ACD2501 - Day 8 Aircraft Intruments, Guidance and Navigation

PEMP
ACD2501
Aircraft Instrumentation, Guidance and

Navigation
Session delivered by:

Mr Ramjan Pathan
Mr.
 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 1

08
PEMP
ACD2501
Aircraft Instruments

08
Aircraft Instrumentation, Guidance and
PEMP
ACD2501
g
Navigation
• Session Topic
– Ai
Aircraft
ft Instruments
I t t
– Guidance and Navigation
• Session objectives is to learn about
- Flight Instruments
- Engine Instruments
- Auxiliary Instruments

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PEMP
ACD2501
Types of Aircraft Instrumentation
• Type 1: Those that help visualize the attitude, location

and speeds of the aircraft.
• Type 2: Those which indicate the relationship to the

air through
g which we are flying
y g
• Type
ype 3:: Those
ose wwhich
c relate
e e too ou
our pos
position
o in sp
space
ce
without considering the atmosphere.

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ACD2501
Classification Of Instruments
• Flight Instruments
• Engine
i Instruments
• Auxiliary Instruments

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ACD2501
Instrument Clusters CESSNA 172
Analogue Digital

08
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ACD2501

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ACD2501
BASIC INSTRUMENTS
The pitot tube on

the wing catches
on-rushing air. This
“ram air” is
compared to
“static” air to
determine air
speed.
The static port

measures static or
still air – air that is
not affected by the
airplane’s speed
through the air
The airspeed
Th i d iindicator
di t shows
h speed
d th
through
h th
the air
i --- nott over
the ground.
08
PEMP
ACD2501
BASIC INSTRUMENTS
Here, the airplane is banking left

with its nose on the horizon —
where brown “ground” meets
blue “sky.”
The attitude indicator provides an artificial horizon to show the

pilot the airplane’s position in relation to the ground.
08
PEMP
ACD2501
BASIC INSTRUMENTS
Like the hands of a clock, the long

hand shows smaller increments
(100s of feet) while the shorter hand
shows larger
g increments (1,000s
( of
feet).
This altimeter is reading 1720 feet.
The altimeter measures air pressure outside the airplane and compares it
to air pressure at sea level to determine altitude.
08
PEMP
ACD2501
BASIC INSTRUMENTS
Turn Coordinator
The ball is centered when

the turn is balanced by rudder
Th turn
The t coordinator
di t showsh if the
th wings
i are level
l l or banked.
b k d The
Th position
iti
of the ball indicates if the airplane is turning properly.
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PEMP
ACD2501
BASIC INSTRUMENTS
This airplane
p is heading
g south
at 175 degrees.
The heading indicator displays the direction of flight.

08
PEMP
ACD2501
BASIC INSTRUMENTS
Airplane is descending at 190

feet per minute
The vertical speed indicator uses changes in air pressure to indicate rate
of climb or descent.
descent

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PEMP
ACD2501
Flight Instruments
• Those that help visualize the attitude, location and

speeds of the aircraft.
aircraft
– Those which indicate the relationship to the air through
which we are flying
– Those which relate to our position in space without
considering the atmosphere.

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ACD2501
Pitot – Static System

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ACD2501
Air Speed Indicator
• Dynamic Air Pressure - Pressure caused by moving

air.
• Ambient Static Air Pressure - Pressure of non-
moving air just outside the aircraft.

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ACD2501
Air Speed Indicator

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ACD2501
Air Speed Indicator

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ACD2501
Air Speed Indicator
• Differential pressure gauge that measures the difference

between dynamic
y and ambient static air ppressure.

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ACD2501
Airspeed Indicator Symbology
• White Arc – Flap operating Range

• Green Arc – Normal Operations
• Yellow Arc – Caution Area (Only use in smooth air)
• Red Line – Never Exceed Speed
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PEMP
ACD2501
Aircraft Airspeeds
• Vso – Stall speed in landing configuration

• Vs – Stall speed in clean (flaps up) configuration
• Vy – Climb speed for the max amount of height v. time
• Vx- Climb speed for the max amount of height for
distance
di
• Vfe- Flap Extension speed: Flaps should not be used
p
above this speed
• Va – Design maneuvering/rough air speed: Speed at
which abrupt full control inputs can be used without
risking structural damage. Should never be exceeded in
rough air. Changes with weight
• Vno – Max structural Cruise speed
• V – Never
Vne N E
ExceeddSSpeedd
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PEMP
ACD2501
Calibrated Airspeeds
• Calibrated (CAS)
– Speed corrected for installation and instrument errors.
– At high angle of attack, the pitot tube does not point
straight into the relative wind, this tends to make the
airspeed
p indicate lower than normal at low airspeeds.
p
– Not usually a problem in cruise, usually we only worry
about calibrate airspeed when we are converting to true
airspeed.
p

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ACD2501
True Airspeeds
• True
T (TAS)
– The actual speed airplane is moving through undisturbed
air.
– On a standard day, CAS will be equal to TAS.
– As density altitude increases, true airspeed increases for a
ggiven CAS or amount of ppower.
– TAS can be calculated by using CAS with temperature and
pressure
• Equivalent
– Calibrated airspeed corrected for adiabatic compressible
flow at a particular altitude.
– Above 200 kts and 7 km, km air compresses in front the pitot
tube causing abnormally high airspeeds. Many flight
computers are designed to compensate.

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ACD2501
Altimeter
A barometer that
measures the absolute
pressure of the air.

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ACD2501
Altimeter
• Static Input Only

• Manufacturer seals the
aneroid wafer(s) at a
specific pressure
• As the static pressure fills
in the area around these
sealed wafers,
wafers they will be
able to contract or expand
accordingly

08
PEMP
ACD2501
Vertical Speed Indicator
• Measures how
h f the
fast h static
i pressure increases
i or decreases
d
• Correlates as Rate of climb or descent (1000ft/min )
• Trend will show immediate indication of an increase in the
airplanes rate of climb or descent
• Rate shows a stabilized change in altitude

08
PEMP
ACD2501
Vertical Speed Indicator
• Static air enters both the

diaphragm
p g and the area
around it.
• However, the air in the
diaphragm is constantly
blocked while the air
outside of it is very slowly
allowed to escape through
a calibrated leak
• The instrument measures
th difference
the diff i these
in th t
two
pressures
• This pressure difference is
then correlated to Speed
08
PEMP
ACD2501
Vertical Speed Indicator Errors
• Blocked Static
– Zero
Z I di i
Indication
• Lags: should not be relied upon to give
instantaneo s information
instantaneous
– Don’t “chase the needle”

08
PEMP
ACD2501
Altimeter Operation
Air moves out

9 01
8 2
7 3
6 54
Wafers expand
p
9 01
8 2
7 3
6 54
Air moves in
9 01
8 2
7 3
6 54
Wafers contract

08
PEMP
ACD2501
Types of Altitude
• Indicated
– What you read on the altimeter when it is
correctly adjusted to show approximate height
above mean sea level
• Calibrated
C lib d
– Indicated altitude corrected to compensate for
instrument error
• Pressure
– Displayed
p y when altimeter is set to standard sea
level (29.92).
– Vertical distance above the standard datum
plane
08
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ACD2501
Types of Altitude
• Density
– Pressure altitude corrected for non – standard
temperature
– Used to determine aircraft performance, when
hi h (temp
high ( above
b standard),
d d) performance
f will
ill
be worse.
• True
– Actual height above mean sea level
– Sectional charts
• Absolute
– Actual height of aircraft above the earths
surface.
f
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PEMP
ACD2501
Altimeter Errors
• Altimeter should be updated as often as possible (or

at least every 100 miles)
• If you fly to an area with a lower altimeter setting,
without resettingg yyour altimeter,, yyou mayy flyy at a
lower altitude than you had intended.
– “High to low, look out below”
• Temperature
T effect
ff
– On warm days, true altitude is higher than indicated.
days true altitude is lower than indicated.
– On cold days,
• Blocked Static pressure holes
– Altimeter will freeze at the altitude the blockage
g occurred

08
PEMP
ACD2501

08
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ACD2501
Pitot – Static Summary
• While the Altimeter, VSI and airspeed indicator all

use Static air,
air only the airspeed indicator uses Pitot
• If you notice all of your pitot static instruments are
giving conflicting information,
information try turning using the
alternate air source
• If only your airspeed indicator is not working
properly, try turning on pitot heat

08
PEMP
ACD2501
Gyroscope
• Rigidity In Space – Once a gyroscope is spinning, it
tends to remain in a fixed position in space and resist
external forces applied to it.

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ACD2501
Gyroscope
• Precession – The
tilting or turning of a
gyro in response to
pressure.
pressure
• The reaction to this
force occurs in the
direction of rotation,
– approximately 90°
ahead of the point
where the force was
applied.

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PEMP
ACD2501
Gyroscope
• Gyroscopes may be operated by electrical power or

b a vacuum (suction)
by ( ti ) system.
t

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ACD2501
Gyroscope

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ACD2501
Gyroscope
• Vacuum powered instrument which senses pitching
and rolling movements about the airplanes lateral and
longitudinal axes.

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ACD2501
Gyroscope

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ACD2501
Gyroscope

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ACD2501
Gyroscope
• Vacuum powered
instrument which
senses yaw
movement of the
airplane about the
vertical
ti l axis.
i
• Horizontal card
di ti l gyro
directional

08
PEMP
ACD2501
Gyroscope
Vertical card directional gyro

08
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ACD2501
Turn and Slip Indicator
• Turn And Slip Indicator

• Turn Coordinator
– Inclinometer
08
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ACD2501
Turn and Slip Indicator

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ACD2501
Attitude Indicator
• Only instrument that gives

immediate and direct indication
off the
th airplane’s
i l ’ pitch
it h and
d bank
b k
attitude.
• Operation
– Gyro spins in the horizontal
plane, mounted on dual
gimbals that allow it to
remain in the p
plane
regardless of aircraft
movement.
– Pendulous vanes allow the
attitude
ttit d indicator
i di t erectt itself
it lf
on taxi

08
PEMP
ACD2501
Attitude Indicator Errors
• Usually less than 5 degrees of bank error and 1 bar width of

pitch error in a 180 degree turn.
• Pendulous vanes act on the attitude indicators gyro in an

undesirable wayy duringg turns.
• The same pendulous vanes will cause the gyro to try to line
upp with the g – forces of a turn.
• Acceleration and Deceleration can induce precession errors.

During acceleration,
acceleration horizon bar may show a climb climb,
reinforcing the somatogravic illusion.
• Tumbling: Past 100 degrees of bank or 60 degrees of pith

08
PEMP
ACD2501
Heading Indicator
• What does it do?

– Senses rotation about
the aircraft’s vertical
axis.
• Errors?
– Precession can cause
heading to drift,
drift so
remember to re – check
about every 15 min.

08
PEMP
ACD2501
Turn Indicators
• Turn Coordinator:
– Rate and Roll
• Slip and Skid
– Rate ONLY – older aircraft
• What is the inclinometer?
– Slip? Rate of turn is too slow
for the angle of bank, ball
moves inside
– Skid? Rate of turn is too
great for the angle of bank.
• S d d Turn?
Standard T ?

08
PEMP
ACD2501
Gyro Instruments Summary
• The gyroscopic instruments incorporate two concepts,

Rigidity in Space and precession
• The turn coordinator is powered by the electrical system
rather than the vacuum system so that in case of a failure, the
pilot will always have a way to reference flight attitude.

08
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ACD2501
Compass
• Bar Magnet aligns itself

with the magnetic field

08
PEMP
ACD2501
Compass Errors
• Variation: Difference between the true and magnetic poles.

Use correction indicated on sectional

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ACD2501
Compass Errors
• Deviation: Compass error due to disturbances in magnetic
field de to metals and electrical accessories in the airplane.
Use deviation
d i i cardd ini airplane
i l to correct.

08
PEMP
ACD2501
Compass Errors
• Magnetic Dip: Bar magnet contained in compass is pulled by

the earth
earth’ss magnetic field,
field it tends to point north and
somewhat downward. Greatest near the poles

08
PEMP
ACD2501
Compass Errors
• Acceleration Error: Occurs when accelerating or decelerating

on an easterly or westerly heading.
heading As you accelerate,
accelerate inertia
causes the compass weight on the south end of magnetic to
lag and turn the compass toward north. As you decelerate,
i ti causes weight
inertia i ht to
t move ahead,
h d moves theth compass
toward a southerly heading.

08
PEMP
ACD2501
Compass Errors
• Turning Error: Most pronounced when turning to or from

headingsg of north or south.
• When you begin a turn from a heading of north, the compass
initially indicates a turn to the opposite direction. When the
turn is established,
established the compass begins to turn in the correct
direction, but it lags behind the actual heading.

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ACD2501
Aeronautical Navigation
• Navis—ship
• Agere—to direct
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ACD2501
How do we get there?
• Plot a course
– What’s
h a course?
• path of intended motion
• Steer a heading
– What’s a heading?
• the direction the aircraft is pointed
p
• Make a good track
– What’s a track?
• the aircraft’s path over the ground

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ACD2501
Roadmap
• Terrestrial coordinates
– Chart
Ch t projections
j ti
• Concepts of position
• Pil ti & dead
Piloting d d reckoning
k i
• Radio navigation systems
• Other electronic navigation systems
• Celestial navigation

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ACD2501
Terrestrial Coordinate System

• Great Circles – The largest circle that can be
drawn on the surface of the earth & all like it.
– Equator
– Meridians
Equator Meridian Great Circle

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ACD2501
Terrestrial Coordinate System
• Small Circles-all other circles

– Parallels
P ll l

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ACD2501
Longitude/Latitude
•Parallels of latitude are small circles (with the
exception
p of the equator)
q )
•Meridians of longitude are great circles

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ACD2501
Desirable qualities of a chart projection:
• Maintain true shape of physical features.

• Maintain correct proportions of features relative to one
another.
• True scale, ppermittingg accurate measurement of distance.
• Rhumb lines plot as straight lines.
• Great circles plot as straight lines.
No chart has all of these!
08 M.SRamaiah
M.S. Ramaiah School
School ofofAdvanced
Advanced Studies,
StudiesBengaluru
- Bangalore 63
PEMP
Sectional Charts ACD2501

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ACD2501
ADF/NDB
• The ADF, or Automatic • The NDB, or Nondirectional

Direction Finder,
Finder is the Radio Beacon,
Beacon is the
receiver in the aircraft transmitting antenna on the
ground
The ADF is the receiver of the NDB’s transmissions

08
PEMP
ACD2501
NDB
• The NDB is a ground-based radio transmitter that emits a

signal
g in everyy direction
• Benefits
– Economic
– Easy
E to maintain
i i
– Not line of sight
• Errors
– Susceptible to interference (T-Storms)
– Bounces around coastlines

08
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ACD2501
ADF
• The ADF determines the bearing from the aircraft

TO the station
– Needle ALWAYS points to the station
• Indicates relative
relati e bearing
– Bearing, measured clockwise, from the nose of the
aircraft TO the station
– Card only indicates angle – has nothing to do with
direction aircraft is pointed
p

08
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ACD2501
Tracking the NDB
• Tracking – flying on a heading that maintains a constant,

desired track to/from a station
– Find heading/course that takes you to the station
– Once off by 10°, double the deflection and turn towards
station ((head of the needle))
– Once deflection equals correction, you are back on course
– Turn 10° towards needle
– Repeat as necessary and become more precise with
correction

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ACD2501
A380 Glass Cockpit

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ACD2501
Summary
In this session the following topics were discussed

• Ai
Aircraft
f Instruments
I
– Common Aircraft Instruments their types and usage
– Flight Instruments
Instruments, Engine Instruments
Instruments, Auxiliary Instruments
– Basics of Navigation

08
PEMP
ACD2501
Thank you !

08

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PEMP

Aircraft Instrumentation, Guidance and

Session delivered by:

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 1

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 2

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 3

Types of Aircraft Instrumentation

• Type 1: Those that help visualize the attitude, location

• Type 2: Those which indicate the relationship to the

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 4

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 5

Instrument Clusters CESSNA 172

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 6

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 7

The pitot tube on

The static port

Here, the airplane is banking left

The attitude indicator provides an artificial horizon to show the

Like the hands of a clock, the long

The ball is centered when

The heading indicator displays the direction of flight.

Airplane is descending at 190

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 13

• Those that help visualize the attitude, location and

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 14

Pitot – Static System

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 15

Air Speed Indicator

• Dynamic Air Pressure - Pressure caused by moving

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 16

Air Speed Indicator

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 17

Air Speed Indicator

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 18

Air Speed Indicator

• Differential pressure gauge that measures the difference

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 19

Airspeed Indicator Symbology

• White Arc – Flap operating Range

• Vso – Stall speed in landing configuration

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 22

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 23

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 24

• Static Input Only

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 25

Vertical Speed Indicator

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 26

Vertical Speed Indicator

• Static air enters both the

Vertical Speed Indicator Errors

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 28

Air moves out

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 29

• Altimeter should be updated as often as possible (or

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 32

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 33

Pitot – Static Summary

• While the Altimeter, VSI and airspeed indicator all

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 34

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 35

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 36

• Gyroscopes may be operated by electrical power or

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 37