67

FOLD-RELATED FRACTURES AND

THE PROBLEM OF ISOCLINAL RED HERRINGS

Randall Marrett
Department of Geological Sciences
University of Texas at Austin
Austin, TX 78712-1101

Stephen E. Laubach
Bureau of Economic Geology
University of Texas at Austin
Austin, TX 78758-4497

Introduction

Fractures in folded sedimentary rocks are typically interpreted to be a result of

folding (e.g., de Sitter, 1956; Harris et al., 1960; Price, 1966; Price, 1967; Stearns, 1968;
Cooper, 1992; Nelson and Serra, 1995; Jamison, 1997; Fischer and Wilkerson, 2000;
Hennings et al., 2000; Stewart and Wynn, 2000), but in most cases the evidence is
circumstantial. Fold hinge development implies locally significant extension, and rocks
generally have low tensile strength, so it is a short step to the conclusion that folded rocks
containing fractures are cause and effect. Nevertheless, specifying the timing of fracture
formation is notoriously difficult. It is generally appreciated that post-folding exhumational
cooling and stress reduction also drive fracture propagation. These fractures may dominate
outcrop and near-surface fracture patterns (e.g., Price, 1974; Engelder and Fischer, 1996). In
contrast, pre-tectonic fractures formed during burial diagenesis (e.g., Dunne, 1986; Laubach
and Lorenz, 1992; Hennings et al., 2000; Engelder and Silliphant, 2000) are rarely
recognized in folded rocks.

The governing role of folding and exhumation in fracture development is contradicted

by evidence from rocks that have experienced little to no folding or exhumation. Fractures
are widespread and locally closely spaced in some carbonate rocks, and in deeply buried
sandstone, even where folds are absent. Moreover, some of these fractures closely resemble
fractures and veins found in folds, sharing attributes such as crack-seal structure and high
aspect ratio that might readily be ascribed to folding processes. Has the seemingly obvious
relationship between folds and fractures blinded us to pervasive early fracture development
that largely predates folding?

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Limitations of Classic Fold-Related Fracture Models

Classic fold/fracture models (e.g., Fig. 1) identify a bewildering array of fracture

patterns as possible consequences of folding (de Sitter, 1956; Price, 1966; Price, 1967;
Stearns, 1968; Hancock, 1985; Nelson, 1985). A justification of the wide range of fracture
patterns ascribed to folding is the likelihood of complex stress-and-strain histories during
initiation and growth of folds. Classic models of fold-related fractures are convincing in
many cases; however, in general they share some problems. They are flexible enough to
predict a wide range of fracture orientations (typically considered relative to bedding attitude
and fold-axis orientation). The models are so flexible in fact that essentially all possible
orientations of observed fractures fit, making the models untestable by fracture orientation
alone. Fold-related fracture models make additional kinematic predictions (Fig. 1), which
include components of shear motion on most fractures (so-called ‘shear joints’; see Pollard
and Aydin, 1988, for criticism of this terminology). In our experience, it is the exception to
the rule for the implied shear movements to be borne out by striae or offset markers. Lack of
evidence for shear displacements might be an indication that fold-related fracturing models
are deficient.

Consequently, diagnostic criteria are typically inadequate for distinguishing fold-

related fractures from older fractures developed during burial diagenesis prior to fold
initiation. This problem is reflected in some conventional genetic terms for fractures.
‘Tectonic’ fractures are those that are genetically linked to folding or faulting (Nelson, 1985)
even though tectonics, in a larger (and more correct) sense, might govern the laterally
persistent preferred orientations of ‘regional’ fractures in flat-lying strata. We use the term
‘tectonic’ fractures in the widely accepted usage of the petroleum industry (Nelson, 1985).

The limitations of fold-related fracture models invite alternative interpretations of

fracture genesis. Even where highly deformed, most sedimentary rocks experience
tectonically driven deformation only during a fraction of their history. In contrast, diagenesis
encompasses the entire history of the rock in the subsurface, including folding.
Environmental conditions (e.g., state of stress, fluid pressure, temperature) and rock
properties (e.g., degree of compaction, porosity, composition) that govern fracture
development undergo dramatic changes during burial diagenesis. Cementation, dissolution,
and some fluid compositional changes can embrittle or soften rock, while increases in fluid
pressure and overburden can drive fracture nucleation and growth (Engelder and Fischer,
1996). Consequently, there are abundant opportunities for fractures to form during burial
diagenesis and possibly to mediate subsequent diagenetic, fluid flow, and deformation
processes.

Below we provide evidence from siliciclastic and carbonate strata for pre-folding
fractures that resemble fractures commonly ascribed to folding processes. Examples from
rocks that have not experienced folding show that folds are not required to make these
structures. An example taken from a train of large isoclinal folds, where the initial—and in
our opinion incorrect—interpretation ascribed fractures to folding illustrates the misleading
influence of the ‘tectonic fracture’ paradigm. The examples represent special cases where it
is possible to ascertain timing of fracture development. In many cases, such evidence might
be destroyed or remain cryptic, belying the potentially widespread occurrence of fractures

Genesis and controls of reservoir-scale carbonate deformation, Monterrey salient, Mexico, edited by Randall Marrett.
Bureau of Economic Geology, 2001.
69

developed during burial diagenesis.

‘Tectonic’ Fractures NOT in Folds

A fracture pattern that is understandable in terms of fold kinematics is usually the

main justification for ascribing fractures to folding processes. Although rarely cited as
decisive, the appearance of fractures in folds can be another reason to identify a fold origin
for fractures. Among the influential characteristics in such an interpretation are high width-
to-height ratio (or low H/W), large apertures, mineral fill, and crack-seal structures, all
frequently viewed as typical products of folding (or faulting). The (usually) unstated
assumption is that these features reflect ‘ductile’ deformation, or (in the case of veins)
hydrothermal processes more likely to be found at depth and in proximity to active folds.

Inspection of fractures from areas lacking folds shows that this is a dubious argument.
Fractures having dimensions, mineralogy, and internal structures similar to those of tectonic
veins are common in sedimentary rocks where folds are absent. For example, the East Texas
Basin contains Lower Cretaceous rocks deposited in a passive margin tectonic setting of
mostly gradual subsidence (equivalent to La Casita Formation in the Monterey Salient).
Although broad platforms and small faults occur regionally, large areas comprise gently
dipping nearly planar homoclines having exceedingly simple burial histories. Oil and gas
exploration has produced an extensive core collection from this region, and based on dense
well control many of these cores can be confirmed to be distant from small faults and open
folds. Our study of part of this core collection (and other, similar collections from other
basins) demonstrates that opening-mode fractures are widespread in this setting (Laubach,
1989). Moreover, in many significant respects, these fractures resemble veins found in
strongly folded and faulted rocks, as we illustrate below.

Cross-sectional shapes of fractures are readily measured in core. For a set of 112
vertical, opening-mode fractures from a single fracture orientation set in Cretaceous
sandstones in East Texas where tip-to-tip fracture height was captured in core, fractures have
a spectrum of fracture heights ranging from millimeters to ~3 m. Although long, thin
fractures having joint-like aspect ratios are present (height-to-width ratios ~150,000), most
fractures are very wide relative to their height (and presumably length) (Fig. 2). A significant
subset of fractures (25 of 112) has extreme height-to-width ratios less than 200 (range 5 to
179), and more than 50 percent of fractures have H/W of less than 900. Similar patterns are
evident in a wide range of undisturbed fracture sets (Marrett and Laubach, 1999; Moros,
1999).

Fractures containing mineral lining or fill are veins. These features are exceedingly
widespread in undeformed sedimentary rocks (Nelson, 1985). The material lining or filling
these fractures is generally an authigenic cement or suite of cements that can be identified as
belonging to the paragenetic sequence of cements in the host rock. In addition to relative
timing, in many cases the depth and temperature of formation of these veins can be
identified. For example, some fractures from the Lower Cretaceous sandstones discussed in
the previous paragraph are partly to completely sealed with quartz and ankerite. Fluid-
inclusion studies, isotopic data, burial history analysis and other lines of evidence
demonstrate that these fractures formed at ~100 to 120°C (Laubach et al., 1995). This is well

Genesis and controls of reservoir-scale carbonate deformation, Monterrey salient, Mexico, edited by Randall Marrett.
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within the realm of diagenesis and prior to the deepest burial of the unit. Dolomite-lined
fractures are common in otherwise undeformed dolomite reservoirs (Fig. 3). In some cases
these fractures are open, but elsewhere, later cements seal them. The mineral-fill patterns as
well as the shapes of these fractures are identical to those exposed in the folded carbonate
strata of the Monterey salient.

Evidence of a repeated, complex opening history recorded in vein microstructure by,

for example, crack-seal structure, would be unsurprising in veins in a fold limb or hinge. Yet
these features are also common in rocks that have never been folded (Laubach, 1988) (Fig.
4). A survey of samples from more than 70 formations in unstructured areas shows these
features ubiquitous in sandstones in the 3000 to 15,000+ ft depth ranges. They also are
present in many relatively flat-lying carbonate rocks.

These structures reflect active fracture growth within the diagenetic environment, but
not necessarily an influence from tectonics (in the sense of folding, faulting, or regional
orogenesis). Instead, a combination of diagenetic processes and burial loading can result in
positive driving stress for fracture-opening displacement. The specific factors that result in
fracture growth in many cases may be debatable, but the prevalence of fractures having large
aspect ratios, mineral fill, and crack-seal structures merely show that such driving stresses
can arise frequently in porous, compliant rocks in a reactive diagenetic environment. One of
the obvious influences in this setting is far-field loading due to regional or plate-scale
tectonics (separating regional from plate scale is frequently difficult for ancient ‘regional’
fracture systems). Such regional deformation has been inferred from platform uplift histories
for the mid to late Cretaceous of northeastern Mexico and southwestern Texas (Laubach and
Jackson, 1990). Whether such loads influenced regional fractures in the Monterey Salient
area or not, resulting fractures are not ‘tectonic’ in the sense of having been generated by
folding.

Among the factors that can drive regional fracture growth are pore-fluid pressure that
rises above minimum stress and minimum stress that falls below the pore pressure. The
former can result from processes such as cement precipitation that leads to increase in pore
pressure (Laubach, 1988; Lander et al., 1999; Lander and Walderhaug, 1999). The latter
might occur owing to subtle basinward extension or some other form of mild structural
forcing. Other non-tectonic processes can be envisioned (Müller, 2001). These fractures are
the result of conditions that typify normal sedimentary basins. High porosity and/or overall
high ductility at low temperature conditions shortly after burial can account for aspect ratio.
Mineral fill in fractures, producing veins, is a normal (perhaps inevitable) consequence of
concurrent cementation and fracturing in the diagenetic realm. Crack-seal microstructure is a
result of progressive cement precipitation and concurrent fracture growth (Lander, 2001).

In sandstones, considerable time at depth may be required before cementation and

compaction produce a rock that is sufficiently indurated to fracture (however, see Miller,
1995). Carbonate strata commonly undergo wholesale changes in the rock through
compaction, cementation, dissolution, recrystallization, and replacement. These processes
can begin immediately following sediment deposition, but often they act selectively on
specific layers (e.g., Choquette and James, 1990; James and Choquette, 1990a, b). This
creates rock that can be susceptible to fracture within the first meters of burial, and

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commonly it is juxtaposed with weakly lithified material. The rheological layering that
results can have strong contrasts in strength and ductility.

Example of Isoclinal Red Herring

The Laramide-age fold belt of northeastern Mexico provides a striking example of

fractures that lend themselves to a fold-related interpretation, but on closer inspection prove
to predate the fold. A 2 to 4 km thick section of Jurassic-Cretaceous carbonate strata
constitutes most outcrops in the Sierra Madre Oriental (SMO) of northeastern Mexico (e.g.,
Goldhammer, 1999, and references therein). The Barremian-Aptian part of the section is
especially well exposed and contains numerous examples of lateral transitions in depositional
environment from shallow-water platforms to deep-water basins (Wilson, 1990). Basinal
facies consist of medium to thinly bedded, locally cherty limestones, and platformal facies
are typified by peritidal shallowing-upward limestone cycles with dolomitized caps due to
subaerial exposure during the culmination of most cycles (Goldhammer et al., 1991;
Goldhammer, 1999). During the Paleocene, the Laramide orogeny deformed these strata into
regional-scale isoclinal folds in the Monterrey salient, where a thick Upper Jurassic gypsum-
anhydrite interval served as a regional decollement (Padilla y Sánchez, 1985; Marrett and
Aranda-García, this volume).

Tectonic fractures are well constrained in some basinal facies rocks, although they
undoubtedly formed in platformal facies as well. The predominant fractures are dolomite-
lined, calcite-filled veins, which are perpendicular to bedding and make high angles with, but
are slightly oblique to, fold axes. In the present day geographic reference frame, veins in
forelimbs do not parallel those in backlimbs but rotate into alignment upon restoration of
bedding to horizontal, suggesting veins pre-date folding. However, veins are perpendicular
to and have mutually crosscutting relations with layer-perpendicular stylolites, which
commonly terminate abruptly at veins (Fig. 5A), indicating that veins and stylolites are
contemporaneous. The layer-perpendicular stylolites form low angles with fold axes,
showing contraction during stylolite development that closely coincides with that for folding.
The combined relationships suggest that the veins and stylolites probably developed together
during fold nucleation or early folding, and might reasonably be interpreted as fold related.

The best evidence for burial diagenesis fractures derives from platformal facies strata,
where the predominant fractures are calcite- and dolomite-filled layer-perpendicular veins
that were preferentially localized in intervals that were dolomitized while still at or near the
surface (Ortega et al., 2000). The veins are most concentrated and largest in swarms, where
dolostone layers appear necked into boudins and limestone laminations above and below are
deflected toward the veins (Fig. 5B), suggesting that the limestone was still unlithified while
fracturing occurred in dolostone. Other near-surface deformation is demonstrated by slumps
(Fig. 5C) bounded by faults that produced crackle breccias in dolostone but are cryptic in
limestone, and that were covered by subsequent sediment deposition. The strongest evidence
for early diagenetic fractures is found in solution collapse features, where some breccia
blocks rotated during their fall within solution collapse cavities and contain veins that are
tilted relative to neighboring veins (Fig. 5D and E). The timing of solution collapse is
indicated by laminated sediment deposited between collapse blocks (Fig. 5F) and by
deposition of sediment that covered and/or filled in solution features (Goldhammer, 1999).

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Consequently, the veins developed before solution collapse features that were nearly
synsedimentary. The early timing of the veins is further supported by vein truncation at both
layer-parallel stylolites (Nelson, 1981), which probably resulted from burial compaction, and
layer-perpendicular stylolites.

Although the timing of diagenetic veins is best constrained in platformal facies of the
SMO, such fractures probably were not restricted to rocks in that environment. Basinal strata
commonly contain veins that are crosscut by or kinematically linked with layer-parallel
stylolites (Lu, 2000). The opening directions of these veins along with equivalent veins in
platformal strata closely track the dip direction of the irregular Cretaceous paleobathymetry
(Fig. 6B), as inferred independently from facies distributions in outcrops of the SMO
(Wilson, 1981; Wilson and Selvius, 1984; Goldhammer, 1999). Together with evidence of
vein timing, this suggests that gravitational spreading from platform margins toward adjacent
basins drove fracturing. Consequently, fractures developed at essentially the same time as
the Barremian-Aptian sedimentary section, about 50 Myr before the Laramide-age folds, so
the much later folds are red herrings in the problem of vein genesis. Similar conclusions
regarding veins and neptunian dikes can be reached in other areas such as the Devonian
Canning Basin (Playford, 1984), Triassic Dolomia Principale platform (Cozzi, 2000),
Jurassic southern Alps (Winterer et al., 1991), Pleistocene Apulian foreland (Massari et al.,
2001), and modern Bahama Banks (Smart et al., 1988).

Discussion and Conclusions

Predictions that ignore the possibility of fractures developed prior to folding are likely
to miss an important and possibly dominant component of the fracture population. Many
fractures in otherwise undisturbed rocks have the high aspect ratios, vein fills, and
microstructures that seem to point to high strain (and possibly high temperature)
environments related to folding or faulting, yet these features can alternatively be normal
byproducts of burial diagenesis. Apparent fold-related fractures that significantly pre-date
isoclinal folding of Cretaceous carbonates in northeastern Mexico show that appearances can
be deceiving. A result could be mistakes in interpretation of fold kinematics/growth. For
example, pre-tectonic fractures may have greater effects on mechanical anisotropy and
resulting control on later fold orientation than has hitherto been appreciated, so that fractures
govern fold orientation in some cases.

In folded rocks, fractures that reflect the rock’s pre-folding burial history are rarely
recognized, partly because it is challenging to unambiguously specify the age of fracture
formation. Fold geometry, and the relation of fracture orientation to fold geometry, are much
more readily obtained. Where fracture orientation, distribution, and morphology have a
systematic pattern with respect to fold geometry, the pattern typically is taken to imply a
genetic relationship (Nelson, 1985). Folding is an obvious potential mechanical cause for
fracture growth, whereas pre-folding strains, from a regional perspective (and apart from the
fractures themselves), are typically too slight to measure. Moreover, owing to the vagaries of
diagenetic lithification, many pre-folding strains may not result in fracture development. The
proliferation of acceptable fold-related fracture geometries (e.g., Hancock, 1985; Price and
Cosgrove, 1990) and the absence of predicted offset or striae on small faults (shear fractures)
suggests that revision is needed of the consensus view on typical fracture patterns expected in

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73

folds. Many of the ‘tectonic’ veins found in folds could predate folding and their attributes
may have only subtle relation to tectonism. Owing to the increasing use of fold models (for
example, curvature analysis) to predict detailed fracture attributes in the deep subsurface,
greater awareness of potential ‘isoclinal red herrings’ has great practical importance.

Both mild structural influences, such as gravitational spreading associated with basin
margins having marked topography, and elevated pore fluid pressure can account for
fracturing in the diagenetic environment. Fractured reservoirs in flat-lying strata, and
regional fractures unrelated to folds, have long been recognized in the petroleum industry
(Nelson, 1985), but the genesis (and characteristics) of these systems are poorly known. For
example, there is no discussion of possible links between fracturing and diagenesis in a
recent National Research Council (1996) report, although elsewhere in the report the role of
cements in occluding subsurface fractures is acknowledged. An appreciation of the possibly
widespread occurrence of early fractures in folded rocks invites more research in the
neglected area of diagenetic drivers for fracturing, such as the effect of cement precipitation
on elevating pore pressure (Lander et al., 1999).

Acknowledgments

Partially supported by National Science Foundation grant EAR-9614582, Texas Advanced

Research Program grant 003658-011, and industrial associates of the Fracture Research and
Application Consortium (Barrett Resources Inc., BG Group, Chevron USA, Conoco Inc.,
Devon Energy Corporation, Enron Global, EOG Resources, Japan National Oil Corp., Lariat
Petroleum Inc., Marathon Oil, Pemex Exploración y Producción, Petroleos de Venezuela,
Petrobras, Repsol-YPF-Maxus, TotalFinaElf). Rob Reed and Leonel Gomez collected
microstructure images. We thank Orlando Ortega, Faustino Monroy-Santiago, Julia Gale, Jon
Olson, and Bob Goldhammer for valuable discussion.

Genesis and controls of reservoir-scale carbonate deformation, Monterrey salient, Mexico, edited by Randall Marrett.
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 74

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Price, N.J., 1966, Fault and joint development in brittle and semi-brittle rock: New York,
Pergamon Press, 176 p.

Price, N.J., 1974, The development of stress systems and fracture patterns in undeformed
sediments, in Advances in rock mechanics: Proceedings of the Third Congress of the
International Society for Rock Mechanics, v. 1A, p 487-519.

Price, N.J., and Cosgrove, J.W., 1990, Analysis of Geological Structures: Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 502 p.

Price, R.A., 1967, The tectonic significance of mesoscopic subfabrics in the Southern Rocky
Mountains of Alberta and British Columbia: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 4,
p. 39-70.

Smart, P.L., Palmer, R.J., Whitaker, F., and Wright, V.P., 1988, Neptunian dikes and fissure
fills: an overview and account of some modern examples, in James, N.P., and
Choquette, P.W., eds., Paleokarst: New York, Springer-Verlag, p. 149-163.

Stearns, D.W., 1968, Certain aspects of fracture in naturally deformed rocks, in Riecker,
R.E., ed., NSF advanced science seminar in rock mechanics: Bedford, Massachusetts,
Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory, p. 97-116.

Stewart, S.A., and Wynn, T.J., 2000, Mapping spatial variation in rock properties in
relationship to scale-dependent structure using spectral curvature: Geology, v. 28, p.
691-694.

Wilson, J.L., 1981, Lower Cretaceous stratigraphy in the Monterrey-Saltillo area, in Smith,
C.I., ed., Lower Cretaceous stratigraphy and structure, northern Mexico: West Texas
Geological Society, Publication 81-74, p. 78-84.

Genesis and controls of reservoir-scale carbonate deformation, Monterrey salient, Mexico, edited by Randall Marrett.
Bureau of Economic Geology, 2001.
 78

Wilson, J.L., 1990, Basement structural controls on Mesozoic carbonate facies in

northeastern Mexico—a review: Special Publications of the International Association
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to Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous carbonate platform and basin systems,
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Genesis and controls of reservoir-scale carbonate deformation, Monterrey salient, Mexico, edited by Randall Marrett.
Bureau of Economic Geology, 2001.
79

Figure Captions

Figure 1. Models of fold-related fracture patterns (modified from Stearns, 1968). Each type
of fracture-pattern consists of one set of opening-mode fractures and two sets of
conjugate faults. In specific natural examples, the fracture pattern can be incomplete
(i.e., one or more fracture sets in model might be absent) and can include a mixture of
different fracture patterns (i.e., type 1 and type 2 fractures might occur together).

Figure 2. Partly open fractures in sandstone core, Lower Cretaceous, East Texas. Note H/W
ratio. The lack of folds and faults near these fractures was demonstrated by structure
contour maps based on closely spaced wells (Laubach, 1989).

Figure 3. Mineral filled veins from oil-field cores. A: Ellenburger dolomite, West Texas
(Gomez et al., 2001). Cements are dolomite and calcite. B: Lower Cretaceous
sandstone, East Texas. Photomicrograph. Cements are quartz and ferroan calcite.

Figure 4. Crack-seal structure in vein fill, Lower Cretaceous sandstone, East Texas. SEM-
cathodoluminescence image by Rob Reed.

Figure 5. Field photographs of structures in carbonate strata of SMO, scale bars in cm. All
outcrop surfaces, except in A, are approximately perpendicular to bedding. A:
Contemporaneous layer-perpendicular veins and stylolites (outcrop surface is parallel
to bedding) in basinal facies strata. B: Layer-perpendicular veins at boudin-like neck
of dolomitized layer in platformal facies strata. C: Toe of slump in platformal facies
strata that is covered by subsequent sedimentary layer. D: Solution collapse blocks in
platformal facies strata containing and partly bounded by layer-perpendicular veins,
which have rotated along with blocks containing them. E: Solution collapse blocks in
platformal facies strata containing layer-perpendicular veins and layer-parallel
stylolites, which have rotated along with blocks containing them. F: Laminated
carbonate sediment deposited within voids between solution collapse clasts. Geopetal
features of the laminations are consistent with adjacent layers and not with the current
folded attitude of bedding.

Figure 6. Depositional environments, paleogeography, and opening directions of layer-

perpendicular diagenetic veins for Aptian-Barremian strata in SMO. A: Schematic
cross section of depositional environments during progradation of Aptian-Barremian
carbonate platforms in SMO (modified from Conklin and Moore, 1977). B: Early
Cretaceous paleogeographic map (unrestored) of SMO (modified from Wilson, 1981;
Wilson and Selvius, 1984) overlain with opening directions (after rotation of local
bedding to horizontal) of layer-perpendicular diagenetic veins (modified from Lu,
2000).

Genesis and controls of reservoir-scale carbonate deformation, Monterrey salient, Mexico, edited by Randall Marrett.
Bureau of Economic Geology, 2001.
Type 1 Type 2

Type 3a Type 3b

Figure 1, Marrett & Laubach

A B

C D

E F

Figure 5, Marrett & Laubach

 SHELF MARGIN SLOPE
A
Tidal Flats
Sea Level
Time 3
Time 2
Lagoon ls
oa ef
Sh Re
Time 1
lus
Ta
vertically exaggerated

27°
Monclova
B Cupido Reef MEXICO TEXAS
Sabinas
Basin

Coahuila 100 km
Peninsula 26°

Monterrey

Saltillo

Sierra
Madre
Ta A

Oriental
25°
m rch
au
lip

Linares
as

24°
102° 101° 100° 99°

Figure 6, Marrett & Laubach