Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer: L.L.M. Veldhuis

Potential Flow Methods
Some Results
Summary
Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Part 1
L.L.M. Veldhuis
Flight Performance and Propulsion Group
Delft University of Technology
L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Some Results
Summary
Outline
1 Potential Flow Methods

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Thin airfoil theory
Airfoil of arbitary shape
2 Some Results

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Outline

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Thin airfoil theory
2 Some Results

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Some remarks before we start
AIRCRAFT AERODYNAMICS PRIMER

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Why are you here?

What is my plan?
Form of the lectures
Introduction of concepts
Literature Survey

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Why are you here?

What is my plan?
Literature Survey

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Why are you here?

What is my plan?
Literature Survey

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Why are you here?

What is my plan?
Literature Survey

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Why are you here?

What is my plan?
Literature Survey

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Literature survey
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Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Literature survey

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Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Literature survey

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Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Literature survey

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Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Scope of the lectures series
We limit ourselves to Aircraft Aerodynamics

Mainly focused to high Reynolds number flows
Lectures constitutes a combination of inviscid / viscous
calculation techniques and discussion on design related
methods
Lecture material (Notes) will become available in due time
(keep note of publications on BlackBoard)

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary

methods

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary

methods

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary

methods

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Pre knowledge
Use various textbooks as indicated on BlackBoard

In some case additional self study based material provided
though Internet
Have a look at ealier lectures on the foundations of
aerodynamics

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Pre knowledge

though Internet
aerodynamics

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Pre knowledge

though Internet
aerodynamics

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Examples of topics addressed in earlier lectures
Coordinate systems
Pathlines, Streak lines, Streamlines
Integral and differential form of the fluid equations
Dimensional analysis (Reynoldsnumber, Strouhal number,
Euler number, Mach number, etc.)
Vorticity, Circulation
Bernoulli’s law
Two-dimensional vortex, Biot-Savart Law
Stream function and velocity potential

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Kelvin’s theorem
Vortex lines have an important role in the flow around wings

The Vortex Theorems of Helmholtz theorem can be
summarized as follows:
Circulation of a given vortex is constant along its length
A vortex filament cannot end in a fluid (closed path, end at a
boundary or go to infinity). Example: smoke ring
In absence of rotational forces, a flow that is initially
irrotational will remain irritional

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
A peculiar vortex flow example
Engine intake induced ground vortex system

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Potential flow
Source and sink

Doublet
Distributed vorticity
Superposition principle
Rankine’s oval
Flow over a cylinder

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Intermezzo: Cylinder flow

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Overview of calculation methods

Conformal transformation
attractive for basic study on airfoils
not used for multi-element airfoils
not extendable to 3D flow
Singularities
Sources and sinks
Doublets
Vorticity distributions
Incompressible flow
Euler equations
Full potential
Surface singularity methods (panel methods)
Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Surface singulartity methods (Panel methods)
Example of paneled innovative sailplane design

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Bound vortex system
Kutta-Joukowsky-Theorem
Kutta-Joukowsky theorem states that:
The force acting on a cylinder of any cross section is equal to
L0 = ρV∞ Γ
The symmetry condition for a cylinder proves that the drag in case
of an inviscid flow is zero
D0 = 0
This is known as d’ Alembert’s Paradox. For the airfoil, that has a non-circular
shape the suction forces on the leading edge part just balance the pressure
forces on the trailing edge part of the airfoil.

Kutta-condition
Kutta-Condition
1 A body with a sharp trailing edge produces a circulation such that the
stagnation point is fixed at the trailing edge
2 In case of a cusped trailing edge the velocities the upper and lower side
meet tangentially such that the velocities at both sides are equal
Γ=0
L=0
Γ>0
L>0
Flow around an around with zero circulation (upper) and positive circulation (lower).
Note the smooth flow at the trailing edge in case of the real (viscous) flow.
Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Starting vortex
starting vortex
The creation of a starting vortex for an impulsively started airfoil

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Starting vortex
Wing starting vortex
Starting vortex in the wake of a wing.

Movie: Starting vortex behind an impulsively started wing>‌>‌>

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Outline

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Thin airfoil theory
2 Some Results

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Two-dimensional inviscid flow past a symmetrical body
potential flow>‌>‌>

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
P (x, y)
y
x=a ψ=0
x=b
V∞ κ(ξ)
dξ
ξ x−ξ
continuous doublets distribution in uniform flow

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary

Continuous doublet distribution in a uniform flow, V∞ has a
strength 2πκ per unit length. Hence the total doublet strength is:
Zb
K= 2πκ dx (1)
a
The interval dξ contributes to the stream function as given by:

κ(ξ )ydξ
dψ = − (2)
(x − ξ )2 + y 2
This means that the total stream function in an arbitrary point P is:
Zb
κ(ξ )y
ψ = V∞ y − dξ (3)
(x − ξ )2 + y 2
a

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Shape of the body (and hence the pressure distribution) is

described by ψ = 0. The solution of the integral equation in general
is difficult. An numerical solution may be obtained by respresenting
the continuous doublet distribution by a stepwise distribution:
y
Pi(xi, yi)
P2
κj
P1 Pn−1 yi
V∞ Pn
a b
∆ξ
ξi xi − ξj
Scheme of numerical method: piecewise constant doublet

distribution.
Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary

The doublet distribution consists of n segments of length dξ .
Segment i contributes to the streamfunction in point P as:
κj ∆ξ yp
∆ψ = − dξ (4)
(xp − ξj )2 + yp2
Superposition leads to the total streamfunction in P:
n
κj ∆ξ yp
ψp = V∞ yp − ∑ 2 2
(5)
j=1 (xp − ξj ) + yp
Stating that ψ = 0 everywhere on the body leads to n simultaneous

linear equations which yields the doublet densities κ1 , ... , κn .
Designate Pi (xi , yi ) as any point P on the body surface. Then:
n
ψi = 0 = V∞ yi − ∑ cij κj (6)
j=1

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary

Matrix cij is called the "influence coefficient matrix":
yi ∆ξ
cij = (7)
(xi − ξj )2 + yj2
This is the contribution of a doublet of unit density at ξj to the stream

function at point Pi on the body. Eq. 6 can be expanded into:
c11 κ1 + c12 κ2 + ... + c1n κn = V∞ y1

c21 κ1 + c22 κ2 + ... + c2n κn = V∞ y2
(8)
↓
cn1 κ1 + cn2 κ2 + ... + cnn κn = V∞ yn
For n → ∞ exact solution is approached (a limited number of segments will

produce a very acceptable solution).
Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary

Now the stream function can be computed at all points Pi . Apply Bernoulli’s
law to find the local pressure coefficient from:
2
Vi
Cp = 1 −
V∞
-0.6
Exact solution
-0.4
Numerical solution
-0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
x/c
-Cp
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Example of calculated pressure distribution

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Source panel method
Instead of using sinks and sources inside the airfoil contour we may replace the
airfoil contour itself by a socalled source sheet.This procedure again leads to a
non-lifting airfoil. Now introduce the source panel method. Consider a
two-dimensional body in a uniform flow speed V∞ .
V∞ control point (xi , yi )

n
3
β
2
V∞
panel i
1
panel m
boundary points

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Source panel method
The body surface is replaced by m panels of different length sj

and uniform length λj .
Control points, at which the flow is required to be tangential
to the panel are chosen at the midpoints of the panel.

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Source panel method

The velocity potential induced by the j th panel in point (xi , yi ) becomes:
λj dsj
Z
∆φ (xi , yj ) = ln rij (9)
2π
j
The total velocity induced by all panel is the summation of all m panel
distributions plus the potential due to the incoming flow:
m Z
λj
φ (xi , yj ) = V∞ xi + ∑ ln rij dsj (10)
j=1 2π
j
The boundary condition at the surface is that the resultant normal

velocity cancels. Thus:
∂
φ (xi , yi ) = 0
∂ nj

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Source panel method

Outward normal vector is n̄i and the angle βi is angle between the
undisturbed flow vector and the outward normal. Differentiaton of
eq. 10 then leads to:
m Z
λj ∂
∑ 2π (ln rij ) dsj = −V∞ cos(βi ) (11)
j=1 ∂ nj
j
Each term under the summation represents the contribution of the

j th panel to the normal velocity component at thei th panel.
Contribution of the i th panel is simply λi /2. Hence eq. 11 becomes:
m Z
λj ∂
λi /2 + ∑ (ln rij ) dsj = −V∞ cos(βi ) (12)
j6=1 2π ∂ nj
j

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Source panel method
For a given panel configuration (for example an airfoil shape), both

n̄i and the angle βi are prescribed at every control point. After the
evaluation of the integrals in eq. 12 for all values of i, a set of m
simultaneous algebraic equations is obtained which can be solved to
find the values of λj . With known panel strengths ,the velocity and
pressure at any point in the flow follows the derivative of φ ,
expressed in eq. 10, and Bernoulli’s equation.
Three dimensional non-lifting bodies can be represented by the

use of finite source panels. In this case the line integrals become
surface integrals but the solution procedure is similar.

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Source panel method
ni
P (xi, yi, zi) control point
βi
V∞ V∞ (xj , yj , zj )
dSj
Sj
boundary point
Source panel respresentation of a three dimensional body

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils
NACA
Airfoil geometrical characteristics
Abbot and von Doenhoff: “Theory of wing sections”
Airfoil geometrical characteristics

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils
To be able to design modern airfoils it is necessary to understand

the basic aerodynamic characteristics. These can be studied
based on rather simplified approaches. We will discuss two
methods:
Thin airfoils
Airfoils with arbitary thickness and camber

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Outline

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Thin airfoil theory
2 Some Results

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Vortex sheet represantation
Velocity distribution for the determination of the boundary

conditions of the thin wing respresented by a vortex sheet.

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Thin airfoil theory

The velocity difference between the upper and the lower side at the trailing
edge should be zero. Hence the total strength of the sheet is fixed by the Kutta
condition:
γ(TE ) = 0 (13)
Normal component of the velocity at every point P:
γ(x)ds
dVin (x0 ) = − cos(δ3 )
2πr
The negative sign is used because clockwise circulation and Vin along the
outward unit vector n normal to the upper surface are considered positive. Now
use:
x0 − x
r =
cos(δ2 )
dx
ds =
cos(δ1 )

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Thin wing theory

Integration from LE to TE leads to:
Zc
1 γ(x)dx cos(δ2 ) cos(δ3 )
Vin (x0 ) = − (14)
2π x0 − x cos(δ1 )
0
where δ1,2,3 are functions of x and c. The component of the free stream
velocity at point P is given by:
dz
V∞,n (x0 ) = V∞ sin(α − tan−1 ( )0 ) (15)
dx
dz
( dx )0 , the slope of the mean chamber line z = z(x) at chordwise station x0 , is
negative at P. Again the sum of the induced and undisturbed free stream velocity
component in P must be zero:
Vin + V∞,n = 0 (16)

The central problem: find a γ distribution that satisfies Eqs. (13) and (16). In
the next section, a simplification of Eq. (16) is introduced that leads to the
concept of the planar wing.
Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Planar Wing
Assume: maximum camber is small. Then δ1, δ2 and δ3 are small as well. Now
eq. 14 becomes:
Zc
1 γ(x)dx
Vin (x0 ) = − (17)
2π x0 − x
0
Represents the velocity induced on the x axis by a vortex sheet lying on the x
axis (the B.C are satisfied on the x axis instead of at the mean camber line).
For small angles of attack eq.(15) becomes:
dz
V∞,n (x0 ) = V∞ (α − ( )0 )
dx
And the boundary condition becomes:
Zc
1 γ(x)dx dz
= V∞ (α − ( )0 ) for 0 ≤ x0 ≤ c (18)
2π x0 − x dx
0
This technique, is referred to as the planar wing approximation. The integral of Eq.
(18) has an infinite integrand at x = x0 . The induced velocity is the “principal value”
of this integral (see open literature).
Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Symmetrical airfoil
First consider a symmetrical airfoil, defined along the x-axis.
x = 12 c(1 − cos(θ ))
Then the conditions to satisfied are:
γ(π) = 0
Zπ
1 γ(x) sin(θ )dθ (19)
= V∞ α for 0 ≤ θ0 ≤ π
2π cos(θ ) − cos(θ0 )
0

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Symmetrical airfoil
The vorticity distribution that satsisfies (19) (see open literature) is:
1 + cos(θ )
γ(θ ) = 2αV∞ (20)
sin(θ )
Using the definite integral (Prandtl):
Zπ
cos(nθ ) sin nθ
dθ = π (21)
cos(θ ) − cos(θ0 ) sin θ0
0
and n = 1 we see that:
Zπ
1 + cos(θ )
dθ = π
cos(θ ) − cos(x0 )
0
which satsfifies the second of eq. (19). To show that (20) satisfies the first of
eq. (19) evaluate the intermediate form when θ → π. In terms of x the
vorticity distribution becomes:
r
c −x
γ(x) = 2αV∞ (22)
x
Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Symmetrical airfoil
Pressure distribution
The lift per unit area at a given
position is given by:
∆p = ρV∞ γ
This is equal to the difference in

pressure between the upper and
lower side:
ρV∞ γ
∆Cp = Cpl − Cpu =
q∞
Pressure difference between upper and
lower side of a NACA0012 airfoil at
α = 9◦ .

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Lift and pitching moment

The lift per unit span l 0 follows from :l 0 = 0c ∆pdx = ρV∞
R Rc
0 γdx.
Apply the distribution of eq. (20) and define the local lift
0
coefficient as Cl = ql∞ c . Then:
Cl = 2πα = a0 α (23)
where a0 is the two-dimenional lift curve slope of the airfoil in case

the angle of attack is given in radians. The moment of the lift
about theRleading edge of the airfoil is given by:
0 = − c ∆pxdx. Remember that a taildown moment is
MLE 0
defined as being positive. With the pitching moment coefficient
CmLE = MLE0 /q c 2 we find (see fig. next sheet):
∞
πα
CmLE = −
2

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Pitching moment
Hence in terms of the lift coeffcient:
1
CmLE = − Cl (24)
4
Apparently the centre of pressure (the point at the airfoil about
which Cm = 0) is located at:
c
xcp =
4
at all angles of attack of the airfoil!

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Cambered airfoil
Symmetrical
Cambered

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Cambered airfoil
Now computations are somewhat more complex. Again use the
transformation:x = 12 c(1 − cos(θ )). Now eq. (19) becomes:
γ(π) = 0
Zπ
1 γ(x) sin(θ )dθ dz
= V∞ α − for 0 ≤ θ0 ≤ π
2π cos(θ ) − cos(θ0 ) dx 0
0
(25)
The γ distribution that satisfies eq. (25) consists of two parts: 1)

part due to shape of camber line, γc and 2) part due to the angle of
attack, γα . Latter part can be written as:
1 + cos θ
γα = 2V∞ A0
sin θ
Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Cambered airfoil
For a symmetrical airfoil A0 becomes α. The other part of the γ distribution
depends only on shape of mean camber line and is finite everywhere including
the point at the leading edge. Convenient to use Fourier series:
∞
2V∞ ∑ An sin nθ
n=1
The total γ distribution is the sum of the two parts:

!
∞
1 + cos θ
γ(θ ) = 2V∞ A0 + ∑ An sin nθ (26)
sin θ n=1
When θ = π then γ = 0 for all values of the coefficients; thus the first of eq
(25) is satisfied. It remains to find the values of An (n = 0 → ∞) that will
ensure that the second of eq. (25) is satisfied as well. For this purpose
substitute eq. (26) in eq. (25):
Zπ ∞ Zπ
A0 1 + cos θ An sin nθ sin θ dz
dθ + ∑ dθ = α −
π cos(θ ) − cos(x0 ) n=1 π cos(θ ) − cos(x0 ) dz 0
0 0

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Cambered airfoil
First integral on the left-hand side is of the form of the relation shown in
eq. (21). The second infinite series of integrals may also be evaluated by
eq. (21) if the trigonometric identity
sin nθ sin θ = 12 (cos(n − 1)θ − cos(n + 1)θ ) is used. After we perform
these integrations and rearrange terms, the equation above becomes:
∞
dz
= (α − A0 ) + ∑ An cos nθ (27)
dx n=1
The station subscript has been dropped as it is clear that Eq. (27)
applies to any chordwise station. The coefficients An and must satisfy eq.
(27) if eq. (26) is to represent the γ distribution that satisfies the
condition of parallel flow at the mean camber line. It will be observed
that eq. (27) has the form of the cosine series expansion of dz/dx.

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Cambered airfoil
For a given mean camber line, dz/dx is a known function of θ and,

therefore, the values ofA0 and An and may be written directly as:
Zπ
1 dz
A0 = α − dθ (28)
π dx
0
Zπ
2 dz
An = cos nθ dθ for n ≥ 1 (29)
π dx
0
Finally the equations (27), (28) and (29) determine the γ

distribution for the cambered airfoil. For the symetrical airfoil:
A0 = α and An = 0.

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Properties of cambered airfoil

The lift and pitching moment for the cambered airfoil are:
Zc
1
Cl = ∆pdx
q∞ c
0
Zc
1
Cm = − ∆pxdx
q∞ c
0
After integration we find:
Cl = 2πA0 + πA1
1 1 1 1
CmLE = − π(A0 + A1 − A2 ) = − Cl + π(A2 − A1 )
2 2 4 4
c πc A2 − A1
xCP = −
4 4 Cl
Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Properties of cambered airfoil
The values of A1 and A2 are independant of α (see eq. (29)). They depend
solely on the form of the camber line. Hence position of centre of pressure
changes with the lift coefficient (angle of attack).
However if load is shifted to a distance of 14 c behind the LE the moment
coeffcient about this point, Cmac is independent of the angle of attack. This
important characteristic point of the airfoil is called the aerodynamic centre.
Aerodynamic centre (ac) and centre of pressure (cp) on an airfoil.

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Centre of pressure (CP) and Aerodynamic Centre (AC)
Centre of pressure
Position changes with angle of attack
Cmcp = 0
Aerodynamic centre
Position fixed with changes in angle of attack
dCm
( )ac = 0
dα

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary

Transfer the load to the quarter chord position. We find the
pitching moment around the aerodynamic centre:
1
Cmc/4 = π(A2 − A1 ) (30)
4
Combining eq. (30) and eq. (29) the moment coefficients around
the aerodynamic centre becomes:
Zπ
1
Cmac = (cos 2θ − cos θ )dθ (31)
2
0
and the lift coefficient becomes:

 
Zπ
1 dz
Cl = 2π α + (cos θ − 1)dθ  (32)
π dx
0

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
The lift coeffcient varies linearly with the angle of attack and the
slope is a = 2π. The zero lift coefficient is now non-zero as
opposed to the symmetrical airfoil case. From eq. (32) we find:
Zπ
1 dz
α0 = − (cos θ − 1)dθ (33)
π dx
0
and the lift coefficient can now be expressed based on the effective
angle of attack:
Cl = 2π(α − α0 ) (34)

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Lift and pitching moment coefficient of a symmetrical airfoil (NACA0009) and a

cambered airfoil (NACA2408) found from experiments at Re = 9 × 106 . (Source:
NACA).

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Outline

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Thin airfoil theory
2 Some Results

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
The thin airfoil approach delivers quite accurate results.

However, the determination of the aerodynamic characteristics
of thick, highly cambered, slotted surfaces, with single or
multiple flaps and mutual interference effects among wings,
fuselages, etc. require, the use of numerical methods such as
the source panel representation.
To produce lift we have to introduce circulation
This circulation strength is fixed by the Kutta condition

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
Vortex panel distribution
ni
ith control point (xi , yi )
(Xi , Yi ) θi
ti (Xi+1 , Yi+1 )
γj+1
(xj , yj )
γj γ3 γ2 γ1
θj (X1 , Y1 )
(Xj+1 , Yj+1 ) dsj (X3 , Y3 ) (X2 , Y2 )
sj
(Xj , Yj )
Sj
panel j
Vortex panel resprentation of a cambered airfoil with thickness.

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary
A total of m panels are positioned on the airfoil (note numbering)

Boundary points selected on the surface of the airfoil (airfoil becomes a
streamline)
At the mid-panel control points, Vn , should be zero.
The velocity potential at the ith control point (xi , yi ) becomes:
m Z γ(s )
yi − yj

j
φ (xi , yi ) = V∞ (xi cos α + yi sin α) − ∑ tan dsj (35)
j=1 2π xi − xj
j
where sj
γ(sj ) = γj + (γj+1 − γj ) (36)
Sj
Here (xj , yj ) represent the coordinates of an arbitrary point on the jth panel of length
Si0 which is at a distance sj measured from the leading edge of the panel.

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary

ni
V∞
vinduced
panel i
Vef f
Boundary condition is that normal velocity at panel (outward normal vector ni
) is zero at the ith control point:
∂
φ (xi , yi ) = 0 for i = 1, 2, ..., m
∂ ni
Differentiation and integration in a similar manner as for the source panels
leads to:

∑ Cn1ij γj0 + Cn2ij γj+1
0
= sin(θi − α) i = 1, 2, ..., m (37)
Here γ 0 = γ/2πV∞ is the dimensionless circulation density.

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary

The coefficients, Cnkij are determined by the geometrical panel layout. After
carefull math operations we find that the system of equations may be written
in the following form:
m+1
∑ Anij γj0 = RHSi i = 1, 2, ..., m + 1
j=1
The coefficients Anij are called the influence coefficients representing the
influences of γj0 on the normal velocity at the ith control point.
With the known circulation strenghts the tangential velocity can be calculated:
∂φ
∂ ti
Vi =
V∞
Hence:
m
Vi = cos(θi − α) + ∑ (Ct1 ij
γj0 + Ct2ij γj+1
0
) (38)
j=1

Introduction
Source-Sink model
Some Results
Thin airfoil theory
Summary

The pressure coefficient at the ith control point can now be calculated with:
Cpi = 1 − Vi2 (39)
(Remember that the induced velocity was already made dimensionless with V∞ ).
The total lift of the airfoil can be computed using the Kutta-Joukowski
theorem in which the total circulation around the airfoil is the sum of
contributions from all vortex panels.

Some Results
Summary
Example, effect of panel density
‐2.5
12 panels
‐2.0
50 panels
‐1.5
‐1.0
Cp
0.5
‐0.5
‐C
0.100 0.0
0.050
y/c
0.000 0.5
− 0.050
− 0.100 1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
x/c
1.5
12 panels
50 panels 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x/c
Pressure distribution over a 12 and 50 panel NACA2515 airfoil, based on a

surface vorticity distribution over the surface.

Some Results
Summary
Example, 2D panel method
XFOIL calculation of NACA0012 airfoil

Some Results
Summary

Some Results
Summary
Surface singularity methods and so called vortex lattice methods

are currently the applied as the lowest fidelity methods in
preliminary aircraft design.
VSAERO panel method results

Some Results
Summary
More examples
wing vortex simulation>‌>‌>

unsteady wing wake siumulation>‌>‌>

Some Results
Summary
Summary
Potential flow methods are fast

They may be easily programmed and incorporated in a other
applications Like Multi Disciplinary Design and Optimization
(MDO)
The methods have significant limitations w.r.t.
complexity of the aircraft model to be analysed
providing knowledge of the flow properties
Outlook
Potential Flow Methods can be combined with viscous BL
calculations
Surface singularity method is an attractive alternative from the
aircraft design point of view
Navier-Stokes Codes require additional attention

Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer: L.L.M. Veldhuis

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Potential Flow Methods

Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Flight Performance and Propulsion Group

Delft University of Technology

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

1 Potential Flow Methods

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

1 Potential Flow Methods

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Some remarks before we start

AIRCRAFT AERODYNAMICS PRIMER

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Some remarks before we start

Why are you here?

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Some remarks before we start

Why are you here?

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Some remarks before we start

Why are you here?

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Some remarks before we start

Why are you here?

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Some remarks before we start

Why are you here?

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Approximately 1 per 2 weeks

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Approximately 1 per 2 weeks

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Approximately 1 per 2 weeks

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Approximately 1 per 2 weeks

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Scope of the lectures series

We limit ourselves to Aircraft Aerodynamics

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Scope of the lectures series

We limit ourselves to Aircraft Aerodynamics

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Scope of the lectures series

We limit ourselves to Aircraft Aerodynamics

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Scope of the lectures series

We limit ourselves to Aircraft Aerodynamics

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Use various textbooks as indicated on BlackBoard

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Use various textbooks as indicated on BlackBoard

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Use various textbooks as indicated on BlackBoard

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Examples of topics addressed in earlier lectures

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Vortex lines have an important role in the flow around wings

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

A peculiar vortex flow example

Engine intake induced ground vortex system

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Source and sink

L.L.M. Veldhuis Aircraft Aerodynamics Primer

Intermezzo: Cylinder flow