Infrastructure Establishment

Outline
„ 4.1 Topology Control
„ 4.2 Clustering
„ 4.3 Time Synchronization
„ 4.4 Localization and Localization
Services
„ 4.5 Summary
The topology control problem
„ How to set the radio range for each
node to use minimize energy ,while
still ensuring that the communication
graph of the nodes remains connected
and satisfies other desirable
communication properties
Simple case :all nodes must use the
same transmission range
The critical transmitting range
(CTR) problem define
„ Simple case :All nodes ignore all
effects of interference or multi-path
and use the same transmission range
„ This homogeneous topology control
setting: how to compute the minimum
common transmitting range r such
that the network is connected
The CTR Problem (Cont.)
If the nodes location are known ,then
the CTR problem has a simple answer
„ The critical transmitting range is the length

of the longest edge of the minimum

Euclidean spanning tree (MST) connecting
the nodes
„ The MST contain the shortest edge across

any partition of the nodes

The CTR Problem (cont.)
The CTR Problem where the node
positions are not known but their
locations come from a known
distribution
„ The problem now becomes to

estimate the range r that guarantees

network connectivity with high
probability ( p(x)Æ1 as nÆ∞)
The CTR Problem (cont.)
„ The probabilistic theory best suited to
the analysis of CTR is the theory of
geometric random graphs (GRG)[53]
„ In the GRG setting ,n points are
distributed into a region according to
some distribution, and then some
aspect of the node placement is
investigated
The CTR Problem (cont.)
„ If n points are randomly and uniformly
distributed in the unit square ,then
the CTR is with high probability

log n
r = c
n

For some constant c>0

The range assignment-
problem
„ If node can have different transmission
ranges ,then the goal becomes to minimize
n

∑1
r iα

ri denotes the range assigned to node i

α is the exponent describing the power
consumption law for the system
„ It’s a NP-complete for dimensions two and
above[44]
Clustering
„ Clustering allows hierarchical structures
to be built on the nodes and enables
more efficient use of scare
resources ,such as frequency
spectrum ,bandwidth ,and power
The advantage of clustering

„ Frequency division multiplexing can be reused

across non-overlapping cluster
„ Clustering allows the health of the network
to be monitored and misbehaving node to
be identified (watchdog roles in some nodes)
„ Network can be comprised of mixtures nodes
,including more powerful or have special
capabilities
 Cluster-head
„ A node declares itself a cluster-head if
it has a higher ID than all its” uncovered”
neighbors-neighbors that have not been
already claimed by another cluster-head
„ Each node nominates as a cluster-head

the highest ID node it can communicate with

(including itself)
„ Nominated nodes then form clusters with

their nominators
Gateway
„ Nodes that can communicate with two or
more cluster-heads may become gateways
„ Gateways-nodes that aid in passing traffic

from one cluster to another

„ A simplified long range communication
network can be set up using only cluster-
heads and gateways
Time Synchronization
„ Since the nodes in a sensor network
operate independently ,their clock
may not be, or stay synchronization with one
another.
„ This can cause difficulties when trying to

integrate and interpret information sensed

at different nodes
Need for time synchronization
„ Configuring a beam-forming array
„ Setting a TDMA radio schedule
„ Synchronization is need for time-of-flight
measurements that are then transformed
into distances by multiplying with the medium
propagation speed for the type of signal used
(radio frequency or ultrasonic)
Time Synchronization is
difficult
„ In sensor network
„ No special master clocks are available
„ connections are ephemeral
„ communication delays are inconsistent and
unpredictable
Time Synchronization
„ In our setting, we may be satisfied with
local as opposed to global synchronization
„ collaborative processes have a strongly
local character
„ application only the time ordering of event
detections matters and not the absolute time
values
Clock and Communication Delays
„ Computer clock :C(t)
„ Real time :t
dC ( t )
„ Clock skew or (drift): dt ≠ 1

„ ρ: the maximum clock skew

„ A typical ρ’s value is 10-6
dC ( t )
1− ρ ≤ ≤1+ ρ
dt
Clock and Communication
Delays
„ Time differences caused by the lack of
a common time origin are referred to
as clock phase differences or( clock bias)
„ the clocks of different nodes may

disagree on what time”0” means

The latency in channel
„ Send time: construct the message
„ operating system calls
„ context switching
„ data access to the network interface
„ Access time: access transmission channel
„ contention
„ collisions
„ Propagation time: message across the channel
to the destination node
„ Highly variable (Single hop or multi-hop)
„ Receive time: this time for the network interface
„ The delay can kept small
Estimate phase difference :d
„ No clock skew and the delay D in channel is constant
„ Node I reads its local with time value t1 and sends
this in a packet to node j
„ Node j records the time t2 according to its own clock
when the packet was received. t2=t1+D+d
„ Node j, at time t3.sends a packet back to
i containing t1,t2,t3
„ Node I receives this packet at time t4
t4=t3+D-d,Node I compute d=(t2-t1-t4+t3)/2
„ Node i send phase difference d back to node j
 Clock phase difference estimation
t2
I’s local clock

t1 T2=t1+D+d

PACKET1

I J J’s local clock

t4
t3
PACKET2
T4=t3+D-d
Interval Method
„ The key idea of the protocol is to focus
on time intervals between events and
transform such time differences from
the time framework of one node
to that of another by estimating
communication delays and applying
interval methods
Interval method(Cont.)
Two suppose
„ Node I’s clock runs with a known maximum skew of ρi
„ the event E occurs at real time t(E) and
node I given a time stamp Si(t)
Need deal with
„ clock skew
„ network latency
Phase difference cancel out
Time Transform

∆C1 Node 1’s clock

∆ C
1 − ρ ≤ i
≤ 1 + ρ
∆ t
i i

∆ C 1 ∆ C 1
[
1 + ρ
,
1 − ρ 1
] Real time ∆t
i

1 − ρ 2 1 + ρ2
∆C ⊆ [∆ C 1 ,∆C1 ]
1 + ρ1 1 − ρ1
2
Transforming time stamps from the reference frame of one
node to that of another
 Message delay Estimate
„ The idle time duration l1=t1-t2
„ The round-trip duration p1=t5-t4

The communication delay time d in receiver

node2 1 − ρ 2
0 ≤ d ≤ p 1 − l1
1 + ρ1
1− ρr
receiver 0 ≤ d ≤ (t 5 − t 4 ) − (t 2 − t1 )
1− ρs
1− ρr
0 ≤ d ≤ (t 3 − t 2 ) − (t 6 − t 5 )
1− ρs
sender
Reference Broadcasts
„ The key idea of the reference broadcast
System (RBS) is to use the broadcast
nature of the wireless communication
medium to reduce delays and delay
uncertainly in the Synchronization
protocol
 Record its time of
Communication
arrival each in
range
their own time
frame

Reference
message

receiver1
receiver3
Exchange
information
sender

receiver2
Reference Broadcasts
The advantage
„ All receivers receive the same message

packet
„ The receivers all share exactly the same

send time and access time delays

„ The propagation delay time is negligible

in single–hop communication
Reference Broadcasts
„ Estimate clock skew and phase
difference among pairs of receivers is to
do a least-squares linear regression
among all the pair-wise measurements
obtained for the two receivers in a
sequence of reference broadcasts
 1
2

3
4
5

6 7
Localization and Localization
Services
„ For several sensor network
applications ,including Target tracking and
habitat monitoring knowing the exact location
where information was collected is critical
„ The value of the information collected can be
enhanced if the location of the sensors where
readings were made is also available
Localization and Localization
Services
„ Self-localization-that is methods that
allow the nodes in a network to
determine their geographic positions on
their own during the network
initialization process
„ Location service algorithms-methods

that allow the nodes in a network to

obtain the location of a desired node
Localization and Localization
Services
„ GPS build nodes localize themselves
within a few meter’s accuracy by
listening to signals emitted by a number
of satellites
„ GPS’s cons
„ Expensive
„ Difficult to incorporate into every sensor node
„ Power consumption
Ranging Techniques
„ Ranging methods aim at estimating the
distance of a receiver to a transmitter
„ The first way Use RSS (received signal
strength) along with for signal strength as a
function of distance to estimate its distance
from sender to receiver
„ Localization to within a few meters is the

best that can currently be attained with RSS

method
Ranging Techniques uses RSS
The distance to estimate not very
accurate
„ fading
„ Shadowing
„ Multi-path effect
„ Not well-RF component
Ranging Techniques
The second way (TOA :Time of arrival)
„ estimate distance is to measure the

time it takes for a signal to travel from

sender to receiver
„ This can multiplied by the signal

propagation speed to yield distance

TOA
This requires
„ the sender and the receiver are

synchronized
„ The sender knows the exact time of

transmission (it is hard to know) and

sends that to the receiver
TDOA (time difference of
arrival)
„ Measure TDOA at two receivers, which
lets us estimate the difference in
distances between the two receivers
and the sender
„ It is not realistic ;signal propagation
speed exhibits variability as a function
of temperature or humidity (especially
for ultrasound)
 Range-Based Localization
Algorithms
„ Atomic multilateration[204]
„ Describe methods for localizing sensor network nodes with reference
to nearby landmarks
„ Seek node 0 and the available landmark of the position of node I be
(xi,,yi) and its measured TOA at node 0 be ti(1≦i≦n)
„ S: signal propagation speed

„ ∈i : the error in the I’th measurement

( xi − x0 ) + ( y i − y 0 ) + ∈i ( x0 , y 0 , s ) = st i
2 2
Range-Based Localization
Algorithms
„ Atomic multilateration algorithm in
iterative fashion :those nodes with
sufficient landmarks in range get
themselves localized and in turn become
landmarks for other nodes and so on
Range-Based Localization
Algorithms
Range-Based Localization
Algorithms
„ Initial nodes 1,2,8,9,15 are landmarks
„ Node 10 can estimate its location using
Landmarks 8,9,15
„ Node 7 can estimate its position using
Nodes 8,9,10 as landmarks
„ This process terminates when no unlocalized
node has enough landmarks to determine its
position
„ its always first localize the nodes with the
most landmarks
Other Localization Algorithms
„ If sensor nodes are densely and
uniformly deployed ,we can use hop
counts to landmarks as a substitute
to physical distance estimates
„ In order to transform hop counts into
approximate distance ,the system must
estimate the average distance
corresponding to a hop
Other Localization Algorithms
„ Use RSS only for distance comparison
to landmarks

landmark
Location Services
„ We may want to address message to
specific nodes whose geographic location
is not known to us
„ Location service: a mechanism for

mapping from node IDs of some sort to

node locations
„ Location service :give an ID then find

the position of a node with that ID

GLS( geographic location
service)
„ The key idea of GLS is distribute the
load so that each network nodes acts
as a location server for a relatively small
number of other nodes
„ GLS accomplish this by organizing the

nodes into a hierarchical structure

according to a spatial quad-tree, plus
exploiting the ID assigned to each node
 GLS
„ The one selected to be the location
service for B is always the node” close to
B”
„ The node with least ID greater than B

„ If no nodes greater than B in the tile

,select the node with the smallest ID less

than B
Summary
Many problem fundamental to setting up
„ the network topology must be established
and radio ranges controlled
„ Nodes aggregated into cluster to better
share resource, control redundancy
and enable hierarchical tasking and control
„ Node need to have their clock synchronized and
locations determined
A challenge common to the above problems
„ Global concerns across the entire network but
they must be solved in a local, distributed manner