.
 Its members have access to different resources depending upon their social status.
 No formal restrictions on marriage across classes is emphasized.
 Social mobility is possible.
Example: class system
Closed System
 This is composed of ascribed statuses where societal membership is defined upon or prior to birth.
 Its members strictly follow spiritual and cultural norms as a way of life.
 Mobility from one group to another is not possible.
 Decision-making is also based on cultural and spiritual norms.
 At present, it is greatly implemented in some parts of India.
Example: caste system
Learn about it!
Social Mobility Systems: Functionalist and Conflict Perspectives
Social stratification involves various perspectives such as the functionalist and conflict points of view. In a functionalist view of stratification, all
factors involved within the social structure are seen as functional aspects that maintain social balance and equilibrium.
Meanwhile, a conflict perspective of stratification implies that society is in constant conflict, especially with the distribution of resources, due to
the existence of inequality where higher-ranking people are given priority and importance than lower ones.
Learn about it!

Social Inequality and the Social Mobility System
Inequality between open and closed systems must be seen as different in terms of underlying factors. Inequalities in an open system would involve
socioeconomic concerns.
Meanwhile, inequalities in a closed system may involve power and cultural relations. Responding to such inequalities in a closed system would be
relatively unsuccessful compared to responding in an open system.
Explore!
It is not easy for people who are part of the caste system to change from one status to another. As mentioned previously, social status is ascribed at
birth in a closed system. Usually, children inherit the status of their parents or grandparents. If you were part of the caste system, would you have
opportunities for personal growth?
Try it!
Go online and visit a video streaming website. Watch several videos that distinguishes between the class and caste system. Some helpful keywords
you may use are: ―Caste vs. Class System,‖ ―Open and Closed System,‖ or ―Caste and Class System.‖ In some videos, you will see actual activities
done within each system. Try to list as many observations as you can. Once finished, create your own description of each system based on what you
have listed down.
What do you think?
Can a class system shift to a caste system, and vice versa? Why? Why not?
Keypoints
 Social mobility is the horizontal or vertical movement from one social status to another by individuals or groups.
 Intragenerational mobility specifies a vertical or horizontal movement of social status in the course of one’s lifespan.
 Intergenerational mobility refers to movement of social status across several generations.
 A class system is an open system where status is achieved from merit or effort.
 A *caste system *is a closed system where membership is ascribed at birth.
 Social inequality is evident in both systems; however, it is the class system that can easily address and resolve these inequalities.
Social Inequalities
Objectives
 explain the different forms of capital and their contributions to social inequalities,
 discuss some relevant issues involving minority groups,
 identify characteristics of the systems of stratification, and
 examine stratification in the functionalist and conflict perspective.
You applied for a summer job at a small business unit. Because of your excellent communication and logical thinking skills, you quickly passed all
interviews and got the job. However, during the job offer, the HR manager informed you that because of your gender and the province you live in,
your salary will be ₱3,000 less than normal.
 Was there some form of inequality in the abovementioned situation?
 With which social group do such inequalities occur?
Learn about it!
Because of the existence of a dominant culture, practice, or norm, less-recognized sectors have become evidently discriminated against in different
aspects of life and society. Like the given example, unequal treatment in various forms may occur in any setting and may be made for even the
slightest reasons.
Social, Political, and Cultural Capital
Capital is accumulated labor that can produce profits or expand in form. The misconception is that capital only consists of financial value, but
according to Bourdieu, capital can take three forms—social, political, and cultural. These forms of capital initiate and significantly contribute to social
inequalities.
Social Capital
 It is a network of mutual relationships within a particular social group.
 It deals with interactions that strengthen group solidarity.
Political Capital
 It involves passing on public political policies to build up "goodwill" with the public.
 Public goodwill may be utilized whenever socially controversial policies or bills need to be approved without damaging public interest for
politicians.
Cultural Capital
 It is an accumulation and sharing of symbolic elements of society (e.g. skill, language, mannerism) within a specific social class.
 It may be embodied by a person, objectified by tangible materials, or institutionalized by qualifications or titles.
Learn about it!
Minority Groups
Minority groups are groups composed of less-dominant classifications in a society that experience disproportionately lower opportunities than their
dominant counterparts. Minority groups are characterized by distinct physical or cultural traits, unequal social treatment, subordination in society, and
high-level of group solidarity.
Some relevant issues involving minority groups:
Gender Inequality
 In some countries, women are paid relatively lower than men due to their sexuality and biological differences.
 The LGBT community has always been treated differently and discriminatively because they do not fall within a biologically-defined group.
Ethnic Minorities
 Because some minorities live traditionalistic lives far away from the city and technology, and some may appear differently than usual, they
have been consistently labelled and treated as people with minimal knowledge and capabilities.
 Lack of resources easily available for many are not utilized within their group, thus, they receive negative attention from the dominant
public.
Other Minorities
 This may include people with disabilities or people with religions that are less prevalent in society.
 These minorities experience discrimination at work, especially when the physically challenged have physical limitations, while the religious
have practices and beliefs that are greatly disagreed upon by the majority.
Learn about it!
Minority Groups in Functionalist and Conflict Societies
The existence of minority groups in functionalist and conflict societies are also embedded in each type of society’s principles.
In functionalist societies, minorities also play social roles that contribute to social balance and equilibrium. However, these functions are bound by
limitations and social norms.
In conflict societies, minority groups are seen as lower class individuals that will not be able to keep up with the consistent competition occurring
within the environment. In both societies, discrimination against minorities is possible.
Explore!
Even at their young age, school-age children experience acculturation by a dominant society that looks down on people who fall below prevailing
standards. These are evidenced by bullying incidences occurring among various ages and groups. Tolerance for ―simple‖ bullying reasons like skin
color, tone of voice, or physical deformity trains children to think of society as hierarchical rather than equal. This phenomenon continues to grow
abruptly even up to this day. If you ever become a parent, how would you let your child address these concerns?
Try it!
Based on your knowledge of history, list down significant social inequalities that occurred across various nations in the past. You may do further
research. At the end of the exercise, try to evaluate the current treatment of the same nation to its people.
What do you think?
Is there a need for social inequalities to be resolved? Why? Why not?
Tips
 At all times, the minority will be the one to experience social inequalities since the standards are set and fulfilled by the dominant group or
the majority.
 As emphasized, unequal treatment for minorities may be seen across different forms of capital. These inequalities may occur in society all
at the same time.
Keypoints
 Capital is accumulated labor that can produce profits or expand in form. It may involve social, political, and cultural capital.
 Minority groups are groups composed of less-dominant classifications in a society that experience disproportionately lower opportunities
than their dominant counterparts.
 Social inequality may occur based on gender, religion, ethnicity, or physical capability.
 In both functionalist and conflict societies, minority groups are treated unequally compared to the dominant group.

Global Inequalities
Objectives
 explain the relationships between states and non-state actors in the global community;
 discuss the meaning and characteristics of global inequality;
 examine stratification in the functionalist and conflict perspective;
 comment on implications of global inequality in developing nations; and
 suggest ways to address global inequalities.
The Philippines is rich in natural resources and human capital. Every province in the country is abrupt with export-quality products and raw materials
that are recognized from all over the world. Resources are continuously maintained, and production is abundant.
Imagine if we were the only country in the world to supply raw materials to every nation. What implications can it bring to our country and other
countries, especially those less developed than us?
Learn about it!
By just looking at the environment, it can already be seen that inequality exists in all forms. Some are just at the personal or micro level, while some,
like the example above, become national concerns. In this lesson, the macro perspective of inequality will be discussed.
Relationship Between State and Non-state Actors in the Global Community
The state is the institution implementing the functions of the government.
A non-state actor is an individual or organization that has powerful economic, political, and social power but is not allied with any particular country
or state.
As influential persons or groups, the non-state actor has the capability to influence decision-making in any national, or even international, concern.
The state recognizes the value of non-state actors in the achievement and implementation of goals in the national and global community.
Learn about it!
The Meaning and Characteristics of Global Inequality
Global Inequalities involve the concentration of resources among a select number of nations, as influenced by non-state actors, significantly
affecting the living and economic conditions of non-participating countries. It is usual that resources will be centered on developed countries.
Because of this, developing and poor countries will have to buy these resources from richer countries, making the cost of living greater while keeping
the economic condition and opportunities the same.
This will lead to poorer quality of life and less special opportunities for developing countries. A relevant concept involved in global inequality is global
stratification, the unequal distribution of social gaps across nations that are usually seen on the ratio between some deaths versus some live births
per capita as well as life expectancy. This concept describes the quality of life and socio-economic capabilities of nations to support such lives.
Examples:
 Locally-produced goods that have imported ingredients will still be priced higher.
 Salaries for the same job titles in two economically different countries will be significantly different.
 The risk for social inequality between a developing country’s classes may become greater.
Learn about it!
Global Stratification in Functionalist and Conflict Perspectives
Functionalist Perspective
 Global stratification is seen as a method of maintaining continued health and viability of all populations.
 Positive reasons are considered for the existence of global inequalities.
Conflict Perspective
 Global stratification allows for capable nations to compete for limited resources.
 Healthier, more organized nations have greater chances of acquiring goods or materials.
Implications of Global Inequality in Developing Nations
The world has become ―wealthier‖ since 2001, but according to research, 71% of the total population own only 3% of the global wealth. European
and Western countries handle the rest of the wealth. In projection, less developed countries will have fewer opportunities and capabilities in the
years to come. At 97% of the total global wealth, these rich countries may quickly acquire resources available to African and Asian countries. Having
an inverse relationship, the more developed these countries get, the poorer the developing countries will be.
Learn about it!
Addressing Global Inequalities
Because global inequalities are at the macro-level, it is also emphasized that they are focused on the same way.
Below are some methods by which global inequalities may be addressed:
 Ownership of properties and inclusiveness of the lower class
 Inclusive partnership across nations that focus on technological advancements and innovations
 Revise taxation plans, ensuring lower taxes for poorer people
 Monitoring and stopping labor abuse through higher wages, fewer work hours, bonuses, health benefits, and non-contractualization
Explore!
Global inequalities have existed and developed over the years. It has been greatly evident in through the deterioration of living conditions among
presently developing countries that have once been centers of culture and history of the world. In your perspective, what factors contributed to these
drastic changes?
Try it!
Have you been to another country? If yes, then try to compare that country with the Philippines. Remember what you observed: the people, their
culture, qualities, and norms in society. List the differences you found and determine the socio-economic impact of that country to the Philippines. If
you have been to multiple countries, you may choose to compare all of them. However, if you have never been to another country before, you may
search the internet regarding a preferred country and try to compare it with the Philippines.
What do you think?
Can global inequality realistically be lessened? Why? Why not?
Tips
 Unlike social inequalities, global inequalities look at the macro level and therefore focuses on nations and societies as a whole and not on
individuals.
 Other social factors such as social desirables and social inequalities may also play a role in the continuity and existence of global
inequalities.
Key Points
 Global Inequalities involve the concentration of resources among a select number of nations, significantly affecting the living and
economic conditions of non-participating countries.
 Global stratification is the unequal distribution of social gaps across nations that are usually seen on the ratio between the number of
deaths versus the number of live births per capita as well as life expectancy.
 In a functionalist society, global stratification is seen as a method of maintaining continued health and viability of all populations.
 A conflict perspective views global stratification as allowing for capable nations to compete for limited resources.
Cultural, Social, and Political Change, Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics
Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change: Innovation
Objectives
 define culture, society, and politics;
 explain the meaning, types, and importance of innovation;
 discuss innovation as the source of cultural, social, and political change; and
 evaluate factors causing social, political, and cultural change.
How is life from 20 years ago different from life at present? What technologies do you currently have that were not available before you were born?
Learn about it!
Cultural, Social, and Political Change
 Culture is a learned, shared, symbolic system of norms and values, beliefs, and attitudes that molds or shapes and influences perception
and behavior of human beings – an abstract "mental blueprint" or "mental code."
 Cultural change is the modification or discontinuance of existing tried and tested procedures transmitted to an individual society from the
culture of the past as well as the introduction of a new set of proceedings.
 Society refers to interacting people who share a culture while culture is the product of that interaction. In reality, human society and culture
cannot exist independently of each other.
 Social change is the alteration of social interactions, political institutions, stratification systems, and elements of culture over time.
 Politics refers to the process that determines who shall occupy roles of leadership in government and how this power shall be exercised.
 Political change is a significant shift in the structure of the government and the relationship of people to their government. It happens
hand in hand with social change, as the people are the ones that form the government.
Learn about it!
Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change: Innovation
The advent of technology has led to many discoveries and advancements that were never even imagined less than 100 years ago. In this lesson,
you will be taught on how innovation, as a technological factor, helps shape society, culture, and politics.
Innovation
 Innovation is an idea, translated into a tangible output, which is believed to produce excellent service and value, and is replicable at a
possible economic cost.
 In a more social context, innovations can be seen as a method for increasing financial gain through production, employment, alliances, and
joint venturing.
 In making innovations, it is reasonably acceptable and reasonable to take risks. It is in fact believed that innovations are a by-product of
well-calculated risks.
 These new changes result in the creation of new products that attract various market types and consumers.
Types of Innovation
1. Evolutionary Innovation - brought about by technological advances and repetitive methods to perfect a certain technological trend.
2. Revolutionary Innovation - newly-introduced innovations which may be disruptive and risky.
Learn about it!
The Importance of Innovation
 Creative innovations and solutions pave the way for fostering sustainable growth, securing jobs, and increasing competitive abilities.
 Through innovations, social problems such as education and poverty are addressed through the development and introduction of new and
feasible methods such as distance learning, money transfer, and zero-carbon housing.
 Through innovations, an increase in demand for research and development across different areas of modern living may be given focus.
 The emergence of innovations has become a global realization that traditional methods of dealing with societal issues may no longer be
applicable in modern society.
Learn about it!
Applying Innovation to Contemporary Society, Culture, and Politics
Innovation has a tremendous impact on communities around the world. Particularly in information technology, innovation provides connection among
people even when physically separated. A well-known by-product of innovation is social media that served to accelerate day-to-day interactions
among individuals.
Furthermore, social media platforms and other innovations act as vehicles to spread information all across the globe. Technology propagates
knowledge and discoveries at an unprecedented speed—bringing in new concepts and ideas that have a socio-cultural and political impact.
Explore!
As a millennial, you have come to know the world as fast-paced, technological, and innovative. However, you must also know that the world is
entirely different in the past. How do you picture the world from 30 years ago? In your perspective, how would you assess the quality of life back
then?
Try it!
Ask your parents to name technological, communicative, or electronic materials or gadgets that used to exist during their younger years. Do not ask
them what those things are, only the names. On your own, try to research on information about the gadgets your parents mentioned. Try to
determine their functions and usefulness in everyday life. After that, do think of present-day gadgets or devices comparable to your old gadgets.
What do you think?
In what instances can innovation be disruptive?
Tip
Note that innovation in business is different from the innovation seen through a socio-cultural and political context. The former emphasizes more on
marketing and human resource strategies that improve business ventures and performance.
Key Points
 Innovation is an idea, translated into a tangible output, which is believed to produce excellent service and value, and is replicable at a
possible economic cost.
 Innovation can be classified into two types—evolutionary or revolutionary.
 The importance of innovation at present rests upon the reality that traditional methods are not enough to sustain current socio-cultural and
political goals.
 A well-known by-product of innovation is social media that served to accelerate day-to-day interactions among individuals.
 Technology propagates knowledge and discoveries at an unprecedented speed—bringing in new concepts and ideas that have a socio-
cultural and political impact.
Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change: Diffusion
Objectives
 explain the different agents of diffusion;
 discuss the impact of diffusion on society, culture, and politics; and
 evaluate the factors that cause social, cultural, and political change.
Think of your favorite local food and clothing brands. What influenced you to like those specific names?
Review!
Learn about it!
Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change: Diffusion
As a young person, you may be updated about the latest trends in fashion, social media, and gaming. These modern trends are greatly influential
among the youth. In this lesson, you will know how these cultural factors play out in society and how these influence you in decision-making.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the process by which a belief or activity is passed on from one group to another. The process is catalyzed by communication, social
media, and other forms of technology, and can even occur during the military conquest, missionary works, and tourism.
Diffusion can be likened to the spread of gossip or news. There is always a source of a specific practice, and with the help of technology, the practice
is promulgated to a wider audience that may eventually adopt the same practice on their own.
Such well- known examples of diffusion are the following:
 Christianity, having started in Israel, has spread internationally and is now known as the primary religion worldwide.
 Chinatown, a small makeshift village representing the Chinese community, can be found in many countries all over the world (e.g. There
are Chinatowns in the USA, Singapore, Thailand, and the Philippines.).
Learn about it!
Agents of Diffusion
Study the chart below.
Learn about it!
Impact of Diffusion on Society, Culture, and Politics
 The process of diffusion allows nations to be united concerning some practices and activities.
 Despite this, the nations who started a distinct culture are given the chance to introduce their cultural identity to the world.
 A sharing of best practices, especially in politics and economics, is widely expected during diffusion.
Explore!
You have learned in this lesson that technology plays a significant role in diffusion. At your age, you are exposed to many outcomes brought about
by the diffusion of culture and practices around the world. Can you identify some issues of diffusion that exists around you?
Try it!
Look at your social media account. Scan through your home feed and identify some information (activities, videos, posts, articles, etc.) that may have
originated from another country or culture but is also imitated locally. Try to look into and analyze that certain social media material through
incorporating in your analysis the agents of diffusion. Do this in at least two of your social media accounts.
What do you think?
Can diffusion lead to negative consequences? Why? Why not?
Tips
 Diffusion has its effects on technology, religion, and economy. Its effect should not be mistaken as limited to culture alone.
 While diffusion is already seemingly a little topic to discuss, a modern take on diffusion tries to define it further according to several
subtypes, including4: contagious, hierarchical, stimulus, and relocation diffusion.
Key Points
 Diffusion is the process by which a belief or activity is passed on from one group to another.
 The process is catalyzed by communication, social media, and other forms of technology, and can even occur during the military
conquest, missionary works, and tourism.
 The agents of diffusion include technology, language, and globalization.
 The process of diffusion allows nations to be united regarding some practices and activities.
Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change: Acculturation and Assimilation
Objectives
 explain the similarities and differences between assimilation and acculturation;
 discuss the impact of assimilation and acculturation to society, culture, and politics; and
 evaluate the factors that cause social, cultural, and political change.
If you were forced to migrate into another country, what changes concerning environment, society, and culture do you expect to experience? Would
these expected/planned changes be different if you were to relocate voluntarily just within the country?
Review!
Learn about it!
Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change: Acculturation and Assimilation
Society can experience various changes concerning culture, politics, and social relationships. One factor to consider in understanding these changes
involves the active interplay between at least two cultures that shape society and its people as a whole.
In this lesson, you would be introduced to the processes involved in such societal functions.
Acculturation and Assimilation
Acculturation is the process by which a group gradually adapts to the culture, processes, and beliefs of another. It is considered as a second
culture learning where a person of one distinct culture learns another culture without forgetting or abandoning his primary culture and belief system.
Examples:
 A Filipino bachelor decided to migrate to the United States where he sees himself become a naturalized citizen in ten years.
 Due to warfare in their country, a group of Middle Eastern civilians braved three days of travel to start a new and safer life in Greece.
Assimilation, on the other hand, is the process by which two cultures are merged to become one distinct culture. Beliefs, customs, and practices
are combined and act as the characterizing factors of the newly developed culture.
Examples:
 During the Spanish colonial period, the Spaniards forced pre-colonial Filipinos to shift their religion from Islam or animism to Roman
Catholicism.
 With 90% of the seminar attendees being Tagalog speakers, the native Ilocano, Cebuano, and Hiligaynon speakers had no choice but to
use Tagalog in all of their conversations throughout the 5-week seminar.
Learn about it!
Similarities and Differences Between Assimilation and Acculturation
Learn about it!

Impact of Assimilation and Acculturation to Society, Culture, and Politics
 Assimilation and acculturation both create and develop unique cultures specified by markers such as food, dialect, belief system, or
traditions.
 Political interests become larger as new cultures, and new types of people can be seen as significant factors in shifting political focus (e.g.
A country with a large number of immigrants may consider creating new laws that cater to the well-being of such people).
 Social interactions become more vast and distinct in such a way that new communication systems may be developed.
Explore!
Just by looking at current societal trends, it can easily be concluded that acculturation seems to be a more dominant activity nowadays between the
two. Many people are deciding to acculturate or experience other cultures for many reasons. In your perspective, what may be the motivations of
these people to voluntarily experience and adapt to a new culture?
Try it!
Choose one country that you like. Using online sources, try to acquire first-hand information on customs and practices in your chosen country. Test
your creative skills by trying to create an accurate picture of how you respond when you assimilate or acculturate in that country. Try to create at
least one scenario each for assimilation and acculturation.
What do you think?
Apart from the examples provided, in which current settings can assimilation and acculturation be also applied?
Tip
Note that acculturation is different from enculturation. While the former is a second culture learning, enculturation is the first culture learning wherein
a person learns to adapt to his culture. This usually occurs during a child's early years.
Key Points
 Acculturation is the process by which a minority group gradually adapts to the culture, processes, and beliefs of a dominant group.
 Assimilation is the process by which two cultures are merged to become one distinct culture.
 Acculturation is a voluntary activity while assimilation is a forced activity.
 Both assimilation and acculturation alter cultural, social, and political practices of the state or nation.
Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change: Social Contradictions and Tensions
Objectives
 define cultural, social, and political change;
 discuss the sources of cultural, social, and political change such as social conflicts/contradictions and tensions;
 evaluate the causes and effects of social, cultural, and political change.
As societies continue to evolve, numerous tensions and conflicts arise across different sectors and institutions. In your perspective, what are these
tensions and conflicts? How do they affect people and the society?
Review!
 Politics refers to the process that determines who shall occupy roles of leadership in government and how the power of government shall
be exercised.
Learn about it!
Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change: Social Contradictions and Tensions
Change in various aspects of society may occur due to the interplay of different factors that affect social relationships, culture, and politics. In this
lesson, you will learn how contradiction and tension can bring about societal change.
Social Contradiction and Tension
Social conflict (or contradiction) and tension are disturbances believed to be against social norms and standards and are caused by a group of
people. As society evolves, numerous issues have become an apparent area of concerns by the majority of the population.
As such, irreconcilable differences gradually develop into larger societal challenges that need to be addressed and resolved. Should these social
conflicts and tensions fail to be taken care of, it is highly likely that more chaos and disorganization will occur in society.
Learn about it!
Forms of Social Conflicts and Tensions
Social contradictions/conflicts and tensions may come in various forms. They may also affect different aspects of society such as culture and politics.
Below are some forms of social conflicts and tensions.
Learn about it!

Impact of Conflicts and Tensions to Society, Culture, and Politics
 More human rights violations and higher crime rates are expected to occur as tensions arise between conflicting groups.
 Politics would have to favor one side over another. This, in turn, would create more conflict for the unfavored class, possibly leading to
more oppression and inequality.
 The possibility of unity and cooperation among conflicting states and nations become less. This would significantly impact international
relations and trade.
Explore!
As a student, you are not substantially exposed to the bigger conflicts occurring in your society. However, as a citizen of your country, you are
encouraged to be aware of the current events happening around you. In your observation and perspective, how would you assess the current level
of conflict and tension occurring at the national level?
Try it!
Choose one environment you would want to observe. This can be a park, school, church, mall, or anywhere you can think of. Make sure your chosen
place is safe. See the dynamics of the people interacting within that area and note any observation you may have. Take as much time as you need
in observing. Once done, review your notes and try to identify the conflicts that occurred within that environment.
What do you think?
Do social conflicts and social tensions denote the same thing? Why? Why not?
Tips
 Social conflict can trace its roots back to Karl Marx’s Social Conflict Theory that looks at a macro-level society as an area for inequality and
social change.
 Social conflicts and tensions are not limited to the forms mentioned above and examples. As society continues to develop, it should be
expected that more types of conflict and tensions may still arise.
Key Points
 Social contradictions/conflicts and tensions are disturbances believed to be against social norms and standards and are caused by a
group of people.
 As society evolves, numerous issues have become visible areas of concern by the majority of the population.
 Forms of social conflict and tensions include inter-ethnic conflict, class struggle, armed conflict, terrorism, protests, and gender
issues.
- One expected impact of social conflicts and tensions would be the increase in human rights violations and higher crime rates.
Human Adaptation and Social Change, Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics
Global Warming and Climate Change
Objectives
 explain the causes and effects of global warming and climate change;
 identify new challenges faced by human population in contemporary societies; and
 describe how human societies adapt to new challenges in the physical, social, and cultural environment.
 Do you feel the extreme heat of the summer season lately?
 Are you wondering why this year’s summer is hotter than last year?
Learn about it!
Global Warming and Climate Change
Many believe that the scorching weather we are experiencing today is a result of global warming and climate change.
Global warming is the increase in the Earth's temperature caused by greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide.
Climate change is a result of global warming. It is considered as a long-term shift that happens in the Earth's atmosphere.
Learn about it!
The Causes and Effects of Global Warming and Climate Change
There are both natural and man-made causes of global warming and climate change.
The changes in the climate may naturally be caused by Earth’s activities like volcanic activity, its orbit around the sun, and many others.
Man-made causes, on the other hand, greatly contribute to the worsening of global warming and climate change. Some examples that contribute to
the phenomenon are burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gases, and continuously converting forests (deforestation) into
industrial, agricultural or residential lands. These human activities have a higher possibility of speeding up the warming of the planet.
The Philippines is currently experiencing extremely hot weather. The highest temperature to be recorded in the Philippines for the year is 39.3
degrees Celsius in General Santos City last April 12, 2016.
The hot temperature is not the only problem. The Philippines is presently under what is considered the strongest El Nino ever experienced. El Nino
happens every two to seven years when the water surface is warmer than usual. The effects of El Nino are lesser rainfalls which can lead to drought,
stronger typhoons, and higher chances of forest fires and grass fires.
Learn about it!
New Challenges in Contemporary Societies
Global warming and climate change are starting to alter our life here on Earth.
 The increase in the global temperature has resulted to incidences of forest fires and grass fires in the mountains such as in Mt. Apo.
 Drought is also rampant in our country, as an effect of a stronger El Nino. Farmers all over the Philippines are experiencing drought, which
makes it harder for them to produce enough crops for our food supply.
 We had also experienced stronger typhoons in the past years, like typhoon Yolanda. Typhoon Yolanda greatly devastated parts of Visayas
and flooded some areas of Luzon and Mindanao.
These are only some of the challenges we currently face because of global warming and climate change. If global warming and climate change will
not be controlled, we will experience stronger typhoons that can result to more damages, we will experience more heat-related illnesses, there might
be higher death rates because of the increase in the heat index, and many other effects.
Learn about it!
Adaptation to New Challenges in the Physical, Social, and Cultural Environment
Adapting to the new challenges brought by climate change is necessary because they are already unavoidable. Most of the countries are now
developing different strategies they can use to adapt to the challenges of climate change. These adaptation strategies range from technological
responses to policy responses, and changes in the behavior of the people are also necessary.
 As part of our behavioral change, we are being encouraged to lessen our activities that contribute to the increase of greenhouse gases.
Instead of riding cars, we are encouraged to ride bicycles, public transportations, or even use carpool so we can lessen the carbon dioxide
coming from automobiles.
 We are also encouraged to utilize our water supply properly and stop the old Filipino practice of burning our trashes. We must also start
conserving our forests and revive forests that have been victims of deforestation.
 Some societies are also starting to utilize energy from natural resources like wind energy, water energy, and solar energy. Other societies
where food supply has been affected by climate change have developed crops, seeds, and farming techniques that can adapt to climate
change.
These are only some of the programs developed to help our world adapt to climate change.
Explore!
Observe the plants around you. They easily wither and die if not watered from time to time. The life span of plants is becoming shorter because of
the intense heat we are currently feeling. How does it affect life on Earth?
Try it!
Try measuring the temperature of the day (from 12 noon-4 p.m.) and compare it to the temperature (same time) from five years ago. You will notice
that there has been a notable increase in the temperature that we are feeling today. This is a manifestation of global warming and climate change.
How do you perceive Earth’s temperature five years from now?
What do you think?
Do you believe we can still prevent global warming and climate change from worsening?
Tips
 The effects of global warming and climate change may differ depending on the location of a community. Some may experience extreme
heat while others may experience extreme cold.
 The adaptive strategies of societies also differ, depending on how greatly they are affected or in what manner they are affected by climate
change.
Key Points
 Global warming is the increase in the Earth’s temperature caused by greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide.
 Climate change is considered as a long-term shift that happens in the Earth’s climate.
 The effects of global warming and climate change are drought, stronger typhoons, higher risk of getting heat-related illnesses,
hotter global temperature, melting of glaciers, higher sea levels, and many others.
 Most countries and societies have started implementing adaptive strategies that can help them cope with the adverse effects of global
warming and climate change.
 Aside from implementing new policies to adapt to global warming and climate change, it is more important to change our behavior and bad
habits.
Transnational Migration and Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs)
Objectives
 explain the concept of transnational migration;
 define and describe the key role of the Overseas Filipino Workers and how they affect the Philippine society; and
 discuss how human societies adapt to new challenges in the physical, social, and cultural environment.
 Do you ever wonder about your physical surroundings?
 Do you observe how people relate to one another not just in their local communities but also through the presence of the Internet, showing
patterns of interactions among people of different cultures?
Learn about it!
Transnational Migration
In this era, people are no longer confined to their local communities. Residents of a certain location have become mobile if not interested to relocate.
Causes of this trend are mostly economic in nature, with people desiring to provide a better life for themselves and their families. This phenomenon
is known as transnational migration. Aside from economic reasons, what has propelled this trend is the advent of the Internet.
The Internet has become a venue where people can witness the improved lifestyles from the developed nations like the United States, Canada, and
Japan. Human nature dictates that people naturally want to improve their living conditions. Hence, skilled and talented people leave their home
countries, journeying to developed countries to seek better employment, housing, and educational opportunities. Transnational migration then
changes the landscapes of these migrants' home and host countries.
Transnational migration is a social, economic, and political process that affects those who move, those who stay behind, and the places
where they go across national boundaries.
Learn about it!
Overseas Filipino Workers
Overseas Filipino Workers or OFWs are skilled professionals like engineers, nurses, doctors, and other workers like drivers, domestic helpers, and
construction workers who leave their families to work abroad where better employment opportunities are present. The phenomenon of OFWs
reached its height in the 1970s when Ferdinand Marcos enacted the Philippine Labor Migration Policy due to the lack of jobs in the country. The
Filipino workers were encouraged to serve in oil-rich nations in the Middle East like Saudi Arabia. The Philippine Overseas Employment
Administration (POEA) was established to oversee these migrant workers.
The OFW remittances have propelled Philippine economic development. Conversely, socio-economic setbacks include “brain drain” (departure of
skilled laborers towards developed countries), broken families, cultural adjustment difficulties, human trafficking, and illegal recruitment. As for the
host countries, OFWs contribute to “brain gain”, the opposite of ―brain drain‖, in which they benefit from these outsourced skilled laborers' services.
Learn about it!
New Challenges in Contemporary Societies
Transnational migration presents physical, social, and cultural challenges to contemporary societies.
 Due to "brain drain", foreign workers cause overpopulation and stress in the host countries and their resources.
 Social challenges for developing countries involve families becoming incomplete as their members decide to work abroad.
 Parents then have to delegate their responsibilities to close family members like grandparents or nannies to care for their children.
 Moreover, the entry of foreign workers leads to permanent settlement to the host countries, hence, diversifying their population.
 Interracial marriages transpire between the migrants and the local people.
 Exchange of ideas and culture occur as migrants interact with the local communities of their host countries as well, sharing traditions,
beliefs, and norms.
 Migrants then bring home new concepts like foreign cuisine and international business setups.
 Nevertheless, adjustment difficulties and xenophobia (the hatred or fear of foreigners) pose as cultural challenges.
Learn about it!
How Societies Adapt to the Challenges to the Physical, Social, and Cultural Environments
Governments play a vital role in responding to the physical, social, and cultural challenges caused by transnational migration. Settlements for
migrants are established to address their housing concerns adequately. For instance, in the United Kingdom, hosting the refugees from Syria
created the tenements in Coventry and Bradford.
As for the social challenges, migrants' affairs are dealt with by government and non-government organizations. These help families with regards to
their needs as migrants or having migrant workers as family members. Examples are social organizations like the Filipino communities in Saudi
Arabia which were established for socialization and assistance purposes.
Pre-departure orientation seminars are conducted to educate the migrants on adjusting to their host countries' cultures and people. These facilitate
the quiet sailing existence of these migrants in their host communities and prevent xenophobia and culture shock.
Explore!
Carlo is a father of three school-aged children. Being an engineer faced with limited well-paying employment opportunities in the local setting, Carlo
is thinking about leaving his wife and three children behind and finding a better-paying job in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Considering this option would
allow him to send his hard-earned money to his wife in the Philippines who could then save these remittances for the schooling and future of their
children.
Do you think it is reasonable for him to leave the Philippines where jobs paying a livable wage enough to support a family are scarce? Would
sacrifice his time being with his family be worthy, making him fulfill his dream of providing them with a comfortable life?
Try it!
Who among your friends has an OFW family member. Ask what motivated that family member to work abroad and how their families respond to this
scenario.
This activity will help you further learn about the existence and importance of OFWs and what motivates them in their endeavors to work abroad.
What do you think?
Since OFWs are an important component of the Philippine society contributing to its economy, how else can the government help these workers and
their families?
Key Points
 Transnational migration is a phenomenon in which people from developing countries or nations with less developed economic conditions
like the Philippines, Vietnam, and some African countries move to developed nations like the United States, Canada, Saudi Arabia, and
Japan where economic opportunities like better-paying jobs are present.
 Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) are skilled professionals like engineers, nurses, doctors, and other workers like drivers, domestic
helpers, and construction workers who work abroad to seek better economic opportunities. Their remittances are an important contributor
to the Philippine economy.
 The phenomenon of OFWs reached its height in the 1970s when President Ferdinand Marcos enacted the Philippine Labor Migration
Policy due to the lack of jobs in the country and encouraged the Filipino workers to seek employment to oil-rich nations like Saudi Arabia.
The Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA) is an agency that was created during the Marcos Administration to oversee
the regulation of contracts of the OFWs.
 Brain drain is a phenomenon in which a developing country suffers because its skilled laborers migrate to industrialized countries like the
United States and Canada to permanently live and work there. Its opposite is brain gain in which the host countries of the migrant workers
benefit from the services of these outsourced skilled laborers.
 Transnational migration involves physical, social, cultural effects to both the migrants' home and host countries. These include the brain
drain, interracial marriages, and exchange of ideas.
 Governments play a key role in addressing the physical, social, and cultural challenges entailed by transnational migration. Housing, social
organizations, and pre-departure orientation seminars are examples of ways on how they help address the concerns of migrants and
resolve issues like xenophobia and other human rights violations.
Response to Change: Inclusive Citizenship and Participatory Governance
Objectives
 explain the concept of inclusive citizenship;
 define the meaning of participatory governance;
 elaborate on how inclusive citizenship is translated to action through participatory governance; and
 participate in developing an organized program of measures for community-based response to change.
 As a citizen of the Philippines which is a democratic country, do you feel that the government prioritizes your well-being?
 Do you think the government takes your wishes and ideas into consideration?
 Are you aware that a democratic government does not exercise power on its own?
 Have you got any idea on how the citizens are empowered to participate in governance, hence, realizing the ideal of "democracy" which
means the "rule of the people"?
Learn about it!
Democracy is a form of government in which the people are given the voice on how they would like to be governed and protected by the
government, with the latter expected to provide the premium to their well-being. With democracy's Greek root words being demos, "people"
and kratos, "rule", citizens of democratic countries are understood to be involved in the government's implementation of laws. Inclusive
citizenship is a governing policy in which the citizens are given a strong feeling that they are a part of the overall society.
By and large, citizens of democratic countries would feel disenfranchised, questioning whether the government they elected is responding to their
needs.
 In the United States, critics of President Barrack Obama remark that he is merely pro-Black, promoting only the rights of the African-
Americans.
 In the Philippines, civil society organizations like the Bagong Alyansang Makabayan (BAYAN) and the Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas
(KMP) criticize the government for doing little for the impoverished.
By making the citizens feel that the government values their viewpoints, the people are then motivated to participate in the elections, civic
participation, and military service.
Learn about it!
Participatory Governance
 Participatory governance translates the feelings of inclusive citizenship into action. This concept involves the citizens in the form of civil
society activists and government reformers who establish participatory institutions which enable them to improve their states. In most
democratic jurisdictions, the right to public participation is enshrined by law as a human right.
 Participatory governance started as a reaction to "direct democracy" involving only the government in policy-making and leading to
rampant corruption and oligarchy (or rule of the powerful elite few segment of the population). To combat this, citizens' opinions are then
incorporated into the government's complex policy-making process.
 Participatory organizations deliberate and vote on the use of public resources, oversee the enactment of laws and making them more
transparent, and improve the government's performance. Citizens are also empowered and scarce government resources are reasonably
used.
 The Volunteers against Crime and Corruption (VACC) eradicate criminality and corrupt practices, aiding the Department of Justice and the
Office of the Ombudsman. As the citizens interact and get involved with their government, their democratic life and social well-being are
improved.
Learn about it!
Organized Program of Measures for Community-based Response to Change
To foster inclusive citizenship and participatory governance, leaders of democratic countries deliver State of the Nation addresses annually,
reporting their accomplishments and agenda for the benefit of their constituents. This manifestation of inclusive citizenship enables the citizens to
feel involved in their government, allowing them freely to voice out their views about their leader's "report card". E-democracy combines 21st-century
information and communications technology to promote democracy, enabling the citizens to participate equitably in lawmaking.
Through public opinion polls, the Philippines' Pulse Asia and Social Weather Stations monitor and disseminate information about salient socio-
economic, political, and cultural issues, periodically measuring the public pulse as an essential ingredient for a robust democracy.
Explore!
The annual tuition hikes in Philippine universities have been the trouble among students and parents. This action of higher education institutions,
although aimed at developing their services, have caused pain in the financial situation of families. Hence, civil society groups like the League of
Filipino Students and the National Union of Students of the Philippines have served as their voices. As government institutions like the CHED
cannot, on its own, help the students and parents who protest these tuition increments, how helpful, do you think, are these anti-tuition hike
alliances? How relevant do you think is this mode of participatory governance in today's milieu?
Try it!
As a member of today's young generation, what do you think are the social problems which greatly need to be resolved? Give at least three and
explain why.
What do you think?
In connection with the question in Try It! how do you say, in the form of participatory governance, can the citizens help in addressing these social
dilemmas? How can the government make the people feel that they care more about them, especially the disadvantaged members of the society?
What should the government do to make the people feel more included as they run the country?
Key Points
 Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy enabling the citizens to participate in policy-making by the government. Citizens are then given
a strong feeling that they are a valuable component of the overall society. Elections, civic participation, and military service are some of the
ways in which people can experience inclusive citizenship.
 Participatory governance is a form of leadership that involves the citizens in the form of civil society activists and government reformers
establishing participatory institutions which enable them to take part in improving their democratic governments.
 The State of the Nation addresses of democratic governments' leaders makes the citizens feel the inclusive citizenship, enabling them
freely to voice out their views about their leader's "report card".
 E-democracy combines 21st-century information and communications technology to promote democracy, enabling the citizens to
participate equitably in lawmaking.
 Through public opinion polls, the Philippines' Pulse Asia and Social Weather Stations monitor and disseminate information about salient
socio-economic, political, and cultural issues, periodically measuring the public pulse as a key ingredient for a robust democracy.
Response to Change: New Forms of Media and Social Networking
Objectives
 explain the types of traditional and new forms of media;
 define the concepts of social media and social networking;
 discuss how social media and social networking influence human societies in both positive and negative ways; and
 participate in developing a plan of action for community-based response to change.
 How do you get the information you need like the news or details about your personal interests?
 Do you observe how people's ways of obtaining public information have significantly evolved?
Learn about it!
Traditional Forms of Media
Citizens of a democratic society enjoy the inalienable right to information. They are capable of knowing what's happening around them, hence,
enabling them to conduct their lives properly. The media plays a vital role in the people's right to public information.
The media is the way on how people obtain relevant news. Traditional forms of media include printed literature like books, magazines,
journals, and newspapers as well as the television and the radio. Diverse human interests like health, education, the environment, food, the
news, and politics are communicated to the people through the media, enabling them to become knowledgeable about how they can live well and
enjoy their inalienable right to live.
Learn about it!
New Forms of Social Media and Social Networking
Most of us use the terms interchangeably but there is a difference between social media and social networking.
In the 1990s, the advent of technology gave birth to new forms of media. Tim Berners-Lee, a British computer scientist, invented the World Wide
Web, which is an information space linking documents and other web resources through URLs and can be accessed via the Internet.
The Internet is a digital form of media that involves the computer serving as an information highway. The e-mail, e-books, e-zines, and e-
journals are offshoots of the Internet and act as the digital versions of traditional media. Thus, people are no longer confined to getting the
information relevant to their lives in printed ways but can now access them online.
The new forms of media are more interactive that the old one. As the 21st century ushered in, a different form of media with a social dimension to it
emerged.Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and Instagram are some of these forms of "social" media sites. Once you decide what media you are
going to use, begin with social networking in any sites to engage with your audience.
Besides reading relevant details, people can get involved by interacting and reacting to these sources of information. Through the aid of digital
devices like smartphones (like the iPhone), smart TVs, laptops, and tablet (like the iPad), new media have provided the people fast and easy
access to information.
Learn about it!
Challenges to the Use of Social Media and Social Networking
The use of the media is not without flaws. It can also have the disadvantages.
 Cyber-bullying involves the use of electronic communication to bully a person, typically by sending intimidating and threatening
messages.
 Stalking has troubled social media users as they (and their personal information) are stealthily pursued by unwanted individuals.
 Identity theft involves the fraudulent acquisition and use of a person's private identifying information like Social Security or driver's license
for financial gain.
 Finally, hacking involves illegally obtaining passwords to access another person's computer, website, or social media account.
Learn about it!
Plan of Action for Community-based Response to Change
National governments have been responsible for the enactment of stringent laws and programs protecting their citizens from cybercrimes.
In the Philippines
 The Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 (Republic Act No. 10175) is a law approved on September 12, 2012. It aims to address legal
issues regarding online interactions and the Internet in the country. Among the cybercrime offenses included in the Act are cybersex,
cybersquatting, child pornography, identity theft, illegal access to data, and libel. Several petitions have been submitted to the
Supreme Court questioning the constitutionality of the Act. On February 18, 2014, the Supreme Court ruled the online libel provision of the
act to be constitutional, although it struck down other provisions, including the ones that violated the provisions on double jeopardy. The
petitioners planned to appeal the decision.
 In this connection, Department of Education (DepEd) encourages schools to embrace cyber wellness program to reduce if not entirely
prevent bullying and other cyber abuse incidents.
In Other Countries
 In 2015, US President Barrack Obama signed the Cybersecurity Act of 2015 into law. In New York, computer-related crimes are
penalized with a fine and at least five years incarceration.
 In the United Kingdom, the government has allocated £860 million to establish the National Cyber Security Programme, ensuring that a
secure digital environment can enhance the UK’s economic prosperity, national security, and society.
Explore!
Local hackers recently defaced the official website of the Commission on Elections. This incident caused massive fear among the nation's voters
because the mischievous felons disclosed their private information. The authorities in the government agency then filed charges against the hackers.
Do you think these culprits should face harsh punishment? What is your view on how the Philippine Government can best protect the citizens against
such felons?
Try it!
With your friends, identify three things: 1) how and what forms of social media you use; 2) the problems you encountered; and 3) how you resolved
your dilemmas. This activity will help you further learn about the drawbacks of the new forms of media as social media and how they can be
addressed.
What do you think?
Since cases of cybercrimes have been rampant to the point of even costing the lives of the victims like those of cyber-bullying and stalking, how do
you think can the Philippine government address these issues? What strict measures should be implemented to safeguard its citizens from these
acts?
Key Points
 The media fulfills its role of upholding the citizens' inalienable right to information. People have to know what's happening around them to
be able to conduct their lives properly.
 Traditional forms of media include printed literature like books, magazines, journals, and newspapers as well as the television and the
radio.
 New forms of media involve the use of technology and are interactive in nature.
 Social media is the media (content) that you upload — whether that is a blog, video, slideshow, podcast, newsletter, or an eBook.
 Social networking is all about engagement — creating relationships, communicating with your readers, building your followers, and
connecting with your online audience.
 The Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 (Republic Act No. 10175) is a law approved on September 12, 2012. It aims to address legal
issues regarding online interactions and the Internet in the Philippines.
 The Department of Education encourages schools to embrace cyber wellness program to reduce if not totally prevent bullying and other
cyber abuse incidents.
 National governments have been responsible for the enactment of stringent laws protecting their citizens from cybercrimes like the US
Cybersecurity Act of 2015 and the UK National Cyber Security Programme.
Response to Change: Social Movements
Objectives
 explain the concept of social movements;
 discuss how social movements emerged;
 define and clarify the kinds of social movements; and
 elaborate how social movements persuade the people to support their causes.
 Why do certain groups of people want to change the society?
 How do these groups carry out their objectives to resist or effect change in the society?
Learn about it!
Social Movement
Some citizens do not always accede to how their society is structured. They would reckon that there are better ways to live so they would then
gather together to form a social movement. A social movement is a large group of individuals congregating to either effect or prevent social
changes.
Social movements express the dissatisfaction of the people in a given society. Feeling strongly about a particular cause, the members usually feel
that they are deprived, resenting their living conditions, and demanding improvements. Vastly organized, they intend to transform the society
by influencing public opinion andgovernment policy-making.
Modern social movements utilize the Internet and social media to mobilize the people globally, facilitating civic engagement and collective action.
These groups do not always succeed though because total government control (like banning them), public ridicule, and co-optation (or winning over
a social movement) occur.
Learn about it!
Emergence of Social Movements
Social movements began in England in the late 18th century. John Wilkes, a controversial political figure, vigorously disputed the government in
defense of the impoverished. The Society for the Supporters of the Bill of Rights in 1769 is considered as the first social movement involving public
conferences, the unprecedented dissemination of pamphlets, and protests.
German sociologist Lorenz von Stein introduced the term "social movements" in 1848. Demanding reform, the Russian Revolution of 1917 was
carried out by the poor, resulting to labor, socialist, and communist movements.
The New Social Movements emerged after World War II. With radical reform and change desired, the rights which these groups advocate are for
women, the gay, peace, civil, pro-choice, anti-nuclear, anti-globalization, and the environment. It was termed New Social Movement because it
departed from the traditional social movements which is focused on economic issues. The New Social Movement that is very evident in the 1960s is
focused more on values and social identities mentioned above.
Learn about it!
Kinds of Social Movements
Social movements come in diverse forms.
Conservative movements
 resist changes in the society like the anti-technology group, Luddites
Reactionary movements
 defend returning to traditional lifestyles as demonstrated by the Ku Klux Klan
Reform movements
 support change like the marriage-opposed Free Love Movement
Radical movements
 replace existing social orders with a totally different social or political structure like the American Civil Rights Movement, the Occupy
Movement, Black Lives Matter, and the Arab Spring
Expressive movements
 aim to improve their members' lives, not necessarily imposing their ideas on others like the Hippie Movement
Escapist movements
 advocate retreating from the society through isolation like religious cults
Assimilationist movements
 help minority groups become absorbed in the mainstream society, demanding equal treatment
Pluralist movements
 defend respect for diversity like the gay rights movement
Alternative movements
 influence the people to change their lifestyles like the vegans
Group-focus movements
 concentrate on changing factions, transforming into or joining a political party
Learn about it!
Persuading the People to Support Social Movements' Causes
Members of social movements seek adherents through various means.
 Advertisements, films, speeches, and posters are utilized to carry out educational persuasion.
 Political persuasion involve financing political candidates' campaigns, running for public office, or persuading government officials.
 Direct or violent tactics involve social movements taking matters into their own hands through extreme measures like boycotting a
business employing slave workers, demolishing abortion clinics, and liberating animals from experimental laboratories.
 Non-violent tactics involve civil disobedience like Mohandas Gandhi's peaceful protest against the British imperialists.
Explore!
A group of parents of high school students coalesced to form a radical social group, You Are Beautiful without these Magazines Movement, banning
the sale of beauty magazines to teenage women in their city. According to their spokesperson, reading beauty magazines promote low self-esteem
among teenage readers and creates pressure among them to unconsciously copy what they read. These images, according to the parents, are
unrealistic, making their children unable to be happy with their appearances, focusing more on the superficial instead of the important aspects of life
like moral values and intelligence.
Do you think the parents are correct with regards to their position on the sale of beauty magazines to teenage readers? Do you think their social
movement is justified?
Try it!
Group yourselves into five members each. Every group will brainstorm about a social problem or situation which needs change, improvement, or
elimination. Then, you will establish your own social movement, giving it a name and explaining how it can help address a particular social issue
which, in your view, needs to be altered, developed, or banned for the benefit of the majority. You may also plan a way on how to act on this. This
activity should enable you to further understand the concept of social movements and their purposes.
What do you think?
How do you think can social movements and the government reach a compromise? In what other ways can governments improve a particular social
order so that citizens do not feel dissatisfied or marginalized?
Key Points
 A social movement is a large group of individuals congregating to either effect or prevent social changes. Members express the
dissatisfaction of the people, seeking to transform the society by influencing public opinion and government policy-making.
 Modern social movements utilize the Internet and social media to mobilize the people globally, facilitating civic engagement and collective
action. However, these groups do not always succeed because total government control (like banning them), public ridicule, and co-
optation (or winning over a social movement) occur.
 Social movements began in England in the late 18th century. John Wilkes, a controversial political figure, vigorously disputed the
government in defense of the impoverished. The Society for the Supporters of the Bill of Rights in 1769 is considered as the first social
movement involving public conferences, the unprecedented dissemination of pamphlets, and protests. German sociologist Lorenz von
Stein coined the term "social movements" in 1848.
 The New Social Movements emerged after World War II which focuses more on values and social identity which is different from the
traditional social movement which focuses on economic issues.
 Social movements come in diverse forms such as conservative movements, reactionary movements, and assimilationist movements.
 Social movements use educational, political, direct, and non-violent tactics to persuade people to support their causes.

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