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Patricia Salinas

Mrs. Eidell

AP United States History

30 May 2019

Horace Mann: Beyond “The Father of American Public Education”

A man like no other, Horace Mann grew from poverty and hardships to become America's most

distinguished educator. Born on May 4, 1796, Mann’s upbringing reflected that of many New Englanders:

subsistence farming with traditional values deeply rooted in Calvinism. Despite the brief and erratic schooling

of his early years, Mann was able to reject Calvinism and focus on self-education. Mann held numerous

political offices within Massachusetts state government in the 1820s and 1830s, representing Massachusetts as

an anti-slavery Whig in the House of Representatives from 1848 to 1853. However, his most prominent post

was that as Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education from 1837 to 1848. Mann dedicated himself to

the people of America, improving the present and future from the very foundation that is required for

all—education. Horace Mann is the most influential American for his various contributions to societal issues in

regards to minority representation, his successful efforts to reform the education system, and the establishment

of a fundamental value that is necessary for all human success.

From the beginning, Americans attached special importance to education, being closely associated as the

duty of parents and the Churches. However, education was seen as a privilege, leaving those who could not

afford an education to rely solely on knowledge passed down by their family. Schools did not focus on

academics like math or reading but rather virtues of family, religion, and community. In the 18th century, the

public education system continued to be exclusive and limited in terms of availability and extent. New England

teachers prior to the reform described schools as being “ungovernable” in all senses. Changes in instructors

eliminated stability and class sizes ranged from forty to sixty students. There was no strict curriculum to follow

and many sessions were spent reviewing the previous school year. The physical condition of school buildings
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was also poor to the point schools would close temporarily. Corporal punishment in regards to misbehavior in

the classroom was also deemed acceptable at the time (The Struggle for Public Schools). Public schools were in

dire need of restructuring in both aspects of the institution itself and the way in which teaching was executed.

Mann was able to revolutionize the concept of American public education. As the leader of the Common School

Movement, Mann focused on making education available to all—ideas that he expressed in his writings, such as

The Common School Journal ​and ​Lectures on Education. ​His efforts led to the formation of the Board of

Education and as the secretary of the Massachusetts board, Mann produced twelve detailed reports that were

circulated all over America and convinced other states to implement reforms. He believed that tax-supported

public schools could produce efficient workers, promote health, eliminate poverty, cut crime, and unite a

fragmented society (Gibbon). Mann addressed the poor preparation of teachers by establishing normal schools

to train teachers to be better equipped to educate students. The first normal school for women was opened on

July 3, 1839, at Lexington, and followed in September by a coeducational normal school at Barre (Tozer).

Although data was not recorded prior to 1869-70, examining the current public colleges that have founding

dates during the late 18th and early 19th centuries denotes that an increase in public education was due to the

reform led by Mann. He also presided over the enactment of the first compulsory elementary school attendance

law in 1852 (Snyder). Though known as “The Father of American Public Education,” his influence extended

beyond education.

Throughout his life, Mann spoke up for minorities, fighting alongside other reformers as they sought

representation or change in America’s growing society. Besides education, Mann was a strong supporter of the

temperance, abolitionist, and mental health movements of the Antebellum Era. From 1830 to 1832, he

advocated for temperance policies designed to combat gambling and reduce the consumption of alcohol across

the state, reducing domestic violence against women and their families, a scenario often experienced when

husbands were intoxicated. This demonstrates Mann’s influence as he used his political status to bring

awareness and support women against the abuse faced due to alcohol consumption. By speaking from the
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perspective of a man, he would encourage other men to advocate for temperance and gender equality.

Furthermore, he increased women’s education, specifically by encouraging women to be teachers as he believed

they had the best temperament for such positions (Tozer). Mann was able to make progress toward female-male

equality, fighting against the patriarchy that had long held women back from being fully part of society. As for

mental health, Mann supported Dorothea Lynde Dix, the leader in reforming the condition of asylums for the

mentally ill, and successfully advocated for the creation of the State Lunatic Asylum of Worcester, one of the

first institutions of its kind. As Mann argued, the previous system of imprisoning the insane placed "an

impassable barrier... between them and hope," making rehabilitation impossible (Barnard). His philosophy was

that new institutions would allow the mentally ill to be re-acquainted to society. This further shows the extent of

his influence as he applied the same moral values to all people, fighting for change if necessary to reach

equality. Had it not been for his advocacy, the mentally ill would continue to suffer in the horrid conditions of

prison-like institutions. Mann also spoke against the institution of slavery and recognized blacks as actual

human beings. In response to those who defended slavery as it being beneficial to slaves, implementing

civilizing and humanizing influences. He called it outrageous, attacking their morality and logic to believe their

current state of bondage surpassed the freedom they had before being forced to come to America (Mann). All of

these contributions during Mann's political career demonstrate his belief in equality for all individuals in every

aspect of life. He used his political influence to help represent minorities, better their living standards, and

ultimately create a prosperous society inclusive of everyone.

The foremost accomplishment Horace Mann is credited for is reforming the American education system

to the modern version that exists today. Mann re-developed the concept of public education to actually be

“public.” Among the wide variety of educational topics ad​dressed by Mann during his years as Secretary, the

most significant were school buildings, the example of Prussian education, discipline, and teachers. Mann was

able to vastly improve the physical setting of school life. In his first Annual Report for the Board Mann raised

the question of “Is inconvenience or dis​comfort suffered from the construction or location of School Houses in
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your Town, and if so in what man​ner?” He sent this report to each county in 1837, emphasizing the need to

improve school buildings. The following years did, in fact, show changes in the physical construction and

maintenance of said institutions. This is the first of Mann’s influences on education as he worked on altering the

condition of school houses to be more comfortable and fitting for a learning environment. Upon visiting Europe

and studying the success of Prussian education, Mann aimed to transform American education to a similar

system. French philosopher Victor Cousin stated that Prussian “schools were established, supported, and

administered by a central authority: The state supervised the training of teachers, attendance was compulsory,

parents were punished for withholding their children from school, and efforts were made to make curricula and

instruction uniform” (Brouillette). He advocated for an increase in state control and a general improvement of

teaching methods, especially against the evils of corporal punishment, as he referred to them. Even so, the

government schools adhered to the same values and philosophy as the private institutions and supported the

beliefs of the vast majority of Americans. Most Americans took public schools for granted for their correlation

as a part of a national movement, which sparked controversy and political division. Eventually, after the Civil

War, the public embraced the concept of public schools (Jeynes). Mann had exerted great influence on

American society by being a prominent leader in the Common School Movement. He took the initiative to

change an education system that favored the wealthy, creating opportunities for all children to have a proper

education that would prepare them for the future. Though the public did not initially accept his vision of a

“common” education he was able to push it forward in order to make it a reality and create a new norm for

education. His philosophy was carried on by Henry Barnard, John Dewey, Calvin Stowe, Harriet Beecher

Stowe, William McGuffey, among others (Jeynes). Mann’s leadership along with the contribution of other

education reformers were able to implement higher standards for schools. The modern American pedagogy is a

result of his actions and those that followed his same vision. His success laid the foundation for government

control of schools and establishing a more secular curriculum that can be seen in modern schools.
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In his efforts to reform education, Mann also established education as a fundamental value that is

necessary for success on a variety of levels from political to economic. In his speech ​The Necessity of Education

in a Republican Government, ​Mann elaborates on the definition of “education” as more than just the ability to

read, write, and keep records but as the cultivation of intellect. That intellect is necessary for the creation of

laws that help guide people to work with nature towards prosperity. Education also refers to the “culture of our

moral affections and religious susceptibilities” to transform society to make it accepting of all ideologies. Mann

argued that without even the lowest form of education, an individual cannot effectively pursue the most

common interests of life. In order to exert influence onto the general public—regardless if it is a lower or

government level—the basic foundation of education is required. The government itself must be founded on a

strong education in order to be successful. This exemplifies the significance of education for all people

regardless of their status in society as it is a necessary aspect to live a proper life. Mann pushed this

fundamental value of education to the government in order to spread it to all of the United States, creating a

“more open and fluid society in which merit would trump birth” (Warder). In doing so, he aimed to improve the

lives of all Americans, demonstrating how Mann is one of the most influential American figures as his

education reform helped people attain a higher level of education as well as success throughout various parts of

life. Modern society values rely on education to pursue a better life, an idea that developed as a result of Mann’s

efforts. Mann argued in terms of moral values and the preservation of a republican form of government

(Vinovskis). He did not want to focus on materialistic interests but recognized that economics would appeal to

the public and increase support for common schools. The economic rationale held by Horace Mann in regards to

education can be seen in Mann’s Fifth annual report in which he referred to education as “the most productive

enterprise that could be undertaken by an individual or community” (Mann). This presents Mann as an

individual who sought to improve America for moral reasons, not materialistic. He genuinely wanted to provide

the public with proper education so they could live more prosperous lives and emphasizes the importance of

education on the economic level, showing how education is fundamental in all aspects of life. Horace Mann is
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the most influential individual because he recognized the value of education in life and spread that belief to the

general public to establish a strong foundation for success.

Even with Mann’s various efforts, the extent of his influence is debated due to the many flaws in today's

current education system. Despite the current legislation, educational opportunities are not available to all. This

scarcity is in part due to lack of resources which limit how such opportunities can be distributed. The existing

competition and cost are also barriers to higher levels of education. As noted by Shields, “high-quality primary

and secondary education is effectively limited to children whose families can afford housing in middle-class

neighborhoods, or who have access to private schools via tuition or scholarships.” A 2011 research documents

the achievement gap between high and low-income students, which is now 30–40% greater and increasing

among children born in 2001 than those born in 1980 (Shields). The education system has somewhat

deteriorated to its old state in which the wealthy were able to send their children to school and class distinction

was prevalent. Equal education continues to be an issue between the upper and lower class, implying that the

reform led to superficial improvements and did not effectively equate public education. Therefore, this limits

the influence of Mann since his reform did not actually accomplish the goals that he had initially created. He

intended to create an equal system for all but even now, over one-hundred years later, his vision has still not

been met.

In a constantly changing society, it is unrealistic to expect the education system to remain adept without

additional reform. With the drastic advancements in technology and social changes, Mann’s long-standing

philosophy—“children should be provided with a free, nonselective, academically challenging, fair, and morally

just system of schooling”— continues to guide the contemporary education reform (Baines). He helped

establish an effective system of public education for his time and his ideology continues to lead education

reformers today as they work to better the current education system. The need for change as America grows is

evident in the adaption of new laws over time. The United States Congress first passed the Elementary and

Secondary Education Act (ESEA) in 1965, reauthorizing it in 2001 with the No Child Left Behind Act, which
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placed important new measures to expose and close achievement gaps. The most recent education act is the

ESSA, Every Student Succeeds Act, was passed by Barack Obama in 2015. The ESSA brings awareness to

areas where students are making progress and where they need additional support, regardless of​ ​race, income,

zip code, disability, home language, or background (Laws & Guidance). These education regulations continue

the ongoing commitment to equal opportunity for all students, one that follows the philosophy of Horace Mann.

America has advanced immensely throughout the years and with that change must follow growth in education

as well. All versions of laws promoting education are possible due to the reform that advanced the concept of

public education—The Common School Movement. This exemplifies Mann’s influence since his perspective

about education has remained the constant cause that leads modern education reforms. Had he not stressed his

philosophy of equal public education, progress in the education sector would not have extended to the level at

which it is today. Mann continues to be relevant as the most influential American in history for his philosophy

helped shape modern education and all aspects of life that are founded upon it.

Mann is an individual of the utmost influence because of the way he assisted the issue of representing

the minority groups of America and his hand in the redevelopment of the school system, along with advancing

the virtues that a human needs in order to live a fulfilled life. The Common School Movement was one of the

primary defining movements of scholarship in the history of American education. Mann led the dissemination

of common school ideology in his home state of Massachusetts and advanced the common school cause

throughout the nation, leaving a permanent mark in American history and culture (Osgood). Without Mann, the

education system would have remained in its dismal state for much longer, failing to provide students with the

necessary knowledge while some children did not even have the opportunity. Through his efforts and other

reformers, his ideology has been behind public education for decades. Even if his name is unfamiliar, no

individual would possess the level of intellect they have today without his efforts. Americans can thank their

teachers, but before that, they must thank Horace Mann.

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Annotated Bibliography

Baines, Lawrence. “Does Horace Mann Still Matter?” ​Educational Horizons,​ vol. 84, no. 4,

2006, pp. 268–273. ​JSTOR​, <​files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ750638.pdf​>. Accessed 22 May 2019.

This journal article discusses the relevance of Horace Mann in the 21st century in its review of a

book titled Horace Mann’s Vision of the Public Schools: Is It Still Relevant? The author recognizes the

recent controversies in education including technology, school finance, and No Child Left Behind. The

education system has somewhat deteriorated to its old state in which the wealthy were able to send their

children to school and class distinction was prevalent. Still, Baines argues that the 21st century requires

advocates like Mann and every so often there are individuals that represent Mann’s philosophy.

This demonstrates how Mann’s philosophy for public education is still popular today. Not only

did he help establish an effective system of public education, but his ideology also continues to lead

education reformers today as they work to better the current education system. In a changing society,

Mann’s philosophy remains the same— “children should be provided with a free, nonselective,

academically challenging, fair, and morally just system of schooling.” The negative aspects brought up

on this article could be used to counter the extent of his influence.

Barnard, Henry. ​Memoirs of Teachers, Educators, and Promoters and Benefactors of Education,

Literature, and Science.​ ​New York​, Brownell, 1 Jan. 1861. pp. 370-372. Web.

<​archive.org/details/educationalbiogr00barnrich/page/372​>. Accessed 29 May 2019.

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This memoir contains a chapter on Horace Mann, describing his early life and accomplishments

in various areas. Besides his well-known contributions to education, it also mentions his efforts in

relation to the temperance and mental health reforms. From 1830 to 1832, he advocated for temperance

policies designed to combat gambling and to reduce the consumption of alcohol across the state. As for

mental health, Mann supported Dorothea Lynde Dix and successfully advocated for the creation of the

State Lunatic Asylum of Worcester, one of the first institutions of its kind.

This shows Mann’s influence beyond that of education as he advocated for other reforms as well.

Mann was a firm believer of equality and thus he helped minorities advocate their cause, giving them the

representation that the government did not. While temperance did not see much progress in the

Antebellum Era, it would later be successful with the 18th amendment. The Mental Health reform were

successful as seen through the new institutions that were created and the improvement of previous ones.

Brouillette, Matthew J. “1. The Origins of Government Education in the United States.”

Mackinac Center for Public Policy,​ Mackinac Center for Public Policy, 16 July 1999,

<​www.mackinac.org/2031​>. Accessed 22 May 2019.

This is a series of articles that describe the changes in education from colonial day America to

the 1850s and beyond. One article covers the extent of Mann’s influence as he shifted free-market education to

“common” school education. As a member of the Massachusetts Board of Education and past politician, he used

his skills to collect state education data, establish state-approved school libraries to adopt textbooks; and control

the teacher preparation.

This shows how Mann has exerted great influence on American society by being a prominent

leader in the Common School Movement. Parents, many Orthodox, and even some liberal Protestant leaders

strongly objected his education ideologies but Mann was successful due to fear of sectarianism. His success laid

the foundation for government control of schools and establishing a more secular curriculum that can be seen in

modern schools.
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Gibbon, Peter H. “A Hero of Education.”​ Education Week​, Editorial Projects in Education, 23

Feb. 2019, <​www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2002/05/29/38gibbon.h21.html​>. Accessed 22 May 2019.

This article describes Horace Mann as an idealist who was always working towards a good

cause. Mann was especially committed to philanthropy after the passing of his wife. Upon his retirement

from politics, he devoted most of his time to improving the American education system. During his term

as the secretary of the Massachusetts board, Mann produced 12 detailed reports that were circulated all

over America and convinced other states to implement reforms. He strongly believed that tax-supported

public schools could produce efficient workers, promote health, eliminate poverty, cut crime, and unite a

society fragmented by class and ethnicity.

This source illustrates Mann as an individual dedicated to the people of America, improving the

present and future from the very foundation that is required for all—education. His efforts in reforming

the education system were a success, which made it possible to improve schools and further improve the

American standard of life.

Jeynes, William H. “The Widespread Growth of the Common School and Higher Education.”

American Educational History: School, Society, and the Common Good,​ Sage

Publications, 2007, pp. 145–179.

<​https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/13715_Chapter6.pdf​.>

This chapter focuses on the mid-19th century, a period of tremendous educational change in the

United States. The state increasingly played a major role in education. Even so the government schools

adhered to the same values and philosophy as the private institutions and supported the beliefs of the

vast majority of Americans. Most Americans took public schools for granted from their correlation as a

part of a national movement, these schools sparked controversy and political division. Eventually, after

the Civil War, the public embraced the concept of public schools.
 Salinas 11

This establishes Horace Mann as one of the most influential figures in American history

especially in regards to the education system. Even when the public did not initially accept his vision of

a “common” education he was able to push it forward in order to make it a reality and create a new norm

for education. Mann’s leadership along with the contribution of other education reformers were able to

implement higher standards for schools. The modern American pedagogy is a result of his actions and

those that followed his same vision.

“Laws & Guidance.” ​Policy - ED.gov,​ U.S. Department of Education,

<​www2.ed.gov/policy/landing.jhtml?src=pn​.> Accessed 22 May 2019.

This website is a complete collection of legislation, regulations, guidance, and other policy

documents about education. It includes descriptions for the Elementary and Secondary Education Act

(ESEA) and No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, replaced by the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) in

2015, which were adapted to ensure equal educational opportunities for all. ESSA brings awareness to

areas where students were making progress and where they needed additional support, regardless of

race, income, zip code, disability, home language, or background.

This source is significant in supporting the claim of Horace Mann as the most influential

individual as it shows that the reform he led more than a century is still relevant in contemporary

society. America has advancement immensely throughout the years and with that change must follow

growth in education as well. All versions of laws promoting education are possible due to the reform

that began the concept of public education—The “Common” School Movement. It is thanks to Mann

that we have the current education system.

Mann, Horace. “Horace Mann, “The Necessity of Education in a Republican Government” (Fall

1839).”​ Voices of Democracy: The U.S. Oratory Project,​ University of Maryland,

<​voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/horace-mann-the-necessity-of-education-in-a-republican-government-spe

ech-text/​>. Accessed 21 May 2019.

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This speech by Horace Mann elaborates on the definition of “Education” as more than just the

ability to read, write, and keep records but as the cultivation of intellect. That intellect is necessary for

the creation of laws that help guide people to work with Nature towards prosperity. Education also refers

to the “culture of our moral affections and religious susceptibilities” to transform society to make it

accepting of all ideologies. Mann argues that without even the lowest form of education, an individual

cannot effectively pursue the most common interests of life. In order to exert influence onto the general

public—regardless if it is a lower or government level—the basic foundation of education is required.

The government itself must be founded on a strong education in order to be successful.

This source exemplifies the significance of education for all people regardless of their status in

society as it is a necessary aspect to live a proper life. Mann pushes this fundamental value of education

to the government in order to spread it to all of the United States. In doing so, he aimed to improve the

lives of all Americans. It demonstrates how Mann is one of the most influential American figures as his

education reform helped people attain a higher level of education as well as success throughout various

parts of life. Modern society values rely on a strong education to pursue a better life, an idea that

developed as a result of Mann’s efforts.

Mann, Horace. ​The Common School Journal.​ Marsh, Capen, Lyon, and Webb [Etc.], 1852..

Web. <​archive.org/details/commonschooljou00manngoog/page/n5​>. Accessed 22 May 2019.

This semimonthly journal, begun by Horace Mann as secretary of the Massachusetts Board of

Education, is one of the most important education journals of its time. Devoted to the cause of

education, it proposed to improve the "common" schools and other means of education, to report on

laws relating to schools and on the proceedings of the Massachusetts Board of Education as well as to

explain the duties of parents and teachers, and address children on good behavior.

This represents Mann’s high influence on America within the 19th century; an influence that

remains in modern America. His periodical successfully spread the message that public schools should
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be more open and nurturing, with a wider curriculum delivered by professional teachers. The

contemporary ideas that Mann presented attribute to many of the problems we see today in public

education as were over a century ago.

Mann, Horace. “Means and Objects of Common School Education.” ​Lectures on Education.​

New York, Arno Press, 1969. pp. 11-62. Web.

<​https://archive.org/details/lecturesoneduca01manngoog/page/n14​>. Accessed 21 May 2019.

This lecture is the first of seven written by Horace Mann to the convention. It introduces the

Board of Education and its purpose to create a more permanent, universal public education by

corresponding, developing principles, and collecting information regarding the subject of education.

Mann addresses the issue that the Board of Education does not have the power or funding to promote

these educational interests. He calls for cooperation from the public to help push their education agenda.

Mann places some of the responsibility of teaching on parents as they should initiate their children’s

education and pass down their knowledge. It is a parents duty to provide an education so their children

can thrive in society.

This source represents Mann and his efforts during a period where education was limited in

terms of availability and extent. He along with his supporters took the initiative to reform the education

system although they were few and powerless at first. He can be considered one of the most influential

Americans today since he led a movement that transformed the education system towards what it is

today. Education is fundamental for all aspects of life and it is due to Mann that it was able to grow to

such levels and improve America as a whole.

Mann, Horace. ​Thoughts Selected From the Writings of Horace Mann.​ Boston: Lee

and Shepard, 1872. Web. <​babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044028858439​.> Accessed 22 May

2019.
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This book quotes Mann’s thoughts on a variety of topics from education to slavery and beyond.

It provides an extensive list of quotes that help represent Mann not only within his education movement

but also in other social and political issues of his time. In the sections about slavery, he addresses the

mentality that slaves are better in America than they would be in Africa, calling it outrageous. It

illustrates his support for temperance and abolitionism, establishing his morals during a time when

slavery was seen as acceptable.

This helps further support the claim that Horace Mann is one of the most influential Americans

not only in the context of education but also in other aspects of America. He was a strong supporter of

temperance and slavery, which exemplify his idea of equality. He believed that women should also be

treated at the same level as men. Mann even helped establish a state asylum for the mentally. All these

contributions distinguish him as an influential individual.

Osgood, Robert L. “Undermining the Common School Ideal: Intermediate Schools and

Ungraded Classes in Boston, 1838-1900.” ​History of Education Quarterly,​ vol. 37, no. 4, 1997, pp.

375–398. ​JSTOR​,​ <​www.jstor.org/stable/369871​>.​ Accessed 22 May 2019.

This journal article covers the topic of the common school movement, describing it as one of the

primary defining movements of scholarship in the history of American education. It was a national

movement that pushed toward a tax-supported, universal public education; however, it is most closely

identified with one individual: Horace Mann. Mann led the dissemination of common school ideology in

his home state of Massachusetts. Both Mann and the state itself were crucial in advancing the common

school cause throughout the nation and leaving a permanent mark in American history and culture. This

article specifically focuses on the development of intermediate schools and ungraded classes as a means

of instructing illiterate immigrant children. These schools ultimately became a system of exclusion and

stigmatization.
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This source demonstrates the importance of Horace Mann and his home state on the development

of a new education ideology. Mann’s ideology revolved around the concept of having “common”

schools in which everyone would have an equal opportunity in terms of education. At the same time, it

can be used to contrast his ideology with the actual implementation of common schools. Thus,

counterarguing his influence as his system isolated minority groups.

Shields, Liam, et al. “Equality of Educational Opportunity.” ​Stanford Encyclopedia of

Philosophy,​ Stanford University, 31 May 2017,

<​plato.stanford.edu/entries/equal-ed-opportunity/#ScarHighQualEducOppo​.> Accessed 22 May 2019.

This encyclopedia entry discusses equality in regards to educational opportunity at different

levels. It introduces reasons why such equality is a concern and debates the value and distribution of

them. Even with current legislation, educational opportunities are not available to all. This scarcity is in

part due to lack of resources which limit how such opportunities can be distributed. The existing

competition and cost are also barriers to higher levels of education.

This entry can be used to counter Mann’s influence in America by challenging his success since

public education is still not available to all as he had intended. There are still various flaws in the current

education system that prevent all children from receiving an equal education. By limiting his impact, it

can be used to lessen his influence on America.

Snyder, Thomas D. ​120 Years of American Education: a Statistical Portrait​. U.S. Dept. of

Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics,

1993. Web. <​nces.ed.gov/pubs93/93442.pdf​>. Accessed 22 May 2019.

This publication contains statistical trends of elementary, secondary, and higher education

institutions. It briefly discusses Horace Mann and his impact on the education but more so focuses on

the increase in the number of institutions and school enrollment. Although data was not recorded prior to

1869-70, the book itself makes inferences by examining the current colleges that have founding dates
 Salinas 16

during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It can be noted that this increase was due to the education

reform led by Mann. He also presided over the enactment of the first compulsory elementary school

attendance law in 1852.

This source strongly distinguishes Horace Mann as one of the most influential Americans by

providing empirical data of the years following the common school movement. Such data along with

some of his listed contributions show the short and long term affects that he had on American society.

“The Struggle for Public Schools.” ​Digital History,​ Digital History,

<​www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3535​>. Accessed 22 May 2019.

This is a collection of teacher accounts depicting school life in the 19th century prior to Mann’s

reform. They describe the lack of control and structure that existed within the classroom. There was no

strict curriculum to follow and of the children that did attend, not all were in attendance to learn but as a

means for them to receive the support that was not possible in a poor household. The physical condition

of school buildings was also not prime, especially during the winter time. One of the accounts also

discusses corporal punishment in regards to misbehavior in the classroom.

These accounts are significant to illustrate the importance of Horace Mann because they bring

awareness to the issues that he aimed to reform. He successfully created the concept of “common”

schools to ensure that all children had the opportunity to receive a proper education despite their

economic or social standing.

Tozer, Steven, et al. “Horace Mann: An Exemplar of Reform.” ​The HML Blog,​ The Horace Mann

League, 13 Apr. 2019,

<​www.hmleague.org/bloghml/horace-mann-an-exemplar-of-reform/​>. Accessed 21 May 2019.

This is an extensive article that covers the life of Horace Mann, inclusive of his early life,

education, political career, and various contributions to multiple reform movements. It specifically

focuses on his efforts to improve public education and make it available to everyone regardless of race,
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gender, wealth, or any other factor. His efforts led to the formation of the Board of Education in which

he was secretary of from 1837 to 1848. This time included his greatest contributions with the creation of

“common” school, improvements to the quality of teachers, and other aspects of education.

This source demonstrates the influence of Mann’s efforts on the entirety of the United States.

Mann created the foundation of modern public education which was inclusive of all people. He focused

on making a proper education available to all while improving the current standards of teaching. Mann’s

education reform was a success that helped establish the future of public education and improve the lives

of the children who received said education. His support for other movements such as temperance,

abolition, and mental health further represent him as one of the most significant reformers in the United

States.

Vinovskis, Maris A. “Horace Mann on the Economic Productivity of Education.” T​he New

England Quarterly​, vol. 43, no. 4, 1970, pp. 550–571. JSTOR, <​www.jstor.org/stable/363132​>.

Accessed 22 May 2019.

This journal article addresses the economic rationale held by Horace Mann in regards to

education. Mann did not initially emphasize economic benefits and rather argued in terms of moral

values and the preservation of a republican form of government. He did not want to focus on

materialistic interests but recognized that economics would appeal to the public and increase support for

common schools. The article specifically mentions Mann’s Fifth annual report in which he referred to

education as “the most productive enterprise that could be undertaken by an individual or community.”

This journal helps establish Mann as an influential American by presenting him as an individual

who sought to improve America for moral reasons, not materialistic. He genuinely wanted to provide the

public with proper education so they could live more prosperous lives. Furthermore, it emphasizes the

importance of education on the economic level, showing how education is fundamental in all aspects of

life.
 Salinas 18

Warder, Graham. “Horace Mann And The Creation Of The Common School.” ​Social Welfare

History Project,​ Virginia Commonwealth University, 10 Dec. 2017,

<​socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/programs/education/horace-mann-creation-common-school/​.> Accessed

22 May 2019.

This article gives an overview of Horace Mann’s life, specifically his contributions to education

and legacy. It discusses is legacy from both historical perspectives: as a leader of a movement that led

way to a more open and fluid society based on merit in contrast to that of creating schools that “stifle

intellectual curiosity and to suppress diversity.” It also discusses his troubling legacy regarding people

with disabilities. Mann believed intellect required spoken language and attacked sign language.

This source can be used to counter Mann’s influence since his idea of education for all did not

necessarily extend to the whole population. It can also be used to argue the concept of common schools

as tools for social control. The positive aspects of his movements could be used in support of the claim

as the most influential American.