Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ABS Energy Efficiency Advisory PDF
ABS Energy Efficiency Advisory PDF
References....................................................................................................................................... 72
T his Advisory has been compiled to provide developing technologies aimed at reducing the
useful information on the status and the hull frictional resistance or using renewable
current state of ship energy efficiency energy sources (such as solar and wind energy).
measures. It provides guidance to owners and
operators on the wide range of options being Section 3: Structural Optimization and Light
promoted to improve vessel efficiency, reduce Weight Construction
fuel consumption and lower emissions. Included This section addresses the impact of the use of
is background information, descriptions of high strength steel on lightship weight and energy
the technologies, explanations of key issues, consumption.
general pros/cons of each measure and limits of
applicability or effectiveness, as well as practical
Section 4: Machinery Technology
issues related to implementation.
This section looks at the efficiency gains that
are possible in the design and operation of the
The material is presented in five sections:
ship’s machinery and systems. It covers main and
Sections 1 and 3 address challenges for new vessel
auxiliary diesel engines, waste heat recovery and
construction; Sections 2, 4 and 5 cover both new
other auxiliary equipment.
and existing vessels.
Fuel Savings
Estimates
The fuel savings estimates in
this Advisory are based on
values derived from vendor
and manufacturer claims,
industry reports, practical
operating experience and ABS
engineering review. The data
have been combined in an
objective way to reflect, as best
as possible, the realistic savings
in fuel consumption that could
be expected in practice. Still
the range of savings for some
efficiency measures is large and
this can reflect uncertainty in
the expected performance.
For containerships, increasing size from For containerships of 4,500 TEU and
4,500 TEU to 8,000 TEU reduces fuel above, reducing speed by 1 knot reduces
consumption for propulsion by about propulsion fuel consumption by 12 to 15
Savings
25 percent (measured in terms of fuel percent. For oil tankers, reducing speed by
Savings
consumption per tonne-nm of cargo 1 knot reduces fuel consumption by 17 to
transported). Increasing from 8,000 to 22 percent.
12,500 TEU reduces consumption by about
Ship Type All
10 percent.
All ships. The largest savings occur for New/Existing
All
Ship Type higher speed ships and are most significant Ships
for smaller sized vessels.
Some cost reduction if a smaller engine is
Cost
New/Existing selected.
All
Ships
Increasing size from 4,500 TEU to 8,000 A number of factors are considered when selecting
TEU reduces construction cost in terms by the design speed. These include but are not limited
Cost
about 15 percent (measured in terms of to: the expectation of shippers; active market
US$ per TEU). conditions; the speed required to maintain regular
service; necessary sea margins for the intended
Figure 1 presents transport efficiency in terms service; and maximizing efficiency. The cost of fuel
of fuel consumption per tonne-mile of cargo is a major component of operating expenses, and
moved (g/tonne-nm) for containerships as a therefore the establishment of the optimal speed
function of capacity in TEUs. A service speed is particularly sensitive to fuel price. In addition
of 22.5 knots is assumed for all designs. The the inventory rate of cargo (the time value of cargo
cargo payload is determined assuming stowage shipped) is also a significant factor.
of 7 tonne/TEU average weight containers
within the constraints of slot capacity, available For any service with estimated cargo quantities
deadweight, container securing restrictions and per annum and a target fuel cost, the optimum
visibility limits. design speed can be determined from an economic
analysis such as a required freight rate (RFR)
As shown, significant reductions in fuel analysis. This analysis includes the number of
consumption per TEU transported can be ships necessary to meet the cargo demands at
realized through the economy of scale of some speed, capital costs and operating costs.
employing larger capacity vessels. The relative It is a convenient way of judging the economic
improvement in fuel consumption diminishes efficiency of a range of designs. If one is
as capacity increases and is fully realized only if considering acquiring new vessels, performing
the larger ships can be effectively utilized. this RFR analysis over a range of potential fuel
costs is a good way to determine
the most efficient speed at the
8.00 outset.
7.00 Panamax
(4,500 TEU) Designing for the right speed, or
Fuel consumption per tonne-mile
4.00
Post-Panamax
usually means a fuller form and
3.00
(8,000 TEU) Ultra Large
(14,900 TEU)
higher cargo deadweight. It is
(12,500 TEU)
also possible to refine the hull
2.00 form for multiple drafts and
1.00
possibly multiple speeds if cargo
quantities may vary or there
0.00 are significant ballast legs. The
0 2,500 5,000 7,500 10,000 12,500 15,000
Nominal Slot Capacity (TEU)
main engine and propeller can
be optimized around the slower
Figure 1. Containership – Transport Efficiency as a Function of Capacity in TEUs speed for maximum benefit.
If the only focus of designing for slower speeds Increasing draft by reducing Cb and/or beam
is low fuel consumption or low EEDI, the result results in improvements to hull efficiency, and
may provide the additional
advantage of allowing for a larger
$1,000 propeller to be fitted. Increasing
$900 length while reducing Cb will
HFO at $1,200/tonne
$800 reduce the required power. This
Required Freight Rate (US$/TEU)
1.000 1.000
0.900 0.900
(1.0=Median)
(1.0=Median)
0.800 0.800
Hull Performance Index (Recent Designs) Hull Performance Index (Recent Designs)
0.700 Upper Quartile (Recent Designs) 0.700 Upper Quartile (Recent Designs)
Best of Recent Designs Best of Recent Designs
0.600 Projected Efficiency for Highly Optimized Designs 0.600 Projected Efficiency for Highly Optimized Designs
0.500 0.500
0 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000 0 2,500 5,000 7,500 10,000 12,500 15,000
Figure 3 compares the performance at the those 25 percent of ships exhibiting the best overall
design draft of representative newbuildings performance fall below this line.
offered by major yards over the last ten years.
The Holtrop-Mennen regression formula for There is considerable variation in the efficiency
assessing hull resistance and standard propeller of containerships. For tankers, the variation is
series were applied to nondimensionalized somewhat less, but still significant. Thus, it is in
performance data, adjusting for variations in the interest of the shipowner to carefully assess the
particulars (LBP, beam, draft, Cb) and service efficiency of existing designs offered by shipyards.
speed. Performance is plotted relative to 1.0,
which represents the median performance Encouraged by continued shipowner interest
of the ships evaluated. For example, a hull in minimizing fuel consumption and the newly
performance index of 1.03 indicates that the adopted IMO EEDI, greater attention is being given
ship requires approximately 3 percent more to hull form and propeller optimization. The best
power than the median while an index of 0.96 of today’s designs perform roughly 5 percent better
indicates the required power is 4 percent below than the upper quartile line, and we believe that
the median value. The green line represents the a further 3 to 5 percent improvement is possible
upper quartile of top performing ships. That is, above today’s best designs. There is no reason to
accept a design that does not perform in the upper in assessing the influence of changes to the
quartile of vessels built in the last decade, and entrance angle, optimizing the location and shape
efficiency levels exceeding today’s best performing of the fore and aft shoulders, and as described
vessels should be anticipated in the near future. below, optimizing the bulbous bow. CFD is to be
employed sequentially, allowing for refinement
When assessing the efficiency of an offered design, of shape and elimination of less favorable
it is often useful to compare typical designs of variations. This will enhance the effectiveness
similar size. Table 1 and Table 2 show ‘standard’ of the CFD by reducing the number and scope
designs for the more popular sizes of oil tankers of more costly model tests. Potential flow
and containerships. The principal particulars were calculations can reasonably predict the impact
determined by regression from recent newbuildings, on wavemaking resistance of hull form design
and the required power is based on ‘upper quartile’ variations, particularly in the forebody. However,
performance as described in Figure 3. wave breaking effects cannot be evaluated with
such codes. These inviscid calculations are also not
Lines Development and Testing Program effective for evaluating hull changes which impact
Where a new hull form is being developed, a flow about the aftbody where viscous effects
reiterative process of CFD analyses and model tests on wave resistance can be more pronounced.
is highly recommended. A typical process may This includes conditions of transom immersion
involve three or more iterations of lines refinement, resulting in wetted-transom flow (i.e. turbulent
CFD analysis and resistance and propulsion model flow in way of the transom).
tests. These should be carried out for at least three
drafts and multiple trims, over a range of speeds. A There is substantive potential for fuel savings by
thorough testing program, which may cost between optimizing for the off-design conditions where
$200,000 and $500,000, is readily justified for the expected operating profile differs from a single
multiple ship programs. design draft and design speed. Changes in draft,
trim and speed can dramatically change the wave
Free surface potential flow calculations, also profile and overall resistance. Therefore, the owner
referred to as inviscid calculations, are now a and designer should prepare a clear specification
routine part of hull form optimization. Such of the different operating drafts and speeds on
calculations may be incorporated into the different legs of the expected voyages. Numerical
parametric studies for principal dimensions, analysis and model tests should then cover the
particularly to ascertain the impact of shifts in operating conditions at which the vessel may
the LCB and adjustment to Cb. CFD is useful spend a significant portion of its time at sea.
100%
90%
80%
70%
60% Air resistance
50%
Wavemaking resistance
40%
30% Appendages resistance
20% Viscous resistance
10%
0%
Aframax VLCC 4,500 TEU 8,000 TEU
Tankers Containerships
For higher speed and therefore finer hull forms The characteristics of the bulbous bow must be
typical for larger containerships, wavemaking is carefully balanced with the shape of the entrance
more significant (23 percent and 18 percent of and the transition towards the forward shoulder
total resistance for the standard 4,500 and 8,000 and bilge. Bulbs are most effective at certain Froude
TEU containerships). Such a vessel will have number (speed-length ratio) and draft. Changes
more slender proportions as compared with a in speed and draft significantly change the wave
tanker, with a higher L/B ratio. In this case, the created, such that reductions in draft or speed can
more slender and finer hull allows the LCB to be actually lead to increases in wavemaking resistance.
moved aft while still maintaining good flow into As few commercial vessels operate solely at a design
the propeller. This enables a reduced entrance draft, compromises in the bulb design are needed
angle and softer forward shoulders. The bulb on a to provide good performance over the expected
containership will be elongated with finer shape to range of operating drafts and speeds. Maersk Lines
reduce wavemaking resistance. reports fuel savings of over 5 percent by modifying
the bulbous bow of a shipyard design which was
Forebody Optimization optimized to the design draft, so that it provided
more favorable performance over the anticipated
Forebody optimization includes consideration
operating profile of drafts and ship speeds.
of the bulb design, waterline entrance, forward
shoulder and transition to the turn of the bilge.
Bow flare also influences motions and added
Potential flow calculations are routinely applied
resistance in waves. V-shaped rather than U-shaped
in this optimization process.
flare is generally preferred, as it tends to reduce
motions without adding resistance. The increased
The properly designed bulbous bow reduces
resistance in heavy seas due to pronounced flare is
wavemaking resistance by producing its own
currently not fully understood, and consequently
wave system that is out of phase with the bow
rarely considered during the design process;
wave from the hull, creating a canceling effect
however efforts are ongoing to develop an
and overall reduction in wavemaking resistance.
understanding.
The flow is more horizontal, reducing eddy effects
at the forward bilge. Physical factors considered
in bulb optimization include volume, vertical Aftbody Optimization
extension of the center of volume, longitudinal Aftbody optimization includes efforts to mitigate
extension and shape. A bulb with a reverse pear- stern waves, improve flow into the propeller and
shaped section is primarily effective at the design avoid eddy effects. A properly designed stern can
condition, pear-shaped bulbs work best for drafts reduce the aft shoulder crest wave as well as the
below the design draft (i.e. ballast draft or partial deep wave trough and stern waves. Improving
load draft) and cylindrical shaped bulbs offer a the nature of the stern flow can lead to improved
compromise solution. propulsive efficiency. (Flow improving devices
such as stern flaps may be beneficial; these are
A V-shape may be introduced at the base of the discussed in Section 2.) Potential flow calculations
bulb to mitigate slamming impact loads. Faster, are used to evaluate wavemaking effects through
more slender vessels favor larger volume and the aft shoulder. However, viscous flow calculations
forward extension of the bulb. ‘Goose-neck’ type are needed to evaluate aftbody flow through the
and stretched bulbs are particularly effective when propeller and wetted transom flows in way of a
draft and speed vary over a small range. Fuller submerged transom because these are dominated
ships such as tankers and bulk carriers are often by viscous effects. Significant progress in the
arranged with bulbs having a large section area development and application of viscous flow
10
EEDI (g CO2/tonne-mile)
5.52
Reference Line Value (-10%)
4 Panamax
3.5
3.22
2 Aframax
Suezmax 2.47
VLCC
0
0 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000
Deadweight at Load Line Draft (tonnes)
The Influence of IMO’s EEDI burning HFO. The EEDI regulation calls for
application of the specific fuel consumption at 75
on Ship Design percent MCR listed on the Engine International
The IMO EEDI for new ships is encapsulated Air Pollution Prevention (EIAPP) certificate.
in a single formula that estimates CO2 output
per tonne-mile. The numerator represents CO2 Testbed measurements for the EIAPP certificate
emissions after accounting for “innovative” are normally done for MDO under ISO conditions.
machinery and electrical energy efficiency Also, there is considerable uncertainty in some
technologies that are incorporated into the design. of IMO’s historical data for ship characteristics,
The denominator is a function of the speed, especially the assumed service speed for each
capacity and ship-specific factors. To determine vessel. IMO developed the reference baseline
compliance, the attained EEDI for a newbuilding for each ship type by fitting a single exponential
is compared to a baseline value. curve to the data. In some cases, the single curve
does a poor job in representing the mean of
New ships contracted as of 1 January 2013 and performance data for all ship sizes. ABS developed
with delivery not later than 30 June 2015 must a paper evaluating options on the EEDI baseline
have an attained index at or below the EEDI for SNAME and the Marine Board Symposium.
reference baseline. For vessels with a building
contract from 1 January 2015, the reference Figure 5 compares the attained EEDI values for
baseline is reduced by 10 percent. The baseline the standard tanker designs listed in Table 1
is further reduced for contracts placed as of 1 to the reference baseline for tankers (the blue
January 2020. line) and the reference baseline reduced by
10 percent (the red line). The standard ships have
IMO developed individual reference baselines for principal dimensions and service speeds that
the different ship types. The baselines are derived are representative of ships built in the last ten
from historical data – generally ships built over years, but have installed propulsion power based
the prior ten years. As IMO did not have access to on the efficiency attained by the upper quartile
complete design data on these ships, simplifying of modern designs. As expected, all of these
assumptions were made to facilitate calculations. standard tankers satisfy the EEDI requirements
For example, a specific fuel oil consumption of (i.e. fall below the reference baseline). The smaller
190 g/kWh was assumed for all main propulsion vessels (the panamax and aframax tankers)
engines, which is IMO’s estimate for consumption meet the baseline less 10 percent, meaning good
of representative slow-speed diesel engines optimization of lines and propulsors should be all
30
Reference Line Value
25
EEDI
that is required to satisfy the EEDI requirements the exception of the neo-panamax containership
through 2020. Some further improvements in meet the baseline less 10 percent. This indicates
efficiency will be required for suezmax and that designers should have little difficulty meeting
VLCC sized tankers, but it is believed this level the EEDI requirements through 2020 without
can be achieved through further hull form and resorting to innovative technologies or reductions
propulsor optimization and without resorting in service speed.
to the introduction of innovative technologies.
As discussed in this Advisory, additional As shown in Figure 1, the fuel oil consumption
improvements are possible through energy-saving per tonne-nm of cargo transported for the neo-
devices and enhancements to the power plant panamax containership is about 14 percent less
(e.g., waste heat recovery). than the panamax containership of the same
nominal TEU capacity. The wider beam on the
The ship reference speed, which is determined neo-panamax containership enables a more
from the speed trial analysis, is a crucial stable hull form, significantly reducing the need
parameter in establishing the EEDI. The EEDI for ballast. Although the neo-panamax is more
calls for the trial speed to be determined in economical than the panamax design (i.e. the
accordance with ISO 15016. Corrections based cost to move a TEU is much less), the hull of the
on simplifying assumptions are made for sea panamax containership, having a higher length/
state, wind and current. If speed trials are not beam ratio, is hydrodynamically more efficient.
conducted at the reference draft, trim and draft The EEDI uses deadweight rather than ‘usable’
corrections are applied based on model test data. TEU capacity as a measure of cargo carried, and
Sea trials should be carefully monitored, as the therefore does not distinguish between a tonne of
accuracy of sea trial results will be affected by cargo and a tonne of ballast.
the trial conditions, the proper application of
correction factors and the quality of model tests. As shown in Figure 6, the EEDI methodology
rates the panamax design as more efficient
Figure 6 compares the attained EEDI values for (having a lower attained index). As a result,
the standard containership designs listed in Table to meet the EEDI standard after 2015 the neo-
2 to the reference baseline and the baseline less panamax containership will likely require some
10 percent. All of the standard containerships innovative technologies or a reduction in design
meet the reference baseline, and all designs with service speed.
Finally, the
Figure 7. Grothues Spoilers Working Principle low pressure
area created
function is to deflect downward the flow of water in front of the
so that it is re-directed horizontally in towards the duct can have
propeller. Grothues originally proposed them to beneficial
minimize/prevent the formation of keel vortices in effects in
the U-shaped sterns of full block coefficient (Cb) terms of re-
ships (tankers and bulk carriers). However, tank attaching
testing provided some indication that they would separated
also improve the efficiency of the propeller in view flow to the
of the larger amount of water made available to the hull in the
upper portion of the screw and lesser component vicinity of
of the incoming wake in the plane of the propeller the duct.
disk (both wake equalization effects). In the best However,
cases, spoilers might also provide a limited amount it is also
of additional thrust to the ship as a result of the possible that Figure 8. Model of a Schneekluth Duct
redirection of vertical flow components in the where the flow over the stern is already attached
horizontal direction. and uniform, this same low pressure might instead
increase the thrust deduction factor.
The effectiveness of these devices depends to a
large extent on the correct alignment of the inflow
edge of each spoiler with the incoming flow lines, Stern Tunnels
a reasonably gradual curvature of the plate that Stern tunnels are horizontal hull appendages
would prevent flow separation at the spoiler and placed above and in front of the propeller disk that
a correct dimensioning and positioning of the deflects water down towards the propeller. In most
device to maximize its benefits without unduly cases, these devices are retrofitted to reduce the
increasing skin friction and parasitic drag. All of wake peak effect of pronounced V-shaped sterns,
this has to be achieved through flow visualization thus reducing vibration. A large number of such
techniques (tank tests and/or CFD) but, in reality, ducts have been designed and installed on vessels
it is hard to imagine how these ideal conditions precisely for this purpose.
could be maintained when the flow is disturbed by
ship motion and waves. Grothes-Spork reports PD A
reduction values of no more than 10 percent for
nonoptimized full Cb hulls. Lesser benefits should
be expected for all other ship types.
A
Wake Equalizing (Schneekluth) Ducts
The purpose of wake equalizing ducts is similar to
that of the Grothues spoilers, in the sense that both
types of devices try to redirect flow to the upper Figure 9. Partial-duct Stern Tunnel
Pre-swirl Devices
2 to 6 percent reduction in propulsion fuel
Savings
consumption.
To be designed in conjunction with the
Applicability
propeller and any relevant post-swirl device. Figure 10. Stators on CMA-CGM
Containership CHRISTOPHE COLOMB
Ship Type All
New/Existing New and retrofit greater strength to the arrangement and marginally
improve efficiency.
Cost Medium-low, depending on the device.
This sort of pre-swirl design is best suited for and
Pre-swirl devices are hydrodynamic appendages has been installed on faster ships with heavily
to the hull aiming to condition the wake flow so loaded propellers, such as those of containerships.
that a rotation opposite to that of the propeller In these cases, there is no need to further accelerate
is imposed on it, thus improving the angle of the flow into the propeller and the required
attack of the flow on the propeller blades over rotation can be provided with a minimal number
the entire disk. Also, the pre-swirl rotating of fins (normally three on one side and one on
flow counteracts the rotation flow induced by the other) thus limiting the added drag imposed
the propeller. As a result, the flow leaving the by the system. It should be noted that these
propeller disc can be made to contain minimum devices normally require the propeller design to
momentum in the circumferential direction, thus be optimized to work behind the stator, so that the
requiring less kinetic energy to produce thrust. additional loading created by the pre-swirl flow is
properly accommodated.
Pre-swirl devices have been designed and
installed both as retrofits to existing ships Pre-swirl Stators with Accelerating Ducts
and as an integral feature of newbuildings. Several devices including Mitsui integrated
Normally, they can be made to work in ducted propeller, Hitachi’s Zosen Nozzle,
nonoptimal flows (the ducted type in particular) Sumitomo’s Integrated Lammeren Duct and
but they work best in already optimal Becker’s Mewis Duct combine a pre-swirl stator
nominal wakes. In this sense, they can be with an accelerating duct. The duct can be
considered as fully complementary to other non-axis-symmetric and one of its roles is that
optimization approaches with the exception of of homogenizing the axial wake component.
nonsymmetrical stern lines. However, the duct also increases the efficiency of
the pre-swirl fins by providing a more important
Pre-swirl Fins and Stators water inflow to the stator. In addition, the duct
Pre-swirl fins and stators are sets of fins arranged contributes to the total thrust by virtue of the lift
directly in front of the propeller around the shaft created by the accelerating flow over its walls.
axis. The number and orientation of these fins
is not always symmetrical to port and starboard, Integrated stator-duct devices are normally
because of the uneven vertical distribution of the installed on full-form vessels and their design is
wake in front of the device that combines with considerably complex since each component of the
the necessity to create an even rotational flow aft hull-duct-stator-propeller assembly interacts with
of the device and in front of the propeller. Stators each other. However, it should be noted that, in
can have a small nozzle ring mainly to provide general, the size of the duct should be reduced with
in addition to the need for the hull clearances that Controllable Pitch Propellers (CPPs)
accommodate the wheel and the added structural CPP wheels are not often seen as high-efficiency
and maintenance implications of its moving parts, propellers. In fact, they have a significantly lower
have made this type of device a rare occurrence. performance than fixed-pitch propellers (FPP)
when used at fixed RPM in off-design conditions.
High-efficiency Propellers The reason for this is that high RPM and small
pitch values invariably create a severely sub-
3 to 10 percent reduction in propulsion fuel optimal flow over the blades with the creation of
Savings
consumption. face cavitation and resulting high vibration and
To be designed to suit the ship operational noise levels.
Applicability profile and stern hydrodynamic
characteristics. However, CPP wheels can deliver better
Ship Type All performance than FPPs in off-design conditions
when the RPM are changed to match the CPP’s
New/Existing New and retrofit best performance pitch setting. It is possible
to reprogram CPP controllers to maximize the
Cost Medium-low, depending on the device.
propeller efficiency in these off-design conditions.
This can be valuable if a ship is likely to be
Under the umbrella of ‘high-efficiency propellers’ operated in slow-steaming mode for portions of its
there are a vast number of often significantly life. Even when a generator is operated by drawing
different devices, accommodating different needs power from the main shaft, it is possible to vary
on different ship types. the frequency of the current generated to allow a
reduction in RPM.
Propeller Optimization
In general, larger diameter propellers with fewer Ducted Propellers
blades operating at lower RPM are more efficient Ducted propellers are ones operating in a
than smaller, faster counterparts, for a given cylindrical duct. The cross section of the duct is
required PE. However, this general principle is an aerofoil profile and has the function of either
balanced by the need for reasonable propeller accelerating or decelerating the flow in front
clearances, the nominal wake distribution behind of, over and behind the propeller. Decelerating
a given hull form, and the need to match propeller ducts are rare on merchant vessels and mostly are
and engine best performance. used to control cavitation. Accelerating ducts are
instead normally used to improve the propulsion
This type of optimization is done routinely at characteristics of ships with low speed (most
the design stage, when the principal propeller notably tugs). In these cases, a significant portion
While it is important to match the geometry of a The idea behind such propellers is similar to that of
duct to the ship’s speed (shorter, smaller ducts are the winglet at the end of airplane wings, with the
to be expected for faster ships), it is imperative suppression of the tip vortex permitting high blade
that the propeller be optimized to operate in the loading in this region. Despite the considerable
flow created by the duct. In particular, it has been additional wetted area added to the propeller blades
demonstrated that propeller tip clearance and in the outer part causing strong frictional effects,
loading have a vast effect on the efficiency of the large efficiency gains are claimed.
duct.
Legend
ü Mature/proven technologies with documented service experience
+ Technologies with near-term applicability (those with demonstrated
effectiveness through CFD and model tests, but lack service experience.)
Device Compatibility
ct
Du
ion
ion
ler
PP)
re n
pe l
uls
ice rat
s (C
me
cti Prop
h-e ne W ller C CF)
Bec mo In ozzle d Pro
Sch es Sp Dev Sepa
ller
es
PB
Du llable Low R rs
Sum i Zose ed Du rs
aps
s
e
PM
ope
ing
ntr mter/ pelle
cte
ato
Fri nd Az opell
it (
Re o Bu stem n
ing ow
o
s
st- Mew rated
Pro Prop ch Pr
Gri ent P Cap F
Hit Integ nd St
Sk ded a ing Pr
s
Dia y Pro
unn Ducts
Fle g Kite gy
Ste kluth rs
Pos r Thru es
Kap lers w rs
Ru metri rs
ota ers
u
ien s
E
Mi irl Fin s
d
u
hel
is D
te g
N
oile
elle
o
Pit
i
ice
r
sa
vi c
t-sw ste
ith
ta)
rop
rat
ndm otors
cR
Re
tat
ne
wa bles
ss
All alizin
n
els
er R s
c
cr y S y
Pre l Dev
Tow e E
b
Tur ills
ail
P
t
a-r
l
u
ffic
a
b
v
d
thu
ito
pe l
-sw
nee
-eq
rn T
o
mV
i
c
ker
bos
ir
ach
ym
e rg
dde
dde
pe l
pe l
i
Ca
sw
in
cte
ttn
tsu
ge
-sw
Pod
ke
Lar
Co
ne
Co
Wi
Mi
in
Hig
Pre
Wa
Po
Wake-equalizing, Flow Separation Alleviating Devices
Grothues Spoilers C C C C C C C C PC C C C C C C C C C
Schneekluth Ducts C C C C C C C C PC C C C C C C C C C
Stern Tunnels C PC PC PC PC C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
Pre-swirl Devices
Pre-swirl Fins and Stators C C C C C C C PC C C C C C C C C C
Mitsui Integrated Ducted Propeller C C C C C C C C PC PC PC C C C C C C
Hitachi Zosen Nozzle C C C C C C C C PC C C C C C C C C
Sumitomo Integrated Lammeren Duct C C C C C C C C PC PC PC C C C C C C
Becker Mewis Duct C C C C C C C C PC PC PC C C C C C C
Post-swirl Devices
Rudder Thruster Fins C C C C PC PC C C C C C C C C
Post-swirl Stators C C C C PC C C C C C C C C C
Assymmetric Rudders C C C C PC C C C C C C C C C
Rudder (Costa) Bulb C C C C C C C PC C C C C C C
Propeller Boss Cap Fit (PBCF) C C C C C C C C C C C
Divergent Propeller Caps C C C C C PC C C C C C C
Grim Vane Whels C PC PC PC C C C C C C
High-efficiency Propellers
Large Diamter/Low RPM C PC PC C C C C C C C
Controllable Pitch Propellers (CPP) C C C C C C C C C
LEGEND Ducted Propellers PC PC C C C C C C C C
Propellers with End Plates C C C C C C C
C The devices are theoretically
Kappel Propellers C C C C C C C
fully compatible with each other
PC The devices are partially Contra-rotating Propellers C C C C C C C
compatible and overall efficiency Podded and Azimuthing Propulsion C C C C C C
is not fully additive Skin Friction Reduction
Air Cavity Systems C C C C
Micro Bubbles C C C C
Renewable Energy
Towing Kites
Flettner Rotors
Windmills
Figure 32. Device (PID) Compatibility Turbosail
Introduction Tankers
Figure 33 shows the historical data for the
Structural weight reductions have a great effect on percentage of higher strength steel in tankers.
required power for faster and smaller vessels like The solid points represent tankers built in the
fast ferries. Structural weight optimization for large last decade.
cargo vessels (displacement hulls) increases the
available deadweight for a ship of the same size,
thereby improving transport efficiency. For high- 100%
to satisfy mission requirements, and can have Percentage High Tensile Steel 70%
significant impact on fuel consumption. 60%
50%
This section discusses the current practice on use
40%
of higher strength materials on cargo ships, and to
30%
what extent the reduced lightship translates into
improved fuel consumption. The contents of this 20%
0%
0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000
Use of Higher Strength Steel (HTS) Cargo Capacity (m3)
• Tankers
Figure 33. Tankers: HTS as a Percentage of Hull Steel
• Bulk Carriers
• Containerships The use of higher strength steel as a percentage
of total hull steel varies from 0 percent (100
Weight Savings from the Use of HTS percent mild steel construction) up to designs
with 80 percent HT36 steel. Common practice in
Potential Impact of HTS on Payload recent years is to build tankers in the panamax
Potential Impact of HTS on Fuel Consumption to VLCC size range with 30 to 60 percent HT32
Composites and Other Nonferrous Materials steel, with the HT32 steel primarily applied
in upper and lower longitudinally continuous
hull girder structure within the cargo block,
Use of Higher Strength Steel (HTS) and to a lesser extent in the transverse
bulkheads within the cargo region. For
10 percent additional HTS can reduce steel weight
tankers with 50 to 65 percent HTS, the
by 1.5 percent to 2 percent. For deadweight limited
ships, a 0.2 to 0.3 percent increase in deadweight HTS is applied throughout the side shell
Savings and longitudinal bulkheads. For tankers
and cargo payload is realized. Alternatively, fuel
consumption per tonne cargo transported can be with 70 percent HTS or more, HTS is
reduced 0.2 to 0.5 percent. applied over the majority of the oil tight
transverse bulkheads and to a limited
Ship Type All
extent into the fore and aft body.
New/Existing New
Construction cost decreases with increased HTS, as Bulk Carriers
cost savings from reduced steel weight more than Figure 34 shows historical data for the
Cost
offsets any incremental cost for HTS versus mild percentage higher strength steel in bulk
steel. carriers built during the last ten years.
70%
few ships are over that level. Common practice in
60%
recent years is to build containerships in the post-
50%
panamax size with 45 to 65 percent high tensile
40%
steel, with the HT36 steel primarily applied in
30% upper and lower longitudinal continuous hull
20% girder structure within the cargo block, and to
10% a lesser extent in the transverse bulkheads within
0%
the cargo region.
0 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000
SLL Deadweight (MT) Some HT32 steel is used for side shell, longitudinal
bulkheads, inner bottom structure, and in
Figure 34. Bulk Carriers: HTS as a Percentage of Hull Steel transverse bulkheads and midcell structures in
regions of high shear stress. HT40 or HT47 steel
The use of higher strength steel as a percentage of may be used for longitudinal hatch coaming of
total hull steel varies from 0 percent (100 percent large container carriers. HTS is also applied on
mild steel construction) up to designs with certain outfit items such as the girders and cover
80 percent higher strength steel. Common plates of hatch covers. Smaller containerships (less
practice in recent years is to build most bulk than panamax) will have lesser amounts of high
carriers with 50 to 70 percent higher strength strength steel, only applied in the primary upper
steel, with HT36 steel primarily applied in upper and lower longitudinally continuous hull girder
and lower longitudinally continuous hull girder structure within the cargo block.
structure within the cargo block, and to a lesser
extent in the transverse bulkheads within the
cargo region. HT32 steel is generally applied in
Weight Savings from the
the side shell, longitudinal bulkheads or upper Use of HTS
wing tank and hopper bulkheads, inner bottom, Figure 36 shows approximate weight savings
and transverse floors, and transverse bulkheads, through use of higher strength steel on tankers.
when HT36 is not used. Bulk carriers typically Substantial weight savings are realized up through
have higher percentages of high-strength steel than 60 percent HTS. Above 60 percent HTS, the benefits
either tankers or containerships. of using HTS diminish. For the remaining mild steel
plate, strength is no longer the dominant factor
Containerships governing scantlings with buckling and corrosion
Figure 35 shows historical data for the percentage margins mitigating the benefits of HTS application.
higher strength steel in containerships. The solid Bulk carriers and tankers show similar behavior.
points represent ships built in the last decade. There is little benefit through further application of
HTS above 80 percent of total steel weight.
100%
90%
14%
80%
Percentage Reduction in Hull Steel Weight
Percentage High Tensile Steel
70% 12%
60% 10%
50%
8%
40%
6%
30%
4%
20%
10% 2%
0% 0%
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Figure 35. Containerships: HTS as a Percentage of Hull Steel Figure 36. HTS Percentage of Weight Savings
Alpha lubricator
Cyl. 1 CCU Cyl. 2 CCU Cyl. 3 CCU Cyl. 4 CCU Cyl. 5 CCU Cyl. 6 CCU
Safety and
Fine aut. filter Accumulator
block
Main lube
pump Servo oil
Pison cooling
Servo oil + bearings
return to sump
From sump
Figure 38. Electronically Controlled Engine Hydraulic Servo Oil Loop (Courtesy of MAN)
Costs for a de-rated engine installation are The alternatives presented are as follows:
indeterminate as they depend on the effect of a • An engine installed at the manufacturer’s
larger engine, on the engine room arrangement highest MCR without de-rating. In this case
and the ship design. In addition, the cost may MCR = SMCR = 11,900 kW at 105 RPM. This is
depend on the shipyard market situation at the the base case.
time of bidding. Shipyards may offer lower fuel
• The same model engine at the same speed but
consumption design at no extra cost to obtain
with one additional cylinder allowing the MCR
orders when fuel prices are high. In the table at
to be de-rated from MCR = 14,280 kW at 105
the start of the section it is noted that the order of
RPM to SMCR = 11,900 kW at 105 RPM. This
magnitude cost impact is several hundred thousand
is a reduction of 2.9 percent in SFOC.
dollars. EEDI impact of a de-rated engine should
be favorable since the fuel consumption goes down • The same engine model as the base case but
for the same power and speed used for the vessel with one additional cylinder and a reduction
inputs into the EEDI equation. Note that uprating in speed to improve propeller performance
a de-rated engine (back to its design maximum de-rated from MCR = 14,280 kW at 105 RPM
MCR to increase speed) may only be possible if to SMCR = 11,680 kW at 98.7 RPM. This is
the related engine auxiliary systems (including a reduction of 2.3 percent in SFOC and 1.8
shafting) are originally designed and installed to percent in power required for a total fuel
match the larger rating. The EEDI would also have savings of 4.1 percent.
to be within baseline limits with the larger rating. • The same as above, but with an electronically
controlled engine (ME in this case). This is a
Other ways to increase engine efficiency are by reduction of 4.3 percent in SFOC and www1.8
providing a larger stroke/bore ratio and lower percent in power required for a total fuel
RPM, which allows for the use of a larger diameter savings of 6.1 percent.
and more efficient propeller. Electronically
controlled engines (ME type or flex type) have Effect on SFOC of Low NOx Emissions
greater capability to control the engine parameters, Requirements
and thus are better able to achieve low SFOC For low-speed diesel and medium-speed diesel
conditions, while still remaining compliant engines, complying with MARPOL Annex VI
with NOx requirements. Some of the key ways Tier II and III requirements will increase the
to improve the efficiency of a low-speed diesel engine’s SFOC. The change from Tier I to Tier
propulsion system and the reductions in SFOC that II NOx requirements created a small increase in
can be achieved from each method are shown in SFOC, while the change to the very low NOx
25
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 %SMCR
Engine shaft power
Figure 44. Sample Effects of De-rating and Larger Propeller on Fuel Consumption (Courtesy of MAN)
requirements of Tier III will have a greater effect is by use of an SCR. For best efficacy (higher
on SFOC. Tier III requirements will be in effect exhaust temperatures promote the SCR reaction)
in ECA zones starting in January 2016, but Tier the SCR is installed between the exhaust manifold
II requirements will remain in effect outside of and the turbocharger on low-speed diesel engines.
ECA zones. It appears that it is not practical to This affects turbocharger efficiency, which can
meet the low Tier III NOx requirements solely reduce engine efficiency and increase SFOC.
by making adjustments only to the engine; Medium-speed engines have the SCR installed
rather it will require some type of treatment after the turbochargers. These systems are still
system to be added. The most likely treatment under development and testing, and the amount
systems are exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), of the impact on SFOC, which is expected to be
which recirculates exhaust gas to the engine relatively small, is still not confirmed.
intake manifold, and selective catalytic reduction
(SCR), which removes NOx from the exhaust It may be possible to restore some of the fuel
gas with a chemical process and does not require efficiency lost in tuning engines to meet the Tier
modification to the engine. Both methods, EGR II NOx levels by the engine maker qualifying the
and SCR, are under development and no standard engine to the IMO requirements with an SCR. If
solution has been adopted yet. For medium-speed this were done to meet the Tier II requirements,
diesel engines SCR appears to be the favored the SCR would be required whenever the engine
process. was in operation both inside and outside an ECA.
By tuning the engine to meet Tier II NOx without
Use of EGR to achieve Tier III compliance will the SCR, the SCR is not required to operate
result in about a 1 to 2 g/kWh increase in SFOC when outside of an ECA, and will not require the
over conventional Tier II compliant engines. The addition of urea or similar ammonia source to be
alternate method for achieving Tier III NOx levels added to the exhaust.
1 bar increase in average Pmax => 0.20 - 0.25 g/kWh decrease in fuel oil consumption
Reference Pmax
Potential
Potential
Exhaust gas
economizer Ship service steam
Steam
turbine Ship service power
Exhaust
turbine G
Aux. engine
Turbo chargers G
Motor/generator
G
M
G
Main engine
G
Figure 46. Layout of Low-speed Diesel Engine with Exhaust Turbine and Steam Turbine with Generator (Courtesy of Wärtsilä)
Cooled
Flue Gas
Echogen Heat Engine Skid
Pump Recuperator
Waste Heat
Exchanger
Flue Gas
Condenser Generator Gear Turbine Supply
Cooling Cooling
Water Water
Supply Return Net Power
Figure 51. CO2 Heat Recovery Cycle (courtesy of Echogen Power Systems)
Automated AC control
60% System
systems can also be
100% Speed
supplied that monitor
40% 75% Flow
actual demand on the 50% Flow
system and control 20% 25% Flow
the system to provide
a variable capacity 0%
sufficient to meet 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% 125% 150% 175% 200%
90.0%
Power Consumption
Percent of Rated Power for Constant Speed
80.0%
70.0%
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
Constant Speed
30.0%
Variable Speed
20.0%
10.0%
0%
0% 25% 50% 75% 100% 125%
Figure 54. Power Required for Constant Speed and Variable Speed Pumps
for the constant speed pump the head produced is This technology allows a system like the main sea
much less, saving energy. The power for each case water cooling system to be controlled so that only
is shown in Figure 54. as much water as is actually required is pumped,
and only to the pressure required for the system
It should be noted that at 100 percent rated flow, without throttling.
the power required for the variable speed pump is
about 3 to 4 percent higher than for the constant A similar savings is obtainable for large fans and
speed pump. This is due to the electrical losses in other equipment that operate, or could operate, at
the variable speed electronic controls. The higher variable capacity. Equipment that usually operates
power for the variable speed unit is only between only at full rating, such as ballast pumps, fire
about 97 and 100 percent of the required flow. As pumps and starting air compressors, would not
the flow requirement is reduced below about 97 benefit by having variable speed drives, but variable
percent, the variable speed pump rapidly produces speed may be attractive for screw-type ships’ service
increasing savings. air compressors.
When selecting a service provider, the In recent years a large number of trim optimization
operator should take into consideration the tools have appeared on the market. They typically
provider’s experience and the sophistication provide a simple shipboard software application
of its computer models for obtaining reliable that displays the most efficient trim for a given
voyage plans. The number of services offered draft and allows the Master to adjust ballast and
is considerable. The operator is well advised to consumables to gain some improvement. The
shop around carefully, and may wish to consider better tools make it easy to optimize the quantity
hiring an outside expert to find the most suitable of ballast as well as its distribution. They may
options based on specific needs. be integrated with the loading instrument and/
These tests are relatively common and most The approach with CFD is to evaluate the same
basins have regular procedures and recent matrix of drafts and trim with computation rather
experiences to guide their work. Optimum trim than physical tests. As with model tests, there
tests must be set up to measure small variations is an outstanding question of how motions in a
in power. The normally expected range of seaway, especially pitch, but also yaw and sway,
variation is just 0 to 4 percent of full installed impact the theoretical calm water predictions.
power. To distinguish these small differences Currently most believe that vessel motions will
reliably the size of the model and the experience not alter the calm water optimum point, even
of the basin with that size model and type of though the calm water flow is disturbed and
test are important. This is especially true when overall resistance increases as motions increase.
self-propulsion tests are involved and the An alternative approach that tries to eliminate this
variation of flow over the propeller is critical uncertainty between calm water predictions and
to the final result. Large size models result in in-service conditions are those that rely on in-
fewer problems with ‘scale effects’ because they service measurements to figure the optimum trim.
roughness shown
3.00 in Figure 59 is a bit
2.50 high, the potential
savings from keeping
2.00
a smooth hull are
1.50 significant.
1.00
Surface roughness
0.50 comes in many forms
and from many
0.00
120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 sources which can be
broadly categorized
Roughness (microns)
as physical or
biological. These
Figure 59. Increase in Fuel Consumption for a Fast Containership with Increasing Roughness
(from International Paint Hull Roughness Penalty Calculator)
sources are further
grouped based on
size as either micro-
hull and appendages, is the primary component roughness (less than 1 mm) or macro-roughness
of total resistance, especially for full form ships. (greater than 1 mm), as shown in Table 4.
A tanker at its design speed will use the majority
of its fuel overcoming frictional resistance when The physical micro-roughness can be increased
in calm water. For high-speed, fine-form ships in service by mechanical damage, failure of the
wavemaking resistance becomes more important. applied coating (peeling, blistering, cracking, dirt
However, frictional resistance still dominates the inclusion, etc.), and even improper preparation
total resistance. The size of the frictional resistance of the surface and/or improper application of a
is dramatically impacted by the roughness of the new coating. For instance, overly aggressive
surface exposed to the flow. It has been suggested blasting, inadequate repairs to the previously
that each 10 µm to 20 µm of additional roughness applied coating, dry overspray and uneven dry
can increase total hull resistance by about 1 percent film thickness can increase the surface roughness.
for full form ships and about 0.5 percent for After the first drydocking post-delivery where a
fine-form ships at high speeds. This is shown in spot treatment and a full coat of fresh antifouling
Figure 59. has been applied, it is possible to see roughness
of 250 µm and more.
It is not uncommon for a new ship to be delivered
with surface roughness as low as 75 µm and later in Based on the rule of thumb for added resistance a
life enter the drydock with a roughness of 250 µm. ship with this hull surface (even when no fouling is
Historical records have shown that even with good present), 3 to 4 percent more fuel may be used than
maintenance practices average hull roughness can at delivery. The consequence of improper coating
increase by 10 to 25 µm per year, depending on the maintenance and application can be catastrophic
from a hull resistance point of
view. For this reason, due care
Table 5. Types of Surface Roughness must be taken when drydocking a
ship so that the paint specification
Physical Roughness Biological Roughness is robust, there is good quality
(Surface Profile) (Fouling) control to monitor surface
Weld beads, plate waviness, preparation and paint application,
Macro Animal (shell, barnacles,
significant corrosion, deep pits, and the painters are well trained.
(> 1 mm) worms, etc.) or weed fouling
plate laps, mechanical damage
Poor coating condition, minor Biological roughness (fouling)
Micro
corrosion, shallow pits, steel plate Slime fouling, algae also has a significant impact on
(< 1 mm)
surface profile
resistance, even at the micro
When searching for the best coating system it • Forward third of hull
is important to remember the best result will be • Remainder of hull working from forward
realized with a coating that provides a smooth to aft
surface that can be reasonably maintained in its
smooth state, and that prevents adhesion of fouling Some underwater cleaning equipment advertises
organisms. It is not simply a matter of ‘putting that it can remove barnacles up to 50 mm in
on a fresh coat’. The coating must be applied diameter. To do this on a CDP-coated surface
properly, monitored and managed to maintain its requires very stiff brushes and aggressive pressure
best qualities. If done correctly, the right coating and rotational speed. In such a scenario it is
upgrade can offer a quick, simple and dramatic difficult to remove heavy fouling without removing
performance improvement. a significant amount of paint. If the antifouling
is applied in different colored layers then these
Hull Cleaning colors can be used to monitor paint removal during
cleaning. SPCs have a thinner leached layer than
Cleaning a light slime can yield up to CDPs so the cleaning should use a less aggressive
7 to 9 percent reduction in propulsion fuel technique. Cleaning of foul-release coatings
Savings consumption. Cleaning a heavy slime up should only be done with a light touch and soft
to 15 to 18 percent, and cleaning a heavy pads. In all cases, follow the paint manufacturer’s
macro fouling up to 20 to 30 percent. recommendations carefully, review these with the
Ship Type All ships cleaning vendor and document the results with good
underwater photography of the cleaned surface.
New/Existing Ships in service Ideally, on a freshly cleaned surface there should be
Hull cleaning by divers or robot $1.5/m2 to no evidence of scratches, swirl marks or abrasion of
$2.5/m2 in the Far East, or about $50k for a weld seams that expose base coats or bare steel.
Cost
VLCC if all areas are cleaned - higher cost
in US and Europe. The most critical issue to address is when and how
often cleaning should be done. A proactive approach
The purpose of in-service, underwater hull that preempts any type of widespread macrofouling
cleaning is to remove biological roughness is always warranted simply because the cost of
or fouling. Depending on the coating, the having such fouling present outweighs the cost of
cleaning process can have the added benefit of cleaning by a very large margin. Regular cleaning
rejuvenating the active biocide layer. Proper of microfouling is also often cost effective if the
cleaning removes all traces of fouling and does proper cleaning technique is used so that the surface
not remove or damage the coating or cause any roughness is not degraded and coating material is
increased surface roughness. not removed.
When performing this audit the largest consumers Fuel Consumption Measuring and Reporting
down to the smallest pump motor or lighting Every vessel measures and records fuel
system should be considered. Some of the more consumption for proper bunker management –
obvious systems requiring careful attention are the ordering of the correct quantities of the right
the main engine (including turbochargers, fuel fuel at the lowest cost. This also provides data for
purification, lube oil and cooling systems, etc.); home office management of fleet costs, total CO2
SSDG engines and systems; steam production; and reporting and gross comparisons of ship energy
cargo heating. But the electrical consumers can also performance. Unfortunately, the data collected
Implementation
Execute Plan and • How should measure be implemented?
Procedures • Who is responsible?
• What is the implementation period?
AMERICAS DIVISION
ABS Plaza • 16855 Northchase Drive • Houston, TX 77060 USA
Tel: 1-281-877-6000 • Fax: 1-281-877-6001
Email: ABS-Amer@eagle.org
EUROPE DIVISION
ABS House • No. 1 Frying Pan Alley • London E1 7HR, UK
Tel: 44-20-7247-3255 • Fax: 44-20-7377-2453
Email: ABS-Eur@eagle.org
PACIFIC DIVISION
438 Alexandra Road #10-00 • Alexandra Point • Singapore 119958
Tel: 65-6276-8700 • Fax: 65-6276-8711
Email: ABS-Pac@eagle.org
www.eagle.org